2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1. MUSHROOM...
Transcript of 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1. MUSHROOM...
CHAPTER II
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1. MUSHROOM PRODUCTION
Mushrooms are fleshy macro fungi. In nature,
mushrooms grow wild in every country from snowy mountains to
sandy deserts on all types of soils and ecosystems. In 1950,
mushrooms were first cultivated in France in caves and in unused
underground quarries, which provided the requisite conditions of
darkness and humidity. A French gardener in 1700 first
developed a method of cultivation of temperate mushrooms
Agaricus bisporus. It was then taken up in England and a few
other European countries and from there it spread to America.
The cultivation of mushroom was introduced into the United
States in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Turnefort, a
Frenchman first published a method for cultivation of mushroom.
Mushrooms have been extensively studied in Western
countries while India so far was relatively less explored. An early
record could be seen from Lt.Col.Kirtikar of Indian Medical
Services who was the first to find out some mushrooms from
Calcutta in 1918. Bose (1921) and Ray Chaudhri (1942) described
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the possibilities of mushroom industry in India and West Bengal
respectively.
Methods of cultivation remained obscure in India
though the people of other countries were extensively involved in
mushroom cultivation. Bose (1921) was successful in cultivating
two Agaricus on sterilized dung. Su and Seth (1940) described a
procedure for spawn production and cultivation of voluariella - the
paddy straw mushroom. Padwick (1941) has given a concise
account of mushroom cultivation in India. Thomas et al.(1943)
cultivated the paddy straw mushroom at the College of
Agriculture, Coimbatore. Block et al.(1953) cultivated the
mushroom on sawdust.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the
Government of Himachal Pradesh jointly started a scheme for
cultivating the mushroom in a laboratory at Solan in 1961. Rath
(1961) conducted a trial on the cultivation of straw mushroom at
Banthra Nursery. Detailed method of cultivation of strav
mushroom in South-east China delineated by Martin and Jazer
(1966). Kaneda and Tokuda (1966) reported the ability of various
edible fungi to lower blood cholesterol. Krishnamurthy and
Lalitha Kumari (1966) reported that the bed size for mushroom
culture should have 3"x3"x2" dimension.
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Delmas and Poitou (1967) reported on the nitrogen
content and essential aminoacids in cultivated mushrooms and in
composts. Altamura et al.(1967) recorded aminoacids related
compounds and other nitrogenous substances in cultivated
mushrooms Agaricus cczmpertris. Cellulose rich organic wastes
would result in enhanced cellulose production and increased the
yield of mushroom Pleurotus species (Norkans, 1967; Quimio,
1978).
Beach and Rasmussen (1968) had amended small
amount of superphosphate and gypsum for profitable yields of
mushroom. Ramakrishflan et al.(1968) reported that beds covered
with transparent polyethylene sheets gave more yield of Volvariella
diplasia than the beds covered with black polyethylene sheets or
even uncovered substrates. Hayes and Randle (1969)
experimented on the use of molasses as a soluble carbohydrate
supplement for improving productivity of mushroom compost.
Gerrits (1969) suggested that there is a shift from the preferential
utilization of lignin and protein polymers during mycelial growth to
cellulose and hemicellulose utilization when fruiting is initiated.
The climatic conditions prevailing in the plains of
India are quite suitable for large-scale cultivation of the paddy
straw mushroom. It is cultivated throughout the plains in all
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parts of India except during the winter season (Gupta et al., 1970;
Munjal, 1973). Chang and Yau (1971) studied the effect of light
intensity on fructification of paddy straw mushroom. Zakia (1971)
analysed the essential aminoacid composition of the proteins of a
mushroom. Laborde et al.(1972) described a rapid method of
composting known as the express preparation of substrates for the
cultivation of Volvariella volvacea on rice straw. Kalyal (1972)
reported the importance of mushroom cultivation in India, its
history and economics. More than 2,000 species of fungi are
reported to be edible throughout the world and about 283 of these
are reported to be available in India. Out of these, eight species
have been cultivated so far and in all about 20 mushroom species
have been cultivated for edible purposes in different parts of the
world. Among these, the most suitable species for the Indian
conditions seems to be the oyster mushroom, Pleurotus sajorcaju
that holds immense potential for commercial exploitation.
The mushroom Pleurotus sajorcaju was first collected
from the succulent tissues of Euphorbia rayleans at the foot hills
of Himalayas by Jandaik and Kapoor (1976) and the technology for
its cultivation was perfected in the division of Mycology and plant
pathology of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
Their work related to the cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju on farm
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waste products such as banana pseudo stems, paddy or wheat
straw, straw compost and saw dust. Good yields were obtained
with banana pseudo stems and chopped paddy straw. The
addition of nutrients like oatmeal to the substrate gave better
yield. Kandaswamy and Ramaswamy (1976) studied the effect of
organic substrates with different C.N. ratio on the yield of
Pleurotus sajorcaju. Roxon and Jong (1977) studied the sexuality
of Pleurotus sajorcaju. According to Thayumanavan (1977) the
fungus has been found to grow readily on farm wastes and even in
waste paper.
Although mushrooms have far too often been regarded
only as a delicacy, it would be more realistic to look upon them as
food that can compensate protein deficiency in developing
countries. Further the quality of mushroom protein is also far
superior to vegetable proteins (Crisan and Sands, 1978; Bano and
Rajarathnam, 1982; Chang and Miles, 1989). Chang (1978)
reported on the biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms and
stated that the most popular substrates are still paddy straw in
rice producing countries and cotton waste in industrialized areas.
Zadrazil (1978) reported that the yield of sporophore
depends upon the nature of the substrates used for bedding
material. Leatham (1979) pretreated the barley straw with white
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rot fungi to improve digestion in the rumen. A variety of
substrates have been used for cultivation of mushroom such as
waste paper, sugarcane bagasse, oil palm pericarp, hulled maize
cob, cotton, sisal hem, water hyacinth, synthetic mushroom
compost, saw dust and wood waste. Hayes and Lim (1979)
produced the mushroom in wheat and rice straw composts. Bano
et al. (1979) cultivated the Pleurotus species in a village model hut
and determined the yield of Pleurotus J7abellatus which grown on
wheat, ragi and rice straw. The highest yields were obtained on
the rice straw (460 g/kg) followed by the wheat straw (324g) and
lowest on the ragi straw (244 g/kg straw dry matter).
Vanderwal (1979) reported that the chemical and
physical treatments of these residues rarely were found to create
useful products. Bioconversion of these unmodified lignocellulosic
residues through mushroom cultivation on the other hand offers
the potential of converting them into protein rich palatable oyster
mushroom Pleurotus sajorcaju. It requires a minimal level of
environmental conditions because of its relatively simple cultivtion
requirements.
Addition of amendments to the bedding material was
known to influence the yield of sporophores. Zadrazil (1980)
studied the influence of Ammonium Nitrate and organic
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supplements on the yield of Pleuroliis sajorcaju and further
examined the solid-state fermentation of beech wood sawdust,
secd rape and sunflower straw and rice husk. Leong (1980)
utilizcd cotton waste with temperature variations for the
cultivation of oyster mushroom. Sivaprakasam and Kandaswamy
(1980) reported the changes in lignin content of different
substrates while cultivating Pleurotus sajorcaju. They also
reported that the coir waste had high lignin content which
influenced the growth of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Therefore the
contents of lignin and cellulose in the substrates were found to
influence the yield of the sporophores resulting in higher yield.
Nutritive value of sporophore proteins of Pleurotus sajorcczju and
nucleic acid content of the same investigated by Thayumanavan
and Manickam (1980) and by Khanna and Garcha (1982). Various
experts reported that Pleurotus sajorcaju biologically degraded the
cellulosic components such as rice straw (Zafar et al., 1981),
cotton waste (Chang, 1981), aquatic weeds (Jam, 1988), corn
stover (Chahal, 1989) and bagasse (Hoozee, 1990).
Several experts reported proximate composition of
Pleurotus sajorcaju. Lipid composition was analysed by Khanna
and Garcha (1981) and Nair et al.(1989). Sivaprakasam and
Viswanathan (1981) reported the mineral composition. Bano and
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Rajarathnam (1982) analysed the carbohydrate and vitamin C
content of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Sivaprakasam (1982) pointed out
that Pleurotus sajorcaju is a microbial protein. Chang (1982)
described the prospects of mushroom protein in developing
countries. White (1982) reported that the Pleurotus sajorcczju can
easily degrade the cellulose and can thrive on cellulosic wastes.
Chakravarthy and Sarkar (1982) have reported that oyster
mushroom is a potential nutritive food. It is rich in protein with
quality superior to that of vegetable protein and has a higher
digestive co-efficient. It is low in starch and contains vitamins and
minerals. Thus, it is an ideal protein supplement for vegetarians
and for people suffering from cardiac ailments or even diabetes.
Sivaprakasam and Kandaswamy (1983) reported on the
composition of sporophore of oyster mushroom, a well-known
edible fungus. This communication relates to the crude protein,
sugars and ascorbic acid contents and energy values of
sporophore during different stages of development. Girija and
Tewari (1983) reported on the ascorbic acid content in Pleurotus
sajorcaju and paddy straw mushroom Voluariella diplasia at
different stages of development.
Hong et al.(1984) studied the characteristics of
cellulolytic enzymes produced by Pleurotus sajorcaju. Further he
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examined the cultural characteristics and obtained the chemical
composition of the same species. The work of Go et al.(1984)
relates to the effect of temperature, pH, carbon and nitrogen on
mycelial growth of Pleurotus sajorcaju and Pleurotus ostreatus.
This communication further reported the selection of Pleurotus
sajorcaju as suitable species for cultivation under summer climatic
condition in Korea. Jiang (1985) studied the biological
characteristics of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Nutritive value of rice straw
was improved by fungal fermentation (Kahlon and Das, 1985).
Muller and Trosch (1986) biologically pretreated the
wheat straw by white rot fungi for biogas production. Apron
(1986) cultivated the oyster mushroom, Pleurotus corriucopiae on
agricultural wastes, such as filter press cake and saw dust
mixture in different ratio.
Kahlon and Arora (1987) utilized waste potato peels to
produce fungal protein. He (1987) carried out outdoor culture of
Pleurotus sajorccJu in rice straw. He (1987) analysed the
electrophoretic components for proteins of edible fungi. Fukuzumi
(1987) reported on the ligninolytic enzymes of the same species.
Lelley (1987) reported on the role of edible mushroom as a weapon
against starvation. Matesscu et al.(1987) described the growing
techniques for two new Pleurotus species. Bourbonnais and Puice
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(1989) reported on the oxidative enzymes from the lignin degrading
fungus Pleurotus sajorcaju. Supplementing rice straw with certain
protein rich additives such as wheat bran, dried berseen and
soyabean meals on mushroom yield were studied by Katton and
Mahmoud, 1989. Dash and Das (1989) added the Earthworm cast
as a substitute for wheat supplementation while making
observation on the growth of tropical edible mushroom, Pleurotus
sajorcaju.
Sporeless strains of Pleurotus species native to
Thailand was reported by Snachai et al.(1990). Voraluck (1990)
studied the use of dried cassava root as a supplement nutrient for
cultivation of oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus, Phoenix
mushroom, Pleurotus sajorcaju and Abalone mushroom Pleurotus
cystidiosus. Palm pulp for spawning of Pleurotus sajorcaju was
utilized. Para-rubber saw dust and palm pulp were used as a
substrate for cultivation in different ratio. The yield of the
mushroom significantly differed (Kristsaneepaiboon and Bunkong,
1990). Micromorphological and histochemical changes that
occurred in wood decayed by white-rot fungi were examined under
fluorescence microscopy and noticed the activities of the main
enzymes viz., peroxidase, laccase and cellulase involved in wood
degradation (Yoshizawa, 1990).
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Gerpacio et al.(1990) evaluated the potential of rice
straw based composts from mushroom production namely
Volvaricilci, Pleurotus as poultry feed. Chahal and Hachery (1990)
studied the degradation of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin by
Pleurotus sajorcaju on corn stalks. Various agriculture wastes
such as corn stalks, sugarcane leaves and straw rice were tested
in pleurotus culture (Buot and Gesta, 1991) Pan et a/.(1991)
observed the changes in activities of laccase, tyrosinase and
cellulase in Lentinus edodes and pleurotus during their growth.
Sanjust (1991) tested olive milling wastewater as a medium for
growth of four pleurotus species. Kumuthakalavalli and
Thilagavathi (1991) studied the utilization of different pulse
powders in raw and sprouted forms mixed in straw substrate and
evaluated the efficiency of Pleurotus sajorcaju to convert them into
protein.
Upgrading of the agricultural waste, and forest wastes
as animal feed by Pleurotus species were also reported (Zadrazil
and Dube, 1992; Maan et al., 1992). Effect of supplementation of
wheat straw liquid medium with various forms and levels of
nitrogen on production of celluloses, hemicelluloses and oxidases
by Pieurotus sajorcaju was studied (Saxena and Rai, 1992). Boyle
et al.(1992) have reported solubilization and mineralization of
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lignin by white rot fungi. Boria (1992) examined the suitability of
Mangium leaves (Acacia rnangium) as substrate in the production
of three edible fungi namely Pleurotus sajorcaju, Auricularia
auricula and Leritinus edodes. Ijaz and Khan (1992) reported the
Biological efficiency of different strains of lignicolous fungus
pleurotus cultivated on agrowastes. Marimuthu and
Krishnamoorthy (1992) and Marimuthu (1995) studied the
Prospects of oyster mushroom cultivation in Tamil Nadu. Chang
et al.(1992) reported that cultivation of edible mushroom could be
a boost for rural development. A mixture of apple pomace and
sawdust was tested as a feed medium for production of Leritinula
edodes and oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus
scijorcaju on synthetic logs (Worrall and Yang 1992).
Sharma and Gupta (1993) outlined the importance,
utility and availability of agrowaste for mushroom production in
India. Reyes et al.(1993) utilized coarse materials such as cotton
waste, rice straw and rice hull and fine materials such as saw dust
and rice bran for cultivation of mushroom. Subhas Chandra et
ai.(1993) carried out laboratory studies on the comparative bio-
degradation of paddy straw with certain bacterial and fungal
treatments on chemical composition. Tong et al.(1993) studied the
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delignification of palm press fibre by white rot fungi for enzymic
saccharification of cellulose.
Chiu and To (1993) explained that endogenous
glycogen is not a trigger for fruiting in Pleurotus sajorcaju. Sagawa
et al.(1993) investigated electrophoretic comparison of enzymes for
the discrimination of Pleurotus species. According to Moyson and
Verachtert (1993) higher fungi such as Pleurotus species, Lentinus
edodes and Phanerochaete chrysosporium can be grown very well
on lignocellulosic materials and degraded considerable amounts of
lignin. Influence of carbondioxide on lignin degradation and
digestability of lignocellulosic treated with Pleurotus sajorcaju was
reported by Zadrazil and Puniya (1994). Reyes et al.(1994) studied
the use of indigenous materials as alternate culture media for the
same species.
Vats et al.(1994) utilized Lantana camara as a
substrate for cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Mubiao (1994)
studied the cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju in bagasse medium.
Yield of the oyster mushroom was increased by the incorporation
of neem cake (Marimuthu et al., 1994). The differential
biodegradation of phenolic and nonphenolic lignin units in wheat
straw treated with white rot fungi was investigated under solid-
state fermentation. White rot fungi such as Pleurotus pulmonarius,
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Pleurotus sajorcaju, Lentiunus edodes, Phanero chartce and
chrysosporium were shown to upgrade the wheat straw (Moyson,
1994). Bacetonia and Gabitan (1994) studied interspecific
hydridizatiOfl behaviour of selected isolates of Pleurotus species
using conventional method.
Murugesan et al.(1995) utilized water hyacinth for
oyster mushroom cultivation. Suhaila and Tok (1995) observed
the effect of pretreatments on the characteristics of dried oyster
mushroom, Pleurotus sajorcaju. A study to verify the trace
elements level in Agaricus biosporus and in Pleurotus ostreatus, the
most cultivated mushroom in Italy was carried out (Procida and
Marietta, 1995). Antwi (1995) observed the influence of saw dust
supplemented with farm and industrial wastes on the growth,
yield and mineral composition of Pleurotus ostreatus. Production
of extracellular cellolytic, xylanolytic and ligninolytic enzymes were
studied during submerged cultivation of basidiomycetes on a
medium supplemented with a depleted cotton seed cake
(Akhrnedova, 1995). Sangwan and Saini (1995) utilized wheat
straw, paddy straw, sorghum stalk, bajra stalk, sugarcane bagasse
and waste paper alone as well as in combination for cultivation of
PleurotuS sajorcaJu.
ET1
Mallika Srinivasan (1996) delineated the benefits of
Pleurotus species. Five different species of Pleurotus namely
P.sczjorcaju, P.citrinopileatus, P.Jlorida, P.platypus and P.ostrealus
were evaluated for their yield performance on paddy straw and
rubber wood sawdust. Grains of sorghum, wheat, paddy, half
filled paddy and paddy chaff were the substrates compared to
produce the spawn of five speices of Pleurotus (Mathew et al.,
1996). Five white rot basidiomycetes were evaluated for their
potential to improve ruminal degradation of wheat straw (Jalc et
al., 1996). Jung et al.(1996) focused the attention towards the
production of Pleurot'us species mycelium using rancid frying oils.
Park et al.(1996) studied the use of beet pulp and defatted cotton
seed flour as the bottle substrates of Pleurotus ostreatus. Maruthi
Kalaiselvi and Vijayalakshmi (1996) estimated Ascorbic acid
content in three different fungi Pleurotus species from cotton
waste. Kathe et al.(1996) developed spawn preparation of oyster
mushroom on cotton stalks and cotton stalks also proved good
substrate for cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju and 3% soyabean
supplementation improved the yield. Maruthi Kalaiselvi and
Vijayalakshmi (1997) utilized waste cotton and paddy straw for the
production of mushroom, biogas and vermicompost. Patrabansh
and Madan (1997) studied the cultivation, biological efficiency and
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chemical analysis of Pleurotus sajorcaju (Fr.) Singer. on different
wastes. Patrabansh and Madan (1999) estimated the mineral
content of fruiting bodies of Pleurotus sajorcaju cultivated on
different kinds of biomass. Maruthi Kalaiselvi and Vijayalakshmi
(1998) also observed the effect of temperature on the fructification
of oyster mushroom.
Uma and Vijayalakshmi (2000) made a comparative
study of the biodegradation of paddy straw and tea waste by
cultivating the mushroom Pleurotus sarjocaju.
2.2. BIOGAS
Mushroom cultivation can be regarded as a unitary
integrated system wherein the input after serving as base material
for cultivating mushrooms becomes converted into value added
waste. Though the widespread use of crop residues for cultivation
of mushrooms is well known, the reuse of resultant spent
mycosubstrateS is a new concept. After harvesting mushrooms, as
these mycosubstrates are often discarded on to land it causes
environmental pollution, therefore, it was thought that the
mycosubstrates if used for biogas production as feedstock will not
only help to keep the environment clean but also will enhance gas
production, thus yielding twin benefits.
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In 1776, AlessendrO Volta was the first person to
observe a combustible gas produced by decaying vegetation found
in lakes and ponds in the vicinity of Como in Northern Italy. In
1806 William Henry found that Voltas gas was identical with
methane gas. Humphrey Davy in the early 1800's observed that
the emission of methane from farmyard manure piles. In 1869
Bechamp reported that methane was formed from carbon
compounds by the action of microorganisms. During 1882-84,
Tappeiner studied the microbial production of methane. In 1900,
in India the first biogas plant was installed in a leper asylum. In
1914 in Indonesia a biogas plant was erected in which straw waste
was used as feedstock.
The scientific approach in biogas production reached a
peak at the beginning of 2 nd world war. In 1902, Omeliansky
(Wakesman, 1932) pointed out that when a cellulosic filterpaper
was inoculated with horse dung or river mud along with mineral
salt solutions and kept under anaerobic conditions, evolution of
gas took place, which consisted of mainly methane and to a
certain level of hydrogen.
Acharya (1935a) described the anaerobic digestion of
rice straw during when the organic acids formed were found to be
acetic acid, butyric acid and the gases formed were CO2 and
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methane. Anaerobic decomposition of various wastes such as
wheat, bareley straw, leaf litter and rape seed cake also studied. A
good proportion of the total decomposition could be brought aboutZD
by digesting the materials without the additions of N2 under the
conditions of optimum temperature and pH. Desai and Biswas
(1945) pointed out that all the organic materials were liable for
decomposition with possible production of fuel gas. Desai (1951)
revealed that there was practically no gas production below 30C.
Mishra (1954) studied the decomposition and quantity of gas
produced by anaerobic decomposition of potato slice, maize seed,
gur, filter paper, Sugarcane, bogasse, sawdust, ground nut seed,
peptone, blood meal, gram pulse, sun hemp and bullock dung.
According to McCarty (1964) the maximum gas
generation occurred at pH 6.7 and 7.4. Bryant et ai.(1968)
developed a method for mass culture of hydrogen oxidizing
methane bacteria. The culture of methanobacillus omelianskii
was grown in a liquid medium, which was aerated with gas
mixture of hydrogen and carbondioxide, yielded 50 to 60 gm of
cells per 12 to 14 litres.
Rubbein et al.(1972) observed that the application of
cowdungSlurlY with straw increased the yield of maize andpotato
crops. Laura and Idnani (1972) reported that sundried slurry was
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superior to farmyard manure and compost. Chawla (1973)
observed that addition of 1% wheat straw and finely powdered
bajra leaves in combination with urea and dung at fortnightly
intervals increased gas production to the extent of 30-50% during
winter months. Singh (1974) pointed out that the amendements of
50% dry weight of vegetable waste with cowdung enhanced gas
production.
Pfeffer (1973) and Singh (1974) stated that the overall
digestion by the bacteria occurred at temperature ranging from
32°F to 156°F. However, the production of gas decreased rapidly
below 60°F and practically stopped at 50°F despite the fact that
digestion continued.
Bhavani (1976) observed that the gas production was
maximum during summer months and low during winter months.
Vanden Berg et al.(1976) reported that the maximum gas
production occurred at temperatures 40°C to 50°C at a pH of 6.5
to 7.1 and adversely affected by exposure to air.Desai (1976)
highlighted the use of rural wastes for methane generation
through anaerobic digestion. Bansel et al.(1977) studied the
production of biogas from solid excreta of cattle, goat, pig and
poultry litter. Khan and Gupta (1977) reported that
supplementation of Water Hyacinth speeded up the reaction and
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increased methane gas production. Biswas (1977) remarked that
the residual slurry could be utilized in various ways either by
applying to the farmland directly or through terhgation i.e. by
mixing with irrigation water. Further Singh and Miglani (1977)
pointed out that the anaerobically digested cowdung was rich in
humus.
Arokiasamy (1978) had reported that sheep and
poultry wastes, fish wastes, algae, weeds and vegetable wastes
were properly digested in biogas plant. The biogas comprised of
58% methane, 28% CO2 and 14% of other constituents like CO2,
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen (Neelakantan et al., 1978). Solid
wastes like fibres, fuels, food products, bagassae, stalks and skins
could serve as potential agents in the generation of energy (Carlos,
1978). Spolestra (1978) isolated and enumerated the
methanogens from piggery wastes.
The feasibility of producing methane by anaerobic
digestion of various crop materials such as grasses and corn
stalks was demonstrated by Clausen et al.(1979).
Desphande et al.(1979) reported that water hyacinth
with fermenting slurry could profitably be used as effective
additives in the gobar gas plant. Different plant wastes containing
digestable volatile solids mixed with dung and subjected to
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anaerobic digestion enhanced the methane output (Ghosh et al.,
1979).
Bryant (1979) described that three metabolic groups of
bacteria were involved in methane fermentation. Rajasekaran and
Nagarajan (1979) studied the distribution of microorganisms and
their influence on the biogas generation of various agricultural
wastes incorporated treatment. Andrew (1979) discussed the role
of methanogenic anaerobic and methanogenic facultative
anaerobic bacteria in relation to gas generation from cellulosic and
hemicellulosic wastes. Hills (1979) studied the effect of C:N ratio
on anaerobic digestion and stated that the greatest methane
production unit occurred when the C:N ratio of feed was 25:1
Chawla (1979) indicated that total nitrogen of the residue
increased due to anaerobic digestion. Singh et al.(1980)
investigated the assimilation rate of acetate and production of
methane by cattle waste slurry. Summers and Bousefield (1980)
utilized piggery waste for anaerobic digestion. Hashimoto (1980)
studied the agricultural residues supplementation with cowdung
for biogas production.
Kasturi Bai (1983) tested the various wastes viz., saw
dust, deadsilkworm pupae, grass, bagassae and dungs of various
animals for biogas production. The digested cowdung slurry after
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suitable dilution with freshwater was utilized for fish culture
(Vijayalakshmi, 1983). Bisaria et al.(1983) studied the production
of biogas from residues of mushroom cultivation. Effect of liquid-
solids separation on biogas production from dairy manure was
investigated by Liao et al.(1984). Zauner and Kuntzel (1986)
recorded the methane yield from anaerobically digested maize, red
canary grass and perennial rye grass.
Muller and Trosch (1986) reported that the straw
pretreated by Pleurotus florida was fermented anaerobically. The
gas yield from the mycostraw was twice the amount when
compared to the amount from untreated straw. Thakre et
ai.(1987) generated biogas from some organic waste. Thangavelu
(1987) used silkworm litter along with cowdung in gobar gas plant
and observed copious amounts of gas production. Mixture of
eucalyptus leaves and cattle dung was utilized for biogas
production (Ali et al., 1988).
Sarada and Nand (1989) achieved the methane
generation using tomato-processing wastes. Studies on biogas
production from urban domestic wastes through anaerobic
digestion and utilization of fermentation residues have been
carried out at the Research Center of Biotechnology, Wuchen
University. With the use of decayed vegetables and kitchen waste
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as raw material, gas production rate was 0.456 m 3 per cubic
meter/day. The raw material was conducted on the quantitative
changes of the functional bacterial groups in biogas fermentation
of the mushroom residues (Tangrong et al., 1989).
Eight common aquatic weeds Saluinia rnolesta,
1-lyd ri/la verhcillata, Nyrnphaea stellata, Azolla pirinata,
Ceratopteris species, Cyperus speices and Ut ri cu/aria reticulata
were digested anaerobically to produce methane (Abbasi et al.,
1990).
Madhavaswamy and Venkataraman (1990) developed
an integrated system for biogas production from mango processing
wastes and utilization of biogas effluent for the production of
major carp, Rohu and common carp. Jianan and Youcheng (1990)
explained that the biogas digester was useful not only for night soil
digestion but also for organic substrates such as straw, grass etc.
Wong (1990) carried out anaerobic digestion of pigmanure mixed
with sewage sludge. Kalia and Kanwar (1990) reported the
anaerobic fermentation of Ageratum for biogas production. Raju
(1991) studied the influence of trace elements on biogas
production from mango processing wastes.
Viswanath et al.(1992) studied the effect of feeding
different fruit and vegetable wastes such as mango, pineapple,
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tomato, jack fruit, banana and orange for biogas production.
Madhukara et al.(1993) generated methane from mangowaste.
Supplementation of guar gum seed in the mangopeel enhanced he
production of biogas than control (Babu and Nand, 1993). Srinath
and Nand (1993) reported the anaerobic fixed film reactor for
methanation of Ensiled mango peel.
Sumitra Devi and Nand (1993) pretreated the fruit and
vegetable processed wastes with selected strains of fungi, viz.,
sportotrichum, aspergillus, pencillium and Trichoderma for
enhanced methane production. Tirumale and Nand (1994)
reported that inoculation of anaerobic celluloloytic consortia such
as buried cotton and digester effluent with mango peel for
methane generation. Anaerobic digestion removes some of the
cellulose, hernicellu lose, starch, proteins and other carbohydrates
and fats from animal excreta (Kasthuri Bai. 1994).
Kumaresan et al., (1998) studied that utilization of
various waste plants as supplemental feedstock for biogas
production. Locally available ten plant wastes namely Cassia
siarfl.eU (Vagi), Ricirtus comrnunis (castor), Dcztura strarnortium
(Datura), Sida rhorrufolia, Arnaranthiis species, Lethsemia
aggregate, Triaritherna species, Cassia nigrican, Sida cordifolia and
crotons Pavisito domus were utilized for biogas production. The
46
market wastes consisting of different vegetables and fruits mainly
carrot, beans, tomatoes, brinjal, onion, potatoes, cauliflower
leaves, cabbage leaves, raddish leaves, cucurbit vegetables, apple,
citrus fruits, guava, pomegranate were pretreated individually by
five percent Ammonium chloride, Calcium hydroxide, Sodium
hydrogen carbonate, Sodium hydroxide, Zinc chloride for 24 hours
and then mixed with cowdung and their gas output was studied by
Amathussalam and Abu backer (1999).
2.3. VERMICOMPOSTING TECHNOLOGY
Development of an appropriate technology for recovery
of resources from non-conventional sources like mycosubstrates
for production of biogas results in the generation of mycoslurry is
a societal necessity rather than optimal undertaking in recent
days in the prevailing energy crisis and environmental
degradation. Though the role of earthworms in improving soil
fertility is well-known vermicomposing technology insitu i.e. use of
earthworms for composing organic residues is of recent origin.
Eventhough there is mounting literature on vermiculture and
vermicomposting, very few studies have been made relating to
integrated waste management involving mushroom, biogas and
earthworms.
47
As early as 1954 Joshi and Kelkar studied the role of
earthworms in soil fertility. The influence of earthworms on the
physical properties of red brown earth was investigated by Barley
(1959). Pane (1963a; 1963b) studied the microorganism in the
intestine of earthworm and casts. Nielson (1965) pointed out the
presence of plant growth substances in vermicasts. Van Rhee
(1965) observed the earthworm activity and plant growth in
artificial cultures. Abrahamsen (1971) reported the influence of
temperature and soil moisture on the population density of
earthworm culture with homogenized raw humus. Vimmerstedt
and Finney (1973) studied the impact of earthworm introduction
on litter burial and nutrient distribution in Ohio stripmine banks.
Harwood (1976) carried out an experiment on the protein recovery
from poultry waste by Earthworms. Van Rhee (1977) studied the
effect of earthworm on orchard productivity. The gut contents of
some lumbricid worms were analysed by Piearce (1978). A
progress report on the potential use of earthworms in the sludge
management was published by Hartenstein et al.(1979a). Schwen
and Dance (1979) reported the earthworm cocoon as a drift
component in a Southern Ontario stream.
Abbot and Parker (1980) and Mitchell et al.(1980)
published an article on decomposition of sewage sludge in drying
48
beds and on the potential role of earthworm, Eiseniafoetida. Graff
(1981) carried out preliminary experiments on vermicomposting of
different waste materials using Eudrilus eugeniae. The role of
earthworms for recycling of organic wastes and for stabilization of
sewage sludge for abating pollution as well as for production of
high quality fertilizer delineated by Hartenstein (1981). Prince et
a/.(1981) substantiated on vermicomposting of municipal wastes.
Kale et al.(1982) studied about the enrichment of soil fertility by
the activity of earthworm Perionyx excavatus.
Biodegradable waste materials were converted into
vermicompost through vermiculture for soil improvement
(Krishnarnoorthy, 1983). Satchell (1983) pointed out the increased
occurrence of microorganism in earthworm's gut. Wallwork (1983)
pointed out that the earthworm bioreactors efficiently maintained
the highly nonlinear parameter like pH at constant level. The
active calciferous glands in the earthworms contained large
quantities of carbonic anhydrase, which catalysed the fixation of
carbondioxide in the form of calcium carbonate, preventing the fall
in the pH of the body fluid. Bano et al.(1984) assessed the
efficiency of worm cast as biofertilizer. Dash et al.(1986) observed
the gut load, transit time, gut microflora and turnover of soil, plant
and fungal material by some tropical earthworms. Haimi and
49
Huhta (1986) evaluated the capacity of various organic residues to
support adequate earthworm biomass for composting.
Bano and Kale (1987) reported that Periortyx
excaucitus and Eudrilus eugeniae worms were recognized for rural
technology and these worms actively fed on mineral and organic
matter, the muscular digestive tract acting as a pulveriser that
aids in breaking up the large particles into liner ones. Five
percent of ingested matter is assimilated and the rest is thrown
out as worm cast. Earthworm cultivation and culturing
techniques for production of "vee comp 83 E UAS" an organic
fertilizer and "vee meal 83 PUAS" an animal protein were also
evolved by Kale and Bano (1988).
Edwards and Fletcher (1988) established the
interaction between earthworms and microorganisms in organic
matter breakdown. Tomati et al.(1988) noticed the hormonal
effects of earthworm casts on plant growth. The role played by
earthworms in soil biology by serving as versatile natural
bioreactors to effectively harness the beneficial soil microflora and
destroy soil pathogens, thus converting organic wastes into
valuable products such as biofertlizers, biopesticides, vitamins,
enzymes, antibiotics, growth hormones and proteinous worm
biomass.
50
Knight (1989) confirmed Darwin's ideas about
earthworm's role in enhancement of fertility of soil. Microbial
populations, enzyme activities and nitrogen, phosphorus -
potassium enrichment in earthworm casts and in surrounding soil
of a pineapple plantation was studied by Tiwari et al.(1989). The
Earthworm Eudrilus eugertiae was cultured in plastic pots
containing ground Paspalum digitatum grass. The grass medium
was toxic to earthworms, if not fermentable. Biomass and casting
production was observed higher with both juveniles and
hatchlings when the earthworms were fed and grown on the
fermented-aerated grass (Mba, 1989). Bhawalkar (1989) reported
that the earthworms play a key role in soil biology and serves as a
promising source of biofertilizers. Hamilton and Dindal (1989)
studied the impact of land spread sewage sludge and the activity
of earthworms on soil structure.
Puskas et al.(1990) estimated the fertility of
earthworm cocoons Eisenia foetida. Zajonc and Sidor (1990)
compared the variety of non-standard materials for vermicompost
preparation. The greatest weight increase of earthworm was
observed with fifty gram soil mixed with 150gram cellulose waste.
The earthworm did not reproduce when the soil mixed with Rabbit
dung, this waste was lethal to the earthworm. Zajonc and Sidor
51
(1990) and Reinecke and Vilijoen (1990) also studied the use of
some wastes for vermicompost preparation and their influence on
growth and reproduction of the earthworm, Eisenia foetida. Galli
et al.(1990) studied the effect of earthworm casts on protein
synthesis in Agciricus bisporus. Haimi and Huhta (1990) studied
the effect of earthworms on decomposition processes in raw
humus forest soil. Bhawadkar (1991) pointed out that the
earthworm plays a key role in conversion of organic wastes as
valuable raw materials for soil biotechnological process. This also
has a potential for reducing the pollution arising from wastes
emanating from the intensive animal husbandary operations.
Daniel (1991) analysed leaf litter consumption and assimilation by
juveniles of Lumbricus terrestris under different environmental
conditions. Transmission of infective Frankia propagules in casts
of the endogenic earthworm, Pontoscolex corethrurus was studied
by Reddell and Spain (1991).
The composition, biomass and association of
earthworms were observed in two cropping systems of differing
intensity over a five year period in Germany (Bauchhenss, 1991).
Daniel and Anderson (1992) investigated that rates of CO2
production, bacterial plate counts, moisture content and
concentration of soluble organic carbon were greater in casts when
52
the earthworms ingested the soils with light fraction organic
matter than in the standardized soils.
Gestel et aL(1992) observed the fecundity rate when
the earthworm Eiseriia andrei was cultured in an artificial soil
substrate. They observed that cocoon production appeared to be
negatively correlated with earthworm growth and positively
correlated with initial worm masses. McCredie et al.(1992)
reported the population dynamics of the earthworm in a western
Australian pasture soil.
The mineralisation of three different C-14-labelled
lignin substrates was investigated in four microcornpartments,
consisting of white-rotted beech wood, brown-rotted beach wood,
the earthworm Coctolasion lacteurn faecal particles mixed with
white-rotted beech wood, and with brown-rotted beech wood,
incubated at 10°C for 193 days. Lignin degradation was more
pronounced in earthworm faeces mixed with woodmaterials and
overall carbon mineralization ranged between 4.4% and 6.3% of
the initial carbon content (Scheu, 1992). Senesi et aL(1992)
isolated humic acid like components by conventional procedures
from various organic wastes, including animal manures, a
municipal solid refuse and a sewage sludge, that were composLed
for 2-3 months with the earthworms, Eiseniafoetida.
53
A novel experiment to bring about evergreen
revolution without using any chemical fertilizers produced
astonishing results in western Maharashtra. The experirncnt
involves breeding a large number of earthworms in specially
constructed containers and then using their vermicompost to
fertilize the soil. The technology is cost effective that just 2,000
earthworms could produce an equivalent of one tonne of fertilizers
per month (Anon, 1993).
Butt (1993) studied the reproduction and growth of
three deep borrowing earthworms (Lumbricidae) in laboratory
culture in order to assess production for soil restoration.
Biohumus produced by Eisenia foetida from farmyard manure,
wastes from meat, processing plants, sludges from sewage
purification plants and a mixture of wastes with saw dust were
studied for their Nitrogen and Carbon contents (Kalembasa et al.,
1993).
Moreira et al.(1993) did preliminary experiment of
vermicomposting of husks of sugarcane mixed with cow manure
using the earthworm Eisenia foetida. The efficiency of three
species of earthworms Phretima posthuma, Eisenia species and
Perionyx excataus in the degradation of vegetable waste was
assessed and laboratory tests showed that Perionyx excavatus was
54
able to withstand greater ranges of moisture and temperature than
other species and thus is most suited for vermicomposting.
Zharikov et ai.(1993) utilized the wastes of microbiology
enterprises such as sewage sludge, husks, biogrist and low quality
bacterial preparations for vermicompoSt. Tiwari (!993) studied the
effects of organic manure and NPK fertilization on earthworm
activity in an oxisol. Zhang and Schrader (1993) analysed the
physical and chemical properties of one to two millimeter
aggregates obtained from casts and the burrow wall material of
earthworm species Lumbricus terrestris, Apporrectodea longa and
Apporrectodea caliginosa. Shanthi et al.(1993) composted the
vegetable waste. A number of selected gram negative and total
bacteria in the intestinal tract was studied by Pedersen and
Hendriksen (1993). Butt (1993) utilized the solid paper-mill
sludge and spent brewery yeast as a feed for soil-dwelling
earthworms.
Aquino et al.(1994) conducted experiments to evaluate
the reproductivity of adult earthworms by using the substrate
sugar-cane bagasse. Douhe et al.(1994) published an article
entitled "On interactions between earthworms, beneficial soil
microorganisms and root pathogens". Hindell et al.(1994) brought
out the relationship between casts of geophagous earthworms and
55
matric potential. Kaushal et al.(1994) studied the effect of diet on
cast production by megascolecid earthworm, AmyntS alexand.
Elvira (1995) studied the use of vermicompOstmg to break down
wastes from paper pulp mills. The earthworm biomass response
to soil management in semi-arid tropical alfisoil agro ecosystem
was studied by Vikram Reddy et al.(1995). Utilization of sulphur
waste residue in agriculture through vrmicomp0Sting and its
effect on the population structure of earthworm, Eudr1US eugeniae
was studied by Gandadhar et al.(1995). Heijnefl and MarinisSen
(1995) reported on the survival of bacteria introduced into soil by
means of transfer by LumbriCuS rubellus. Ismail and Thampan
(1995) studied the role of earthworms in soil fertility management.
Ranganathan and Christopher (1996) suggested that the
vermicomPoSt not only helps to improve and protect fertility of
topsoil but also helps to boost productivity by 40% at 20 to 60%
lower nutrient inputs. vijayalakshmi (1996) utilized biogas plant
slurry as a growth medium for Eisenia foetida and produced
vermicompoSt. Fraser et al.(1996) identified earthworm species,
population size and biomass under different cropping systems
across Canterbury plains in NewZealand. KalembaSa (1996)
utilized organic waste for vermicOmPOst production and analysed
the nitrogen content. Kulkarni et al.(1996) studied the effect of
56
vermicomPOSt and vermiculture on the growth and yield of China
aster, CcillistephlJS chinerisis Nees. Ravignanam and
Gunathilagarai (1996) assessed the effect of earthworm on growth
and biochemical characters of mulberry.
Predation of fungi by Lampito mauriti reared on
different substrates was studied by Parthasarathi et al.(1997a).
Fungal flora of gut and cast in Eudrilus eugeniae with various
rearing media was also reported by Parthasarathi et al.(1997b).
Vijayalakshm i et al.(1997) reported on the use of vermiculture for
sustainable environment and pointed out that vermicomPoSt, a
repository of macro and micronutrientS, growth hormones and
vermiwash, easy to transport nutrient rich liquid manure and
vermimeal, a protein rich food for livestock and fish will not only
pave way for sustainable ecosystem but has tremendous potential
in terms of savings on imported feed and fertilizer. Muthumani et
al.(1997) did a biological waste treatment with integrated rural
farming using Drawida matthai. Edwards and Sobha (1997)
utilized the mixture of coconut husk, highly protenaceOuS algae,
waste lettuce and vegetable waste with dry cowdung for
vermicompoSt production.
Lakshmibai and Vijayalakshm i (1997) utilized press
mud - a sugar factory waste for vermiculture and compost
57
making. Senthil Kumari and Vijayalaksh mi (1997) recycled the
sugar industry and paper industry effluents using vermicultUre.
Rajesh Banu (1997) conducted preliminary field experiments in
the summr crop of paddy variety IR-20 by using vermicompOSt and
chemical fertilizer. Ramalingarn and Ranganathan (1997) recycled
the organic wastes through vermic Omposting and analysed the
vermicomposting using Eucirilus eugerliae. Role of earthworm
Iximpito inauritii on the organic wastes and the dynamics of plant
nutrients in the soil was studied by Subathra and Jacob (1997).
Logakanthi (1997) recycled the market green waste with elephant
dung. Deepa (1998) utilized dried leaves, coconut husk, dried
cowdung, newspaper, computer printouts or combination of these
was used as bedding material for vermicomPoSt. Syed Anwarulla
(1998) explained the unbelievable power of turning the garbage
into gold by culturing of earthworms. Lampito mauritii, Eudrilus
eugeniae, Perionyx excavatuS and Eisenia fotida were utilized for
mono and polyculture composting of pressmud (Parthasarathi et
al.,., 1999). Comparative study on the biodegradative impact of
oyster mushroom TrichoderrflQ species and neem cake Aavaram
and Kozhingi leaves along with earthworms Lampito rnauritii and
Eiseriia foetida was studied by Vijayalakshmi (2000).
MahalakShrni and KrishnaVeni (2000) reported that the fruit
58
wastes such as citrus rinds and pomegranate peels were utilized
for the preparation of compost by using Eisenia fotida and the
compost was utilized for the growth of the medicinal plant
SolaTuim rLigrurn. Sugar factory filter press mud also converted
into value added product of vermicompoSt (VijayalakshlTfli, 2000).
Gardeners, farmers, foresters and soil scientists all love the
earthworm because of the good they do for flowers, crops, and
plants and animals of the forest. Earthworms are active animals
and feed by bringing organic debris into their burrows from the
surface and by eating their way through the soil. The leaf litter
(dead leaves and animals) they digest contains nutrients made by
plants during photosynthesis and includes calcium, nitrogen,
potassium and phosphorus, and organic minerals and nutrients
from dead animals (Leslie, 2000). Ingham's (2001) reported that
earthworm is probably much like a small version of a cow. Worms
ingest sand, silt, clay, dead plant material, bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, nematodes, the odd insect larva, microarthropod, and so
forth. Indisde the gut of the worm, conditions are perfect (good
moisture, and well-aerated) for the bacteria and fungi to speed up
their growth processes and decompose more of the organic matter.
The worm mixes all these things in their gut, increasing bacterial
growth considerably. The worm takes it's tax" by enzymatically
59
digesting some of the organisms that grew while they were in the
worms gut, and poops out the rest of the material, with greatly
altered sets of organic matter, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and
nematodes. Reddy and Reddy (2001) reported that integrated use
of organic manures such as vermicompOSts, poultry manure,
biogas slurry and farmyard manure with inorganic fertilizer
Nitrogen, were evaluated for soil health and yield in maize
soyabean cropping system through field experiments for two years
in Alfisols of Hyderabad, India.
ZI
Map 3.1 .1: Agro-Industrial wastes collected Area in Tamil Nadu.