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2. Experimental Method Section B questions G544
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Core Studies Loftus & Palmer Maguire
Baron-Cohen Piliavin
Savage-Rumbaugh Reicher & Haslam
Samuel & Bryant Rosenhan
Bandura Thigpen & Cleckley
Freud Griffiths
Dement & Kleitman Milgram
Sperry
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Section B
1. Briefly outline the experimental method used in Psychology (4 marks)
2. Describe 2 laboratory experiments in Psychology (8 marks) 3. Discuss strengths and limitations of using the experimental
method to investigate behaviour. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer (12 marks)
4. Compare laboratory experiments with field experiments. Use examples of psychological research to support your answer
5. Discuss the extent to which psychology can be a science (8 marks)
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Brainstorm • Write down everything you can remember about the
experimental method
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Key features of the experimental method • Theory: The aim of an experimental is to test a hypothesis
(prediction) with the aim of disproving or supporting it. • Test: In order to test the prediction, it has to be established
that one variable (thing) has a measurable effect on another variable (thing).
• Control: The study must be conducted under controlled conditions so that the researcher can identify that the effect that has been found is due only to an identified variable and not to other factors that were not tested.
• Replication: In order for support for a theory to be retested it is vital that any experiment can be replicated (imitated with the same results) by others. This means that the method must be identified precisely and be standardised so that it can be imitated.
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Key steps in an experiment 1. The experimenter comes up with a hypothesis 2. The experimenter designs an experiment to test that
hypothesis3. The experimenter manipulates one factor (the IV) that s/he
has identified in his hypothesis as being likely to cause a particular effect.
4. The experimenter measures the effect of this manipulation (DV).
5. Other variables are controlled. 6. The experimenter analyses the difference in the mean results
obtained in each condition. 7. If a significant difference is found between means, this
supports the alternative hypothesis. If no significant difference is found, the null hypothesis is retained.
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Strengths Limitations -Test hypothesis by manipulation of IV
-Scientific: follows standardised procedures > enables replication
-Control over extraneous variables
-Produces quantitative data which can be statistical analyses to ensure meaningful comparison.
-Low ecological validity – removed from real life
-Small sample reduces generalisability
-Causes stress/anxiety to participants (ethical issues)
-Doesn't collect qualitative data therefore reductionist.
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Laboratory Experiment
Nature & Use IV manipulated to observe the effect on DV, under controlled conditions.
Advantages Establishes causal relationships Allows for replication Good control over confounding
variablesDisadvantages Artificiality: Mundane realism and
experimental realism The effects of being observed:
Demand characteristics, (participants) evaluation apprehension (researcher)
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Field Experiment
Nature & Use Investigate causal relationships in more natural surrounding
Advantages • Establishes cause and effect relationships• Allows for replication• Behaviour of participants more typical
than in a laboratory experiment, high external (ecological) validity• Avoids some participant effects
Disadvantages • Low in internal validity, poor control• More time consuming
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Quasi (Naturalistic) Experiment
Nature & Use IV not directly manipulated Naturally occurring
Advantages Participants behave naturally Investigates the effects of independent
variables that it would be unethical to manipulate
Disadvantages Participants not allocated at random to conditions
Difficult to identify what aspects of the independent variable have caused the effects on behaviour
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Activity 3 Strengths & Weaknesses of Experimental Method EXPERIMENTS
Strength Weaknesses
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3. Experimental Design
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Experimental: Independent Groups Definition Two (or more) groups of participants,
one for each condition.
Advantages •Avoids order effects •Participants cannot guess the purpose and of the experiment therefore reduces demand characteristics.
Disadvantages •Needs more participants •Lacks control of participants variables
EG:
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Experimental: Matched Participants
Definition Participants matched on key participant variables
Advantages •No order effects•Participants variables partly controlled•EV well controlled
Disadvantages •Matching is difficult
EG:
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Experimental: Repeated Measures
Definition Same participants in each condition
Advantages •Good control for participant variables•Fewer participants •Removes pts variables
Disadvantages •Order effects (e.g. Boredom, practice) •Participants guess the purpose (DC)
EG:
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Activity 5 Strengths & Weaknesses of Experimental Design
Strength Weaknesses
IM
RM
MP
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4. Aims & Hypothesis
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Research
Definition The process of gaining knowledge through the examination of data derived empirically or theoretically.
Reasons for using To produce objective facts
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Aims
Definition The stated intention of a study
Reasons for using
To be clear about the purpose of a study
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there will be an effect of x on y
Experimental (alterative) Hypothesis
Definition A statement of the relationship between the IV and DV
Reasons for using
An alternative to the null hypothesis (accept/reject)
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Null Hypothesis
Definition An assumption that there is no relationship (difference, association, etc) in the population from which a sample is taken with respect to the variables being studied.
there will be no effect of x on y
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Directional Hypothesis
1 TAILED Definition Predicts the effect/relationship
Reasons for using
Previous research suggests the direction
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Non-directional hypothesis
2 TAILED Definition Does not predict the direction
of the effect/relationship
Reasons for using
-Allows for a difference/relationships occurring in either direction-Previous research has been inconclusive
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Activity 6Generating Hypothesis Generate a hypothesis for each of the questions:• What are “football hooligans” really like?• Do children play differently at different ages?• What are the effects of caffeine on attention and concentration?
1. Identify the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) from each hypothesis.
2. Identify whether your hypotheses are one tailed or two tailed (remember one-tailed hypothesis predicts the direction of the effect of the IV on the DV, whereas a two-tailed hypothesis does not).
3. Write a null hypothesis for each of the experimental hypotheses.
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Activity 7Null Hypothesis
Devise a suitable null and experimental hypothesis for the following:
1. An investigator considers the effect of noise on students’ ability to concentrate and complete a word-grid. One group only is subjected to the noise in the form of a distractor, i.e. a television programme.
2. An investigator explores the view that there might be a link between the amount of television children watch and their behaviour at school.
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Activity 8Hypothesis
Read through these examples of alternative hypotheses, and identify whether each is one- or two- tailed:
1. There will be a difference in scores on an intelligence test
between people who eat fish and those who do not eat fish. 2. There will be a relationship between extroversion and
introversion and a preference for loud music3. People will remember more words in a foreign language if
the information is presented in picture form, rather than as words alone.
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5. Variables
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Variables
Independent Variable
•Manipulated by the experimenter•Create different conditions
Dependent Variable
•Measures the consequence of IV manipulation
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Activity 9IV & DVIdentify IV, DV in the following them in the following examples. Remember:• The IV depends on the DV• The IV is manipulated by the experimenter or varies naturally• The DV is one we measure 1. Long-term separation effects emotional development more
than short-term separation2. Participants conform more when the model is someone
they respect. 3. Participants remember more words before lunch than after
lunch. 4. Boys are better than girls at throwing balls. 5. Physical attractiveness makes a person more likeable.
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Extraneous Variables• Situational variables are characteristics of the environment in
which the experiment is being conducted which may have an effect on the results. The nature of these variables is very much dependent on the nature of the experiment but temperature, time and humidity could all be situational variables.
• Person or Subject variables are inherent characteristics of the Experimental Unit that might affect outcomes. Hence examples of subject variables might include age, gender and other demographic details (among subjects) and x, y and z (among objects) although this is very much dependent on the object in the experiment.
• Experimental variables are characteristics of the experimenter or the experimental team which might influence how the experiment is conducted, or how the experimental subject responds/behaves in the experimental setting. There is a wide definition for these variables and they may include age, gender, qualifications, etc.
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Extraneous Variables• Situational variables : Women shown the most romantic
proposals are in a warmer room. • Personal Variables: What if the women shown the most
romantic video clips are also more romantic in nature than the other women?
• Experiment/Researcher Variables: What if the experimenter was really nice to one group and he was very gruff with the other groups?
NB extraneous variables are only important if they are present for one group and not the other. If all of your subjects are
exposed to the same extraneous variable (like if Josh was nice to all the subjects), then it won't change your dependent variable and it's not considered an extraneous variable.
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EXTRANEOUS VariablesVariables other than the independent variable that may bear any effect on the behaviour of the subject being studied. Three main types
1. Subject variables: age, gender, health status, mood, background, etc.
2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the persons conducting the experiment which might influence how a person behaves. Gender, the presence of racial discrimination, language, or other factors may qualify as such variables.
3. Situational variables: Air temperature, level of activity, lighting, and the time of day.
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Confounding Variables• A confounding variable or factor is also sometimes referred to
as a confounder or a lurking variable.• It is a "hidden" that affects the variables in question but is not
known or acknowledged, and thus (potentially) distorts the resulting data.
• This hidden third variable causes the two measured variables to falsely appear to be in a causal relation.
• An experiment that fails to take a confounding variable into account is said to have poor internal validity.
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Controlling EV
It is necessary to control extraneous variables so that results are not undermined by their effect (become confounding):
1. Control: Ensuring that an extraneous variable remains the same for all experimental units in the experiment. This requires that you are aware of the extraneous variable during the design stage and that you can control it.
2. Constant: Balance the variable across experimental groups This enables comparisons to be made between experimental units on the basis of the effect of the variable.
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Activity 10Extraneous Variables Identify the IV and DV • Operationalise variables • Identify EV
1. A psychologist wants to investigate whether students who complete their 4 hours of independent study per week do better in the psychology exam than those students who only complete 1 hour per week...
2. An experiment to see if recall on a memory test is affected by time of day
3. Does drinking coffee whilst revising improve exam results?4. An experiment to investigate the effects of fatigue on
reaction time
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Activity 11Independent Variables in Core StudiesLoftus & Palmer
Samuel & Bryant
Bandura
Piliavin
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Activity 12Dependent Variables in Core StudiesLoftus & Palmer
Samuel & Bryant
Bandura
Piliavin
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6. Operationalisation
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‘Eating spinach affects performance’
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Operationalisation
•Variables in a form that can be tested (operations)
•How hypothesis will be tested
Both IV and DV need to be precisely operationalised, otherwise, the results may not be valid and cannot be
replicated.
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Activity 13Operationalisation
Here are some research ideas. For each one, identify the IV & DV and suggest ways in which each could be operationalised:
1. Do people remember more about a topic they are interested in that about one in which they have little interest?
2. Are there gender differences in the amount of aggression shown by children in play?
3. Are neurotic people more likely to suffer from phobias?
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7. Sampling Method
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Sample Definition Selected to be representative of the
population
Evaluation May be biased ,therefore can’t generalise
PopulationDefinition The group of people whom the sample
is drawn
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Random sampling
Definition Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Advantage
Disadvantage
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Participants for Psychological
Research
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Volunteer Sample Self Selected
Definition Participants become part of a study by volunteering
Advantage
Disadvantage
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Are you available?
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Opportunity Sample
Definition Selecting people who are more easily available
Advantage
Disadvantage
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Activity 14Target Population
Identify an appropriate target population for each project below. You would select your research sample from this population.
1. To discover whether there are enough youth facilities in your community.
2. To discover whether cats like dried or tinned cat food. 3. To discover whether children aged between 5 and 11
watch too much violent television. 4. To discover the causes of anxiety experienced by
participants in research studies.
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Activity 15Sampling
Find a study to illustrate volunteer sampling and another one to illustrate opportunity sampling. (Clue: Most of the studies you have covered used a volunteer sample, whereas some of the studies have used opportunity samples).
1. Why do you think volunteers are more likely than non-
volunteers to be sensitive to the demand characteristics of a study?
2. When would you not expect to find evidence of participant reactivity?
3. Is honesty the best policy? Would demand characteristics be reduced if both participants and experimenters knew the true aims of the experiment?
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Activity 16 Sampling in Core Studies
Stated Y/N
If stated, which one?
If not stated, which should?
Loftus & Palmer
Milgram
Maguire
Griffiths
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8. Factors associated with research design
a. Operationalisation b. Standardisation c. Control of variables d. Pilot studies
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‘Eating spinach affects performance’
Effects validity and replicability
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Pilot study Research is expensive (time +
money). To establish weather a design works, that pts understand the instructions, that nothing has been missed out, and that pts are
able to do what is asked, a pilot study (trial run, small scale) should be
undertaken.
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Any variables that change between conditions, other than the IV...
Control of Extraneous Variables
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Experimental Control Using techniques to ensure that extraneous variables are eliminated
Extraneous/ confounding variables
Hold constant or eliminate
Random Allocation Participants to experimental groups; allocate items on a test
Counterbalancing Order effects balanced to make sure each condition comes first or second in equal amounts (ABBA)
Standardised procedures
A set of procedures that are the same for all participants. To enable replication.
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Control of Investigator Variables (effect) Anything that investigator does which has an effect on the participant’s
performance other than what was intended
Double blind The investigator does not know the purpose of the experiment, to prevent expectations influence the participant’s behaviour
Standardised instructions
A set of instructions that are the same for all participants. To avoid investigator effects.
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Control of Participant Variables (effect) Anything that has an effect on the participant’s performance other than
what was intended
Single blind Deception to prevent the participants knowing the experimental aim
Placebo conditions
Control group thinks it is receiving the experimental treatment
Demand Characteristics
A demand characteristic is a subtle cue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave.
Standardised instructions
A set of instructions that are the same for all participants. To avoid investigator effects.
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Investigator effect: Anything the investigator does which has an effect on a participant’s performance in a study
other then what was intended.
Interviewer bias The same in an interview situation, through, for example, leading questions and the ‘Green-spoon’ effect
Experimenter bias
The effect of an experimenter’s expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a participant’s behaviour
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Control Group
In the design of experiments, treatments are applied to experimental units in the
treatment group. In comparative experiments,
members of the complementary group, the control group,
receive either no treatment or a standard treatment.
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Standardisation
Instructions Pts told what to do in
exactly the same way.
Procedures Pts treated in exactly
the same way.
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Activity 17Control of Variables in Core Studies
Well Controlled Confounding
Loftus & Palmer
Samuel & Bryant
Bandura
Piliavin
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9. Reliability of Measurement
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10. Validity
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Generalisability
The findings of any particular study should
apply to the whole population
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Types of Validity
Experimental
Internal
External
MeasureConcurrent
Content
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Validity: The legitimacy of a study Internal Validity
The extent to which the a measurement technique measures
what it is supposed to
Reasons for low internal validityDemand Characteristics: Features of an experiment the elicit a particular response form participants.Participant reactivity Extraneous variables not controlled (CV), act as an additional IV.Mundane realism: Do measures used generalise to real life > contribute to external validity
External Validity
Validity outside of the research situation,
extent to which findings can be
generalised
Assessing external validity How representative is the sample of participants of the population to which the results are to be generalised? Population VDo the research setting and situation generalise to a real-life setting or situation? Ecological VDo the findings generalise to the past and to the future? Historical V
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Experimental
Internal
Extraneous
Mundane Realism
External
Ecological Validity
Population Validity
Historical Validity
Extraneous Variables
Situational Variables Participant Variables Investigator Effects
Demand CharacteristicsParticipant Effects
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Participant Reactivity
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Participant reactivity: The fact that participants react to cues in an experimental situation
Hawthorne Effect Increased attention becomes a confounding variable
Demand Characteristics
Features of an experiment that a participant unconsciously, responds to when searching for clues about how to behave. A confounding variable.
Social Desirability bias
The desire to appear favourably
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Validity of Psychological Measure
Concurrent Validity
How well does the measure agree with existing measures?- Test using old and new tests
Content Validity
Does the method used actually seem to measure what you intended? - Use a panel of experts
Measure
Concurrent
Content
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Activity 18 Ecological Validity in Core Studies
High/Low Evidence
Loftus & Palmer
Samuel & Bryant
Dement & Kleitman
Milgram
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11. Ethical Issues
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11. Ethical Issues Deception Informed consent Psychological harm
Informed consent Difficulty debriefing Privacy
Confidentiality
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11. Dealing with Ethical Issues
Presumptive…
A
B
C
Prior…
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Dealing with informed consent
• Presumptive consent: Ask for others’ opinion and presume participants feel the same way.
• Prior general consent: Get participants to agree to take part in a number of studies, one of which they will be deceived in.
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11. Dealing with Ethical Issues
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Dealing with deception
• Debriefing: Inform participants of true nature of the study after it is conducted and allow them to discuss their feelings.
• Right to withhold information
• Cost and benefits: Deception is acceptable if the benefits are sufficient.
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11. Dealing with Ethical Issues
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Dealing with protection from psychological harm
• Anticipating harm and stopping
• Using role-play
• Use of questionnaires: Ask people how they would behave.
• Debriefing
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Activity 19 Ethical Issues in Core Studies
Informed Consent
Deception RTW Debrief
Loftus & Palmer
Samuel & Bryant
Dement & Kleitman
Milgram
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12. Dataa. Type of datab. Descriptive Statisticsc. Inferential Statistics
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Data Collection Quantitative
Data Easy to analysis
Produces neat conclusions
Oversimplifies reality
Qualitative Data
Represents the complexity of human behaviour
Provides rich data
More difficult to detect patterns and reach conclusions
Subjective, affected by personal expectations and beliefs
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Descriptive Statistics
1. Measures of central tendency2. Measures of dispersion 3. Graphical representation
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2,4,4,5,6,6,7,78,8,8,8,8
9,10,11,11,12
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Measures of Central Tendency Mean: Add
values, divide by number of
values
Makes use of all the data
Can be misrepresentative if there are extreme values.
Median: Middle value in an
ordered list
Not affected by extreme scores
Not as ‘sensitive’ as the mean
Mode: The most common value(s)
The mist common value(s)
Not useful when there are several modes
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Measures of Dispersion
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• Measures of dispersion
• the range
• standard deviation
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Measures of DispersionRange Highest to
lowest Easy to calculate
Affected by extreme values
Standard Deviation
SD measures the amount of variation or dispersion from the average.
Precise, all values taken into account
Harder to calculate
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Graphs & Charts
Histogram Graph showing continuous frequency data with a true zero e.g Exam results 0-30marks
Bar Charts Graph showing frequency data; data need not be continuous e.g. Categories
Scattergraph For correlations. Scatter of dots; each dot represent one case
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13. Improvements & Future Research
Improvements
Indentify a limitation andsuggest how you makeimprovements to theinvestigation:
Example: • Sample • Method • Validity • Reliability • Ethics
Future Research
1. If you were to progress research in this area what would you do next?
• Think about changes that you could make to your stimulus
• Could you use a different method?
2. What implications does your research have on society? What group would benefit from knowing this information (application)
3. Does this study have real life validity?
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14. Writing a procedure for Experiments
1. Decide aim, research question and alternative/null hypothesis
2. Plan procedure, including obtaining ethics approval, choosing experimental design, operationalising the hypothesis, preparation of materials and deciding sampling method.
3. Obtain sample and make arrangements for conduct of study 4. Obtain informed consent from participants 5. Allocate participants to experimental conditions and give
instructions. 6. Participants follow experimental steps (data collected) 7. Thank and debrief participants 8. Analysis data, produce conclusions9. Write report of practical investigation