2004 Indian Ocean tsunami inflow and outflow at Phuket ... · 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami inflow and...

(2008) 179–192www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo

Marine Geology 248

2004 Indian Ocean tsunami inflow and outflow at Phuket, Thailand

Montri Choowong a,⁎, Naomi Murakoshi b, Ken-ichiro Hisada c, Punya Charusiri a,Thasinee Charoentitirat a, Vichai Chutakositkanon a, Kruawan Jankaew a,

Pitsanupong Kanjanapayont a, Sumet Phantuwongraj a

a Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailandb Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University, Matsumoto, Japan

c Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Received 9 May 2007; received in revised form 10 October 2007; accepted 18 October 2007

Abstract

At Bangtao Beach, Phuket, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami produced a repeated sequence in which rapid inflow of turbulent waterwas followed by ponding and then by gradual outflow. Photographs and eyewitness accounts show an initial withdrawal followed byseries of inflows. The tsunami left behind a sand sheet as much as 25 cm thick that contains parallel, inclined, landward and seawardlamina in addition to the normal grading commonly reported from tsunami deposits. The sheet contains evidence for two times ofvigorous inflow. Each of these is marked by mud rip-ups, medium to coarse sand that grades upward to fine, landward-inclinedlaminae, and a sharp basal contact. The top of the sand sheet, when observed in the first days after the tsunami, abounded in currentdune and ripple bedforms of mostly landward orientation. The tsunami's first positive wave left no onshore sedimentary record in thispitting area. The second wave deposited sand that is much less extensive and slightly finer than that of the third wave. The deposit ofboth these waves contains multiple fining-upward sequences possibly due to multiple surges in one wave train. The depth-averagedflow velocity estimated from thickness and grain size are in the range 7–21 m/s, whereas, a near bottom threshold velocity calculatedfrom bedforms reveals the order of magnitude difference from 1.74 to 1.03 m/s.© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: tsunami deposits; current dunes; ripples; flow velocity; bedforms

1. Introduction

Geological study of the sand sheets deposited onshoreby tsunamis, as a result of the observation made in bothsides of the Pacific after the 1960 Chilean tsunami hasexpanded in the two past decades (e.g. Konno et al.,1961; Wright and Mella, 1963; Atwater, 1987; Dawson

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 2 218 5445; fax: +66 2 218 5464.E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Choowong).

0025-3227/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2007.10.011

et al., 1988; Bourgeois et al., 1988; Long et al., 1989;Minoura and Nakaya, 1991; Bryant et al., 1992; Hindsonet al., 1996; Bondevik et al., 1997; Clague et al., 2000;Moore, 2000; Goff et al., 2000; Fujiwara et al., 2003;Pinegina et al., 2003; Goff et al., 2004; Tuttle et al., 2004;Nelson et al., 2004; Cisternas et al., 2005;Williams et al.,2005; Nanayama and Shigeno, 2006; Jaffe and Gelfen-baum, 2007). The effort has grown further with investi-gation of the 2004 tsunami, which produced onshore sandsheets not just near the tsunami's source (Moore et al.,

mailto:[email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2007.10.011

180 M. Choowong et al. / Marine Geology 248 (2008) 179–192

2006) but also on shores more than 500 km distant—inIndia (Chadha et al., 2005; Nagendra et al., 2005;Singarasubramanian et al., 2006), Sri Lanka (Goff et al.,2006), Malaysia (Hawkes et al., 2007), and Thailand(Szczucinski et al., 2005, 2006; Choowong et al., 2007;Hawkes et al., 2007; Hori et al., 2007; Umitsu et al.,2007).

Fig. 1. Maps showing 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake epicenter (A), locationarea complied by Chulalongkorn Tsunami Research Team (B) and plane vie

This paper focuses on erosion and deposition by the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on Thailand's Andaman Seacoast near Phuket, where the sequence of tsunami wavescan be inferred, in part, from tourist videos and eye-witness accounts (Choowong et al., 2007). The onshoresedimentary deposits in this area were investigated inthe first weeks after the tsunami. By relating these

of Bangtao Beach, Phuket, Andaman Coast of Thailand with inundatedw sketch showing transect lines and locations of pitting (C).

181M. Choowong et al. / Marine Geology 248 (2008) 179–192

deposits to the photographs and eyewitness data, anattempt was made in this paper to reconstruct thehydraulic conditions of the tsunami flows that producedthe observed sand sheet.

2. Eyewitnesses and hypothesis

Bangtao beach, a Phuket tourist destination, borderssouthern Le Phang Bay, north of Surin beach (Fig. 1Aand B). Two days after the 2004 tsunami, field obs-

Fig. 2. Bedforms produced by the 2004 tsunami wave train at Bangtao area (scurrent dune. (B) Landward-oriented asymmetrical current dune. (C and Dripples. (E) Landward-oriented ripple developed on landward-oriented currencurrent dune. White arrows indicate landward direction perpendicular to sho

ervation in the area was made, and eyewitnesses wereinterviewed.

Eyewitness accounts make clear that the tsunamibegan with withdrawal of the sea (at 9:42 a.m.)—a falseebb that occurred quickly and exposed the seafloor for asmuch as 500 m offshore. A few minutes later, the 1stwave flooded just over the beach. Two to three minutesafter that, without any intervening withdrawal, the 2ndtsunami inflow penetrated 200–300 m inland with waterheights about 2 m from the ground. Another two minutes

ee locations of photos in Fig. 1C). (A) Landward-oriented symmetrical) Spatial distribution pattern of landward-oriented current dunes andt dune. (F) Seaward-oriented ripples superimposed landward-orientedreline.

Table 1Systematic classification of surface sedimentary patterns from Bangtao area, Phuket, Thailand (see photographs in Fig. 2)

Bedform Directionof leesidefacing

Morphology Dimension

Wavelength(cm)

Height(cm)

Stoss angle(degree)

Lee angle(degree)

Current dune (Fig. 2A) Landward Symmetrical slightly sinuous-crested 60–200 15 10 10Current dune (Fig. 2B) Landward Asymmetrical straight-crested 60–120 10–12 10 25Current ripple (Fig. 2C) Landward Asymmetrical straight-crested 30–40 5 10 20Current ripple (Fig. 2D) Landward Asymmetrical straight-crested 25–30 5 10 20Current ripple (Fig. 2E) Landward Asymmetrical sinuous-crested 10–15 2–4 5 15Current ripple (Fig. 2F) Seaward Asymmetrical sinuous-crested 8–12 2–4 3 12


later, again without intervening withdrawal, the 3rd andstrongest inflow velocity producedwater levels up to 3mheight and extended as much as 1 km inland. Thereafterthe water stood still for 10–15 min, then drained slowly.In photograph taken by eyewitnesses just a few minutesafter this drainage, water stands about 50 cm above theground. After this partial withdrawal, eyewitnessesobserved 2 or 3 additional inflows before sea waterreturned to normal level. This final withdrawal exposed,on the formerly inundated land, large amounts of sandysediment.

Hypothesis was made that tsunami deposits were de-rived from shoreface, beach and small channel deposits,particularly during the 3rd inflow. Supporting evidence,

Fig. 3. Map showing spatial distribution of different morphology of current dand outflow estimated from orientation of surface morphology of bedforms.

collected along five transect lines (Fig. 1C), includesinternal sedimentary structures and surface bedforms thatwere observed.

3. Methodology

While making a regional survey of tsunami inunda-tion distances and heights, a detailed study of surfacesedimentary patterns in relation to internal structures wascarried out. For this study, pits along 5 transect linesperpendicular to the coastline were dug. A leveling of thebasal contact of the deposit and one of the deposit'ssurface was measured by high accuracy survey camera.In total 46 pits spaced at 10 m intervals along each

une and ripple bedforms with approximate direction of tsunami inflow

Fig. 4. Bedforms and stratigraphic columns near the coast along a 30-m-long part of transect 1 (see pit locations in Fig. 1C). Stratigraphic columns of pits no. 1, 2 and 3 were drawn from peelings. Scalebar beneath pictures represent distance between pits.

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transect were done. The transects themselves were 15 mapart. Supplemental pits at intervals of 5 m and 2 mallowed us to correlate stratigraphic units securely. Un-disturbed samples of individual units were also collected.Detailed sketches of pit walls were made, and sedimentpeels were carried out later by spray cohesive to charac-terize internal sedimentary structures between layers andto aid in stratigraphic correlation. Bulk samples fromeach layer of tsunami deposits were collected for grainsize analysis of the sand (grain diameter −2 to 4 phi) bysieving. Grain size of samples collected from layer to

Fig. 5. Thickness of tsunami deposits from transects

layer of the 2004 deposit from all pits along transect 1were analyzed by a settling tube. Mean diameter,skewness, standard deviation and kurtosis were calculatedby the graphic method (Folk and Ward, 1957).

4. Observations

4.1. Systematic classification of surface patterns

The post-tsunami sedimentary surface patterns obser-ved at Bangtao include current dunes and ripples that

A to E (see locations of transects in Fig. 1C).


lack mud coating. Most of the current dunes and ripplesexhibit landward-oriented morphology; their lee sidesface landward (Fig. 2). The measurement of bedforms interms of their wavelength, amplitude, bedform symme-try and asymmetry, lee and stoss angles, thickness ofentire deposits from each pit and measured distance ofinland distribution was carefully recorded (Table 1). Thesize of inflow current dune and ripple surface structuresdecreased landward (Fig. 2A to D). Surficial evidencefor outflow was limited to small ripples superimposedon inflow dunes. These ripple marks have a seawardorientation (Fig. 2E and F). These sedimentary surfacepatterns may provide information about current dune-ripple transition velocity during inflow and implyminimal outflow deposition (Fig. 3).

4.2. Internal sedimentary structures and stratigraphicdescription

Internal sedimentary structures within sand sheets atBangtao area consist of parallel lamination, landwardand seaward inclined lamination, rip-up clasts of mudand sand, and graded bedding. The structures especiallysharp contact help define two stratigraphic units (Units 1and 2 in Fig. 4). Units 1 and 2 superimposed with clearsharp contact on former surface of buried soil. On alltransects both units thin landward and terminate within160 m of the shoreline (Fig. 5).

4.2.1. Unit 1Unit 1 is present in a minority of the pits. Unit 1 was

found along the 1st transect at pit numbers 1, 2, 3, 3+2m(see correlation in Fig. 4) and on the 2nd transect at pitnumbers 14 and 15 (see Fig. 1C for locations of pits). Itcontains normal-graded fine to medium sand with highpercentage of medium sand. It also contains small rip-upmud clasts containing small amounts of shell fragments.Internal sedimentary structures consist mainly of parallellamination, landward slightly inclined lamination trun-cated abruptly at the contact with overlying Unit 2. Thesediments of this unit filled in micro-topographic de-pressions of buried soil underneath.

4.2.2. Unit 2Unlike Unit 1, Unit 2 is present at all pits and

transects. It contains generally normal-graded mediumto coarse sand with shell fragments and cross-lami-nations that indicate a landward flow direction. Internalsedimentary structures consist of parallel lamination,inclined lamination (less than 3 degree dipping), tro-ugh cross-lamination and some rip-up mud and sandclasts.

4.3. Particle size analysis

Medium and coarse sand (with mean grain sizebetween 0 and 2 phi) predominate in Units 1 and 2. Mostof the grain-size analyses show a log-normal graindistribution with one main mode and poor sorting. Alldeposits contain shell fragments that were included forparticle-size analysis. In mean grain diameter at thesame place, Unit 2 is coarser than Unit 1. Mean graindiameter (phi) of Unit 1 from 1st transect (pit no. 1, 2, 3,3+2 m) and 2nd transect (pit no. 14, 15), ranges from0.32–1.18 with average of 0.836, whereas, Unit 2 fromsimilar pits shows phi mean ranges from 0.02–1.83 withaverage of 0.672. Some of the tsunami-deposited sanddiffers from the area's present-day beach sediments inStandard Deviation (SD) and Skewness (SK). SD andSK of post-tsunami beach sand range from 0.6 to 0.9,and −2 to 2, whereas, the 2004 deposit varies from 0.25to 1.25, and −5 to 6, respectively.

5. Discussions

5.1. Sediment sources

A unimodal grain-size distribution can provideevidence that a tsunami deposit has a single marinesource (e.g. Shi et al., 1995; Dawson et al., 1996).However, some tsunami deposits have bimodal graindistributions that imply combinations of marine and ter-restrial sources (e.g. Minoura et al., 1996; Nanayama andShigeno, 2006).

The grain compositions and grain size distributionsfrom Bangtao suggest derivation in part from beaches.Some of the deposit may have been derived, in addition,from shoreface sediments, nearby channel sedimentslocating in the north of the area and former groundsediments, as shown by rip-up clasts of mud and sand.

5.2. Sedimentary record of inflow and outflow

Except where surface bedforms have been described(Sato et al., 1995; Nanayama et al., 2000), sedimento-logic inferences about tsunami inflow and outflow havedepended on internal structures. Structures previouslyused to infer repeated waves include mud interbeds(Konno et al., 1961; Atwater et al., 2005, p.18), fining-upward succession of normal-graded units (e.g. Bensonet al., 1997; Gelfenbaum and Jaffe, 2003), multiplegraded sand sheets and sharp erosional bases (e.g.Nanayama et al., 2000). Directional indicators includeflame structures at the bases of tsunami beds (Minouraand Nakata, 1994), orientation of rip-up clasts (Jaffe and

Fig. 6. Diagram showing depth-averaged tsunami flow velocity calculated frommean grain size and tsunami-deposit thickness by method of Jaffe andGelfenbaum (2007). (A) Flow velocity of Unit 1 deposited by the 2nd inflow ranges from approximately 20 m/s at 30 m inland to approximately15 m/s at 80 m inland, whereas (B) Unit 2 deposits resulting from the 3rd inflow reveal the decrease flow velocity from approximately 20 m/s at 30 minland to approximately less then 10 m/s at 160 m inland.



Gelfenbaum, 2007), and fallen plants knocked down bytsunami flows (Atwater et al., 2005, p.18). Deformedconvolutions in underlying pre-tsunami deposits werealso mentioned (Choowong et al., 2007).

At Bangtao, the combination of eyewitness accounts,post-tsunami photographs, and tsunami geology suggestthe following sequence of events:

1. The first tsunami uprush wave did not cross beachridge. Accordingly it did not register as a unit in theonshore tsunami-laid sand sheet (also see topographicprofile in Fig. 7A).

2. Inflow during the second wave deposited Unit 1.3. Stronger, more extensive inflow from the third wave

with flow depth up to 3 m deposited the coarser, moreextensive Unit 2. This inflow eroded the surface ofUnit 1 and suspended a large amount of beach sedi-ments, transported them inland, and produced currentdunes and ripples.

4. Outflow had no lasting stratigraphic record at thesites we examined. Its effects were instead limited tothe small seaward-oriented ripple marks superim-posed on landward-oriented dune surfaces.

At Bangtao, rip-up mud clasts were preserved withininflow tsunami depositional layers similar to that prev-iously reported by Jaffe and Gelfenbaum (2007). Such

Fig. 7. (A) Post-tsunami topographic profile along transect 1. Gray area in left ischematic diagram showing vertical profiles of computed depth-averaged tsunoscillatory-wave equations of Komar and Miller (1973). The depth-averaged floflow velocities are interpolated.

differences, where noted in 1995 tsunami deposits atFlores Island, Indonesia, were interpreted by Shi et al(1995) as evidence of tsunami sedimentation rates aretoo high for tsunami sediment to become well sorted andalso possible that such differences are a result ofturbulent flow.

5.3. Tsunami flow velocity

Two approaches to estimate the velocity of theinflows responsible for Units 1 and 2 were carried out.The first uses a simplified depth-averaged tsunami flowspeed (Jaffe and Gelfenbaum, 2007) developed fortsunami sedimentology. The second uses equations forthe threshold of sediment motion (Komar and Miller,1973) and applies them to the capping bedforms andinternal grain size of Unit 2. The resulting estimatesdiffer by an order of magnitude.

The model of Jaffe and Gelfenbaum (2007) relates atsunami's flow velocity to its deposit's mean grain sizeand thickness. The model is intended for areas havingsimple topography, a well-measured tsunami depositgeometry, predominance of normal-graded layers, pre-sence of a wide zone from about 50 to 200 m inland withfairly constant grain size texture, and high-quality flowdepth indicators. The 2004 tsunami deposits at Bangtaoshare these attributes with the 1998 Papua New Guinea

ndicate post-tsunami beach sand recovered until 2007. (B) Reconstructedami flow and the near-bottom threshold velocities (Ut) calculated fromw velocity, from Fig. 6, is expressed as multiples of Ut. The intervening


tsunami deposits with which Jaffe and Gelfenbaum(2007) calibrated their model. Accordingly, field para-meters of tsunami deposit thickness and laboratory me-asurements of grain size distribution of Unit 1 and Unit 2were input into Jaffe and Gelfenbaum's graphical model(Fig. 6). Particle density of 2.65 g/cm3 was assumed.

The results for the 2nd inflow, recorded by Unit 1,imply flow speeds of 19 m/s at 30 m inland and 15.5 m/sat 80 m inland. For the 3rd inflow, recorded by coarser-grained Unit 2, the model suggests 21 m/s at 30 m inlandand 7 m/s at 160 m inland. The Jaffe and Gelfenbaummodel assumes that all sediment rains out of suspension,but bedforms at Bangtao suggest that there wassignificant bedload transport. It is, however, importantto note here that results of flow speed calculation, as aresult of an untested model, show a 3.5 m/s differenceacross just 50 meters, then they are internally incon-sistent with a model of Jaffe and Gelfenbaum thatassumes steady uniform flow.

Near bottom threshold velocity for generating bed-forms for this study was derived from empiricalrelationships for the transition from laminar to turbulentand for fully turbulent flows (Komar and Miller, 1973;Komar, 1974). Paphitis et al (2001) also suggested thatunder various flow conditions (unidirectional, oscilla-tory and combined), natural sands behave in a slightlydifferent manner. Through, threshold of sedimentmotion under unidirectional currents has been suggested(e.g. Miller et al., 1977; Allen and Homewood, 1984),equations suggested by Komar and Miller (1973) wereapplied to this work because they considered wave-length and mean diameter of sediment as factors forcontrolling near bottom threshold flow velocity:

ρUt2= ρs−ρð ÞgD ¼ 0:21 λ=0:8Dð Þ1=2 ð1Þ

for sediment diameter b0.5 mm (medium sand andfiner), and

ρUt2= ρs� ρð ÞgD ¼ 0:46π λ=0:8Dð Þ1=4 ð2Þ

for sediment diameterN0.5mm (coarse sand and coarser),where ρ = density of water (=997.044 kg/m3), ρs =density of sediment grain (=2.65 g/cm3), g = accelerationof gravity (=9.8 m/s2),D = mean grain diameter (m), λ =spacing of sediment ripples (m), Ut = near-bottomthreshold velocity.

Results of calculation in a near bottom thresholdvelocity from mean grain diameter (D) and ripplespacing (λ) of bedforms imply a velocity of 1.74 m/s forthe biggest current dune (D=0.65 mm, λ=2.0 m) and1.03 m/s for typical ripples (D=0.325 mm, λ=0.10 m).

However, depth-averaged flow and near bottomthreshold velocities decreased inland. The depth-aver-aged flow and near-bottom threshold velocities fromBangtao, Phuket reveals the order of magnitudedifference with relation to flow depth (Fig. 7). Landwarddecrease in flow velocity was also suggested by Fritzet al (2006) at Banda Aceh where tsunami flow velocitywithin the range of 2 to 5 m/s was estimated from twosurvivor videos recorded at 3 km from the open ocean.

5.4. Reconstruction of hydraulic conditions

The following reconstruction of hydraulic conditionsof the December 26, 2004 tsunami at Bangtao is basedon eyewitness's accounts, photographs taken during thetsunami, internal sedimentary structures, surficial bed-forms and the results of particle-size analysis.

The tsunami started at 9:42 a.m. local time with aleading withdrawal seen all along Thailand's Andamancoast and recorded there on tide gauges (Choowonget al., 2007). Most or all of the erosion and deposition inthe area of our pits at Bangtao occurred between 9:45and 10:20 a.m. local time. This erosion and depositionoccurred during two periods of inflow. The second ofthese was followed by outflow. Reconstruction of the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami based on hydraulic inter-pretation was divided into 5 episodes as follows (Fig. 8).

5.4.1. Episode I: Leading withdrawalAround 9:42 a.m. local time, seawater receded

rapidly to the distance of about 500 m offshore faraway from the coastline, approx. 4 m depth from meansea level (MSL).

5.4.2. Episode II: Beach erosion and transportation by1st inflow

A few minutes later, the first inflow reached a littlehigher level than MSL and barely reached the vegetationat the inland edge of the beach. Though the beachsurface underwent erosion, the inflow thus did not carrythe eroded sediment more than 30 m inland.

5.4.3. Episode III: Deposition of Unit 1 by 2nd inflowA few minutes later, the second inflow ran onshore,

where it reached the height of about 2 m above groundsurface. It carried beach sediments at least 60–70 minland, forming Unit 1.

5.4.4. Episode IV: Deposition and migration of Unit 2by 3rd inflow

The third inflow, with a maximum onshore flowdepth of about 3 m, buried Unit 1 with the thicker, more

Fig. 8. Reconstructed hydraulic conditions of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami at Bangtao, Phuket.



extensive Unit 2. The flow created landward-orienteddunes. A few minutes after, water stagnated at max-imum height, then started draining off slowly.

5.4.5. Episode V: Disturbance of surface structure ofUnit 2 by outflow

Outflow generated small seaward-oriented ripples onthe dunes of Unit 2.

6. Conclusion

Surface and internal sedimentary structures of the 2004tsunami deposits at Bangtao area provide an opportunityto understand flow conditions. Inflow landward-orientedcurrent dunes and ripples were immediately recorded afterthe event and they exhibited typical internal sedimentarystructures including parallel lamination, landward-andseaward-inclined laminations with normal-graded sand.Rip-up mud clasts were also recognized within layer ofinflows.

Two event stratigraphical units of tsunami deposits inthis area were interpreted. Unit 1 is distributed as far as70 m inland with finer in grain size than Unit 2. Unit 2 ischaracterized by coarser sediment with well-preservedinternal structures of current dune and ripple, anddistributed as far as 160 m inland partly truncatingUnit 1.

There is no indication of outflow deposits from sur-face sedimentary patterns, but the outflow can be ex-pected to only disturb surface of inflow current dunebedforms and generated only small seaward-orientedsmall ripple marks superimposed on landward-orienteddune surfaces.

The estimation of depth-averaged flow velocity andnear bottom threshold velocity was done based on grainsize, thickness and surface structural patterns. The max-imum depth-averaged flow velocity of tsunami wavetrain (that is the 3rd inflow) was about 21 m/s at 30 minland to approximately 7 m/s at 160 m inland. Nearbottom threshold velocity calculated from the biggestdune morphology shows a range of flow velocity of 1.74to 1.03 m/s. At flow depth about 3 m, depth-averagedflow velocity was about 12 times greater than nearbottom velocity and, in general, flow speed decreasedlandward as flow depth decreased.

According to field records, laboratory works togetherwith eyewitnesses account, a proposal of hydraulicbehavior of the 2004 tsunami event from Bangtao areacan be made. The event started at 9:43 a.m., ending up at10:20 a.m. local time, and is divided into 5 episodes:leading withdrawal, beach erosion and transportation by1st inflow, deposition of Unit 1 by decelerated 2nd

inflow, deposition and transport of Unit 2 by 3rd inflowand finally the disturbance of surface structure of Unit 2by outflow.

Acknowledgments

This research is partly sponsored by Japan Society forthe Promotion of Science (JSPS) and Thailand ResearchFund (TRF codes MRG4680091 and MRG4780046).Special thank goes to Mr. Tanom Ondee (Sakol), andlocal survivors, for providing interview data andinformative photographs, B.F. Atwater, B. Higman andM.P. Tuttle for reviews. Thanks also extend to Prof. JohnT. Wells, editor, and two anonymous reviewers for athorough review that greatly improved the manuscript.

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