200_CHAPTER_10_1_

Data Collection Methods

CHAPTER 10

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Know the difference between primary and secondary data and their sources.

Know the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

Make logical decisions as to the appropriate data collection methods for specific study.

Demonstrate your skills in interviewing others to collect data.

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Chapter Objectives

Design questionnaires to tap different variables.

Evaluate questionnaires, distinguishing the “good” and “bad” questions therein.

Apply what you have learned to class assignments and projects.

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Chapter Objectives

There are two sources of data: 1. Primary sources: Refer to

information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study. Examples of sources of Primary data are individuals, focus groups, the internet could also serve as a primary data source when questionnaires are administered over it.

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Sources of Data

2. Secondary sources: Refer to information gathered from sources already existing from several sources. As for example, company records, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the internet, and so on.

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Sources of Data

Data collection Methods are an integral part of research design. There are several data collection methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.

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Data collection Methods

Data collection methods include three main methods:

1- Interviewing: It could be unstructured or structured interviews.

2- Questionnaires 3- Other Methods of Data Collection

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Unstructured Interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent.

The objective of the unstructured interview is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further in-depth investigation.

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Unstructured Interviews

Structured Interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed.

The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents either personally, through the telephone or through the medium of a PC.

The questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaced during the unstructured interviews and are considered relevant to the problem.

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Structured Interviews

The unstructured and structured interviews have several forms:

Interviews Face-to-face Telephone interviews Electronic media interviews

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Interviewing

The Questioning Technique Funneling In the beginning of an unstructured interview,

it is advisable to ask open-ended questions to get a broad idea and form some impressions about the situation. For example a question that could be asked, would be:

“what are some of your feelings about working for this organization?”

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Interviewing

The Questioning TechniqueUnbiased Questions It is important to ask questions in a way that

would ensure the least bias in the response. For example:

“Tell me how you experience your job” this question is better than, “The work you do must be really boring; let me

hear how you experience it”

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Interviewing

The Questioning TechniqueClarifying Issues To make sure that the researcher understands

issues as the respondent intends to represent them, it is advisable to restate or rephrase important information given by the respondent. For example, if the interviewee says,

“There is an unfair promotion policy in this organization; seniority does not count at all. It is the juniors who always get promoted”.

The researcher might interject and ask, “So you are saying that juniors always get

promoted over the heads of even capable seniors.”

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The Questioning Technique

Helping the Respondent to Think Through Issues.

If the respondent is not able to verbalize his perceptions, or replies, “I don’t know,” the researcher should ask the question in a simpler way or rephrase it. For example, the respondent might be asked which task he would prefer to do: serve a customer or do some filing work. If the answer is “serve the customer,” the researcher might use another aspect of the respondent’s job and ask the paired-choice question again. The respondent can sort out which aspects of the job he likes better than others.

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Interviewing

The Questioning TechniqueTaking Notes when conducting interviews, it is important that

the researcher makes written notes as the interviews are taking place, or as soon as the interview is terminated. The interviewer should not rely on memory. Information based solely on recall introduces bias into the research.

The interviews can be recorded on tape if the respondent has no objections.

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Interviewing

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Advantages and disadvantages of Interviews

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Advantages and disadvantages of Interviews

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Tips for Interviews

2- Administering QuestionnairesPersonally administered.Sent through the mail.Electronically administered.

Other techniques.

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questionnaires

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Questionnaire Design

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Questionnaire Administration

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design

Ambiguously worded and respondent may not be sure what exactly they mean.

◦ To what extent would you say you are happy.

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Ambiguous Questions

Requires respondent to recall experience or event from the past that are hazy in their memory.◦ When you started working in this department,

environment was not good.

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Recall Dependent

Emotionally charged questions.

Domestic Violence Have you stopped beating your wife? How much you think these qualities lack in

you.

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Loaded Questions

That lead the respondent to give the response s that the researcher would like or want them to give.◦ Don’t you think that in these days of escalating

costs of living , employees should be given good pay raises? BETTER

To what extent do you agree that employees should be given higher pay raises?

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Leading Questions

Double Barreled Questions A question that lends itself to different

possible responses to its subparts .Two or more separate questions should be asked.◦ Do you think there is a good market for the

product and that it will sell well.

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Socially desirabilityIncludes socially desirable response.

Do you think that older people should be laid off?

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Positively and Negatively Worded QuestionsIt is advisable to include some negatively

worded questions as well .q.1 I feel I have been able to accomplish a

number of different things in my job. q.2 I do not feel I am very effective in my job.

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Classification Data or Personal Information.

Personal information elicit such information as age, educational level, marital status, and income.

Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to ask for the name of the respondent.

It is a matter of choice for the researcher to let the personal information appears in the beginning or at the end of the questionnaire.

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Classification Data or Personal Information.

It is a wise policy to ask for the personal information by providing a range of response options, rather than asking exact figures. For example, the variables can be tapped as shown below:

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Example 10.1 Age (years) Annual Income

Under 20 □ Less than $20,00020 – 30 □ $20,000-30,00031 – 40 □ $30,001-40,00041 – 50 □ $40,001-50,00051 – 60 □ $50,001-70,000Over 60 □ $ Over 70,000

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There are some principles of measurement to be followed to ensure that the data collected are appropriate to test our hypotheses.

These refer to the scales and scaling techniques used in measuring concepts, as well as the assessment of reliability and validity or the measures used, which were all discussed before.

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Principles of Measurement

Appropriate scales have to be used depending on the type of data that need to be obtained.

Wherever possible, the interval and ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal scales.

Once data are obtained, the “goodness of data” is assessed through tests of validity and reliability. Validity establishes how well a technique, instrument, or process measures a particular concept, and reliability indicates how stably and consistently the instrument taps the variable.

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Principles of Measurement

It is necessary to pay attention to how the questionnaire looks. An attractive and neat questionnaire have the following elements:A good introductionOrganizing questions Giving instructions and guidanceGood alignmentThese elements are briefly discussed with

examples.

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire

Exercise 1 A production manager wants to assess the

reactions of the blue-collar workers in his department to the introduction of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems. He is particularly interested to know how they would perceive the effects of CIM on:

a. their future jobs b. additional training that they will have to

receive c. future job advancement. Design a questionnaire for the production

manager.

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QuestionnaireJordan Software Enterprises

P.O.Box 2231Amman-Jordan

Date----- Dear Employee, As we had discussed in our meetings, Computer Integrated

Manufacturing (CIM) will form a part of our operations in the future. We would like to know how you visualize certain aspects of the future environment as we introduce the changes.

Please take a few minutes to complete this short questionnaire and return it to the locked box in the headquarter office.

Thank you for responding within the next five days. Ahmad Rasheed Production Manager

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1. Personal information ( place a mark on the appropriate place)

Job Status Number of years Worked in the Department--Machinist -- Less than 1 --Inspector -- 1-2----Forman -- 3-5--Surveyor -- 5-10-- Other -- Over 10 years

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2. Your Opinion regarding the following. Please circle the appropriate number for each of the

following items using the scale below.Strongly Neither Agree StronglyAgree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 4 51. I will need additional training 1 2 3 4 5 to work in the changed environment.2. The new system will offer me 1 2 3 4 5 better opportunities for advancement.3. The opportunities for training 1 2 3 4 5 will have to be enhanced with CIM.

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4. I am not sure if CIM will need 1 2 3 4 5 all the people we now have in this department.5. I feel that most of us may not 1 2 3 4 5 have better opportunities for future promotions in the new manufacturing environment.6. Most of us will need special 1 2 3 4 5 training to work with CIM.7. I am sure the future looks bright 1 2 3 4 5 for most of us here.

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Items 4 and 7 measure opinion about their future jobs.

1, 3, and 6 measure perceived training needs.

2, and 5 measure job advancement.

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Exercise 2 The president of Mideast Co. suspects that

most of the 500 male and female employees of the organization are somewhat alienated from work.

He is also of the view that those who are more involved (less alienated) are also the ones who experience greater satisfaction with their work lives.

Design a questionnaire the president could use to test his hypothesis.

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Before we can design a questionnaire, we need to list the variables to be tapped and operationally define the more abstract concepts. The following variables are mentioned in the study:

1. Involvement (or the other end, alienation). 2. Satisfaction with work life.

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Exercise 2

The following demographic variables might be of interest to the study:

3. Gender 4. Tenure (number of years in the organization) 5. Job level 6. Age 7. Education These demographic variables help to describe the

sample, also, they might have an influence on the involvement (or alienation) of the employees, their level of satisfaction, and the relationship between the two.

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Operational Definition of Involvement would include the dimensions of the job being of central interest to individuals, and the major happiness being derived from the job. Low involvement can be considered as alienation.

Items that measure involvement are: 1. The major happiness of my life is derived from my job.

2. Time at work flies by quickly. 3. Working here is boring. 4. Nothing in life is as important as work. 5. I live, eat, and breathe my job. 6. My work helps me establish who I am.

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Operational Definition of Satisfaction would include dimensions of satisfactions with various aspects of the work environment such as with pay, supervision, promotion, and the like.

Questions that describe satisfaction at work place are:

To what extent would you agree with the following statements?

1. My work is fascinating.2. My work gives me a sense of

accomplishment.3. My supervisor praises good work.

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4. My pay is barely adequate to take care of my expenses.

5. My co-workers are very stimulating.6. The opportunities for advancement are very

good here.7. I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace.8. People can live comfortably with their pay in

this organization.9. My supervisor is not very capable.10. The promotion policies here are very unfair.

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December 4, 2006

Dear Employee,As the president of your company, I am interested in conducting a mini survey on your reactions to working in this organization. Your responses would give me an indication of any changes that may be necessary for offering you a better quality of work life. Your honest and straightforward answers will aid me to help you. I do not need your names- only truthful answers. Suggestions from you will be implemented by a Committee if considered suitable.Thank you for responding within a week’s time.My best wishesMohammad Al-Farouki, President

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QuestionnaireMideast Company, Inc.

P.O.Box 2345Amman-Jordan

Please check the blanks most appropriate for the items below.

Personal DataDepartment in which you are working:-------------i. Age (years) ii. Education iii. Sex - under 25 - high school - F - 25-35 - college - M - 36-45 - bachelor’s degree - 46-55 - master’s degree - over 55 - doctoral degree - other

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iv. Job Level v. Number of years in this

organization - manager - less than 1 - supervisor - 1-3 - clerk - 4-8 - secretary - 9-15 - technician - over 15 years - other (specify)

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2. Here are some questions that ask you to tell us how experience your work life in general. Please circle the appropriate number of the scales below. On a scale of 1 to 5, (1) denoting very low agreement and (5) denoting very high agreement, to what extent would you agree with the following statements?

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Very Very Low High1. The major happiness Of my life is derived From my job. 1 2 3 4 52. Time at work flies by Quickly. 1 2 3 4 53. Working here is boring 1 2 3 4 54. Nothing in life is more important than work. 1 2 3 4 55. I live, eat , and breathe my job. 1 2 3 4 5

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6. My work helps me establish who I am. 1 2 3 4 57. My work is fascinating. 1 2 3 4 58. My work gives me a sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 59. My supervisor praises good work. 1 2 3 4 510.My pay is not adequate 1 2 3 4 5 to take care of my expenses.11.My co-workers are very stimulating. 1 2 3 4 5

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12.The opportunity for advancement is very good here. 1 2 3 4 513.I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace. 1 2 3 4 514.People can live comfortably with their pay in this organization. 1 2 3 4 5

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15.My supervisor is not much capable. 1 2 3 4 5

16.The promotion policies here are very unfair. 1 2 3 4 5

In the space provided below, please make any comments you wish regarding any aspect of the work or organization. Your suggestions for improvement will be very much appreciated.

Thank you

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3- Observational Surveys. It is possible to gather data without asking

questions of respondents. People can be observed in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their activities and behaviors can be noted and recorded.

People movements, work habits, their facial expressions of joy, anger, and other emotions , and body language can be observed.

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Data collection Methods: Other Methods of Data Collection

The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering field observational data:Nonparticipant-ObserverParticipant-Observer

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Observational Surveys

The researcher may collect the needed data without becoming an integral part of the organizational system.

For example, the researcher might sit in the corner of an office and watch and record how the manager spends his time.

Observation of all the activities of managers, over a period of several days, will allow the researcher to make some generalizations on how managers spend their time.

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Nonparticipant-Observer

The researcher may play the role of the participant-observer. The researcher enters the organization or the research setting, and becomes a part of the work team.

For instance, if a researcher wants to study group dynamics in work organization, then he may join the organization as an employee and observe the dynamics in groups while being a part of the work groups.

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Participant-Observer

Structured Observational Studies Both the nonparticipant-observer and

participant-observer could be either structured or unstructured.

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Structured Versus Unstructured Observational Studies

Structured Observational Studies The observer has a predetermined set of

categories of activities or phenomena planned to be studied.

People can be observed in their natural work environment and their normal activities and behaviors, and can be noted and recorded.

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Unstructured Observational Studies If the observer has no definite ideas of the

particular aspects that need focus, he could record everything that is observed.

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Machines can provide data by recording the events of interest as they occur, without a researcher being physically present. Films and electronic recording devices such as video cameras can be used to record data. Such mechanically observed data are error-free.

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Mechanical Observation

1. The data are more reliable and free from respondent bias.

2. It is easier to note the effects of environmental influences on specific outcomes.

3. It is easier to observe certain groups of individuals whom are unable to give information

( like small children).4. It captures the attitudes, facial expressions and

other nonverbal behaviors, but cannot capture the thought of the individuals.

5. Observer have to be trained in what and how to observe, and ways to avoid observer bias.

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Advantages of Observational Studies

1. It is necessary for the observer to be physically present over a long period of time (unless a camera or another mechanical system can capture the events of interest).

2. It is slow, tedious, and expensive.

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Disadvantages of Observational Studies

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Summary of Observational Studies

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Mulimethods of Data Collection

Several ethical issues should be addressed while collecting data. These pertain to:

those who sponsor the research those who collect the data and those who offer them.

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Ethics and the Researcher

1. The sponsors should ask for the study to be done to better the purpose of the organization, and not for any other self-serving reason.

2. They should respect the confidentiality of the data obtained by the researcher, and not ask for the individual or group responses to be disclosed to them, or ask to see the questionnaires.

3. They should have an open mind in accepting the results and recommendations in the report presented by the researcher.

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Ethics and the Sponsors

1. Treating the information given by the respondent as strictly confidential and guarding his privacy is one of the primary responsibilities of the researcher.

2. The researcher should not misrepresent the nature of the study to subjects, especially in lab experiments. The purpose of the research must be explained to them.

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3. Personal information should not be solicited, and if it is absolutely necessary for the project, it should be tapped with high sensitivity to the respondent, offering specific reasons therefore.

4. Whatever be the nature of data collection method, the self-esteem and self-respect of the subjects should never be violated.

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5. No one should be forced to respond to the survey .

6. Nonparticipant-observers should be as nonintrusive as possible. His personal values could easily bias the data.

7. Subjects should never be exposed to situations where they could be subject to physical or mental harm.

8. There should be absolutely no misrepresentation or distortion in reporting the data collected during the study.

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1. The subject, once having exercised the choice to participate in a study, should cooperate fully in the tasks ahead, such as responding to a survey or taking part in an experiment.

2. The respondent also has an obligation to be truthful and honest in the responses. Misrepresentation or giving information, knowing it to be untrue, should be avoided.

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Ethical Behavior of the Respondents

Comment on each of the following questions stating whether they are good or bad and the reasons for your answer. Do not worry about their scaling.

1. If you have been in the company for over 15 years, please indicate the date of your joining this company.

2. My boss is good but excitable in his dealing with others.

3. Working women should opt not to have children.

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Practice Exercise on Good and BadQuestions

4. Investment in children’s future should be an important goal of the administration.

5. This job uses a lot of the skills that I possess.

6. If this country is to remain competitive, should we not be spending more on research?

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Practice Exercise on Good and BadQuestions

1. Bad question: recall dependent.2. Bad: Double-barreled.3. Bad: Loaded question; an emotional issue

for women.4. Bad: Social desirability.5. Good question. No problem with wording.6. Bad question: Leading question.

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Answers

What data collection methods would most appropriately be used for the following and why?

a. A study of audience reactions to a political speaker.

Answer: Both observation and unstructured

interviews.b. A study of students’ reactions to how the

University is run. Answer: Probably a short questionnaire, with an open-ended question at the end.

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Practice Exercise on Data Collection

c. A study of the student parking problems in Yarmouk University area.

Answer: unstructured interviews in the beginning, and later, a short questionnaire.

d. A study of the performance of Yarmouk U. graduates in their jobs.

Answer: A questionnaire to the employers.e. A study by the university head seeking the

student opinions about the quality of education in their departments.

Answer: In the beginning, unstructured interviews and later, a questionnaire.

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Practice Exercise on Data Collection

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