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Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot,
and acting
A scientists tribute to Maria Callas
Felicia Rodica Baltes, Julia Avram, Mircea Miclea, Andrei C. Miu
Emotion and Cognition Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, CJ 400015, Romania
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Accepted 31 January 2011
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Operatic music
Music-induced emotions
Physiological differentiation of emotions
a b s t r a c t
Operatic music involves both singing and acting (as well as rich audiovisual background arising from the
orchestra and elaborate scenery and costumes) that multiply the mechanisms by which emotions are
induced in listeners. The present study investigated the effects of music, plot, and acting performance
on emotions induced by opera. There were three experimental conditions: (1) participants listened to
a musically complex and dramatically coherent excerpt from Tosca; (2) they read a summary of the plot
and listened to the same musical excerpt again; and (3) they re-listened to music while they watched the
subtitled film of this acting performance. In addition, a control condition was included, in which an inde-
pendent sample of participants succesively listened three times to the same musical excerpt. We mea-
sured subjective changes using both dimensional, and specific music-induced emotion questionnaires.
Cardiovascular, electrodermal, and respiratory responses were also recorded, and the participants kept
track of their musical chills. Music listening alone elicited positive emotion and autonomic arousal, seen
in faster heart rate, but slower respiration rate and reduced skin conductance. Knowing the (sad) plot
while listening to the music a second time reduced positive emotions (peacefulness, joyful activation),
and increased negative ones (sadness), while high autonomic arousal was maintained. Watching the act-
ing performance increased emotional arousal and changed its valence again (from less positive/sad totranscendent), in the context of continued high autonomic arousal. The repeated exposure to music
did not by itself induce this pattern of modifications. These results indicate that the multiple musical
and dramatic means involved in operatic performance specifically contribute to the genesis of music-
induced emotions and their physiological correlates.
2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Maria Callas exploded the concept of what beautiful singing
means: Is it pretty sounds and pure tones? Or should beauty
evolve from text, musical shape, dramatic intent and, especially,
emotional truth?
(Anthony Tommassini in A Voice and a Legend That Still Fasci-nate; Callas Is What Opera Should Be, The New York Times, Sep-
tember 15, 1997)
1. Introduction
We are often emotionally moved by musical performances.
However, emotions induced by music have only recently drawn
the attention of scholars in cognitive and affective sciences (Juslin
& Vastfjall, 2008; Scherer & Zentner, 2001). Field studies haveconfirmed that music pervades everyday life and some of its most
important functions are related to mood change and emotion reg-
ulation (DeNora, 1999; Juslin, Liljestrom, Vastfjall, Barradas, &
Silva, 2008; Sloboda & ONeil, 2001). In daily life, music generally
increases positive affect, alertness, and focus in the present
(Sloboda, ONeil, & Ivaldi, 2001). In addition, it provides opportuni-
ties for venting strong emotions, increasing their intensity, or
calming down (DeNora, 1999). Therefore, music has been related
to the genesis and control of emotions.
Despite previous debates on whether music induces emotions in
listeners (i.e., the so-called emotivist position), or only expresses
emotions that listeners can recognize (i.e., the cognitivist
0278-2626/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012
Abbreviations: DBP, diastolic blood pressure; ECG, electrocardiogram; GEMS,
Geneva Emotional Music Scale; HF-HRV, power in the high frequency band of HRV;
HR, heart rate; HRV, heart rate variability; IBI, cardiac interbeat intervals; LF-HRV,
power in the low frequency band of HRV; NA, negative affect; PA, positive affect;
PANAS, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule; RR, respiratory rate; RSA, respiratory
sinus arrhythmia; SAM, Self-Assessment Manikin; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SCL,
skin conductance level; SEM, standard error of the mean; VLF-HRV, power in the
very low frequency band of HRV. Corresponding author. Address: 37 Republicii, Cluj-Napoca, CJ 400015,
Romania. Fax: +40 264 590967.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.C. Miu).
Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Brain and Cognition
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / b & c
Please cite this article in press as: Baltes, F. R., et al. Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting. Brain and
Cognition (2011), doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012mailto:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02782626http://www.elsevier.com/locate/b&chttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://www.elsevier.com/locate/b&chttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02782626http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012mailto:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012 -
7/30/2019 2. Emotions Induced by Operatic Music
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position) (Kivy, 1990; Scherer & Zentner, 2001), the recent litera-
ture has generally supported the former view that music induces
subjective (e.g., self-reported sadness), behavioral (e.g., crying),
and physiological changes (e.g., heart rate [HR see list of acro-
nyms] deceleration) that are characteristic of emotions (Bharucha,
Curtis, & Paroo, 2006; Juslin & Vastfjall, 2008; Koelsch, 2005;
Scherer & Zentner, 2001). In addition, the mechanisms by which
music induces emotions (e.g., semantic associations, emotionalcontagion based on observation of facial and vocal expressions;
see Bezdek & Gerrig, 2008; Hietanen, Surakka, & Linnankoski,
1998; Lundqvist & Dimberg, 1995) may not be specific to music,
but this possibility has only recently started to be investigated
(for reviews, see Juslin & Vastfjall, 2008; Scherer & Zentner,
2001). The present report stems from the emotivist approach,
and will examine the effects of opera on listeners physiological re-
sponses and subjective ratings of their own emotions.
One way to investigate these issues has been to identify physi-
ological responses during music listening (e.g., Krumhansl, 1997;
Nyklcek, Thayer, & Van Doornen, 1997). This approach has ex-
tended the studies on the physiological differentiation of emotions
induced by facial expressions (e.g., Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen,
1983), images (e.g., Codispoti, Bradley, & Lang, 2001), and even nat-
ural sounds (e.g., Bradley & Lang, 2000). Previous studies indicated
that only certain emotions (e.g., fear, disgust) can be distinguished
based on their autonomic signatures (for review see Levenson,
1992), but the effect sizes were small or medium at best (Cacioppo,
Berntsen, Klein, & Poehlmann, 1997). These findings are not sur-
prising considering the limited emotional saliency of images and
words presented in laboratory settings. Recent psychophysiologi-
cal studies have used more complex stimuli such as films, and con-
sequently induced more robust experiences of emotion and
physiological responses (e.g., Frazier, Strauss, & Steinhauer, 2004;
Kreibig, Wilhelm, Roth, & Gross, 2007).
1.1. Psychophysiology of music-induced emotions
Like films, music has been shown to produce physiological
changes that can distinguish between emotions. In two landmark
studies, Krumhansl (1997), and Nyklcek et al. (1997) measured a
large array of cardiovascular, respiratory, and electrodermal re-
sponses in association with self-report measures of emotions in-
duced by music. Emotions were differentiated based on certain
physiological responses such as respiratory sinus arrhythmia
(RSA) and cardiac interbeat intervals (IBI) (Nyklcek et al., 1997).
For instance, sadness ratings correlated positively with IBI, systolic
(SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and negatively with skin
conductance level (SCL) (Khalfa, Peretz, Blondin, & Manon, 2002;
Krumhansl, 1997). Emotional arousal was best explained by phys-
iological changes, which accounted for 62.5% of the variance
(Nyklcek et al., 1997). There is only one psychophysiological field
study that measured emotional ratings, electrodermal and respira-tory responses in a sample of spectators (i.e., 27 listeners) during
several live performances of Wagners operas given in the festival
theater of Bayreuth in 19871988 (Vaitl, Vehrs, & Sternagel,
1993)1. In contrast to laboratory studies, these limited field results
suggested that physiological responses differed between opera leit-
motivs, but there was a weak correspondence between physiological
and subjective measures of emotions.
Psychophysiological studies have thus focused on the coherence
between subjective, behavioral, and physiological components of
music-induced emotions. Lundqvist, Carlsson, and Juslin (2009) re-
ported an association between music-induced happiness and
greater SCL, and supported the emotivist position. In contrast, an-
other study found that increased emotional arousal occurred with-
out changes in SCL (Grewe, Nagel, Kopiez, & Altenmuller, 2007a).
The latter pattern of results was interpreted as evidence for the
cognitivist position, although the participants were clearly in-
structed to rate the emotional arousal they felt, and not that ex-
pressed by the music. These apparently divergent results might
be explained by methodological differences, considering that onestudy used a self-report instrument that measured changes in sev-
eral basic emotions (Lundqvist et al., 2009), and the other mea-
sured changes in arousal and valence across emotions (Grewe
et al., 2007a). In addition, there are emotions specifically induced
by music that are not captured by basic emotion measures such
as the one used by Lundqvist et al. (2009).
1.2. Specific music-induced emotions
It has been argued that aesthetic emotions are deeper and more
significant (Sloboda, 1992), nuanced and subtle (Scherer & Zentner,
2001) than other more general emotions. Indeed, the range of mu-
sic-induced emotions goes beyond the emotions captured by the
basic emotion models. A recent field study showed that a nine-fac-
tor model best fitted the emotion descriptors that were chosen by
music listeners who attended a classical music festival (Zentner,
Grandjean, & Scherer, 2008). It included emotion categories (e.g.,
wonder, transcendence) that are not part of any current model of
emotion. The Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS) is the first
questionnaire designed to measure music-induced emotions
(Zentner et al., 2008). To our knowledge, no study has investigated
the correlation between physiological responses and music-in-
duced emotions measured by GEMS.
1.3. Music-induced chills
Music-induced emotions are often accompanied by physical
sensations such as chills (i.e., tremor or tingling sensations passing
through the body as the result of sudden keen emotion or excite-ment). Two landmark studies indicated that the great majority of
people were susceptible to chills (Sloboda, 1991), and these bodily
phenomena were associated with music-induced emotions, espe-
cially sadness and melancholy (Panksepp, 1995). Musical events
such as crescendos or a solo instrument (e.g., a sopranos voice)
emerging from a softer orchestral background induced chills
(Grewe, Nagel, Kopiez, & Altenmuller, 2007b; Panksepp, 1995).
Psychophysiological studies have shown that music-induced chills
correlated with increases in SCL and HR (Grewe et al., 2007b;
Rickard, 2004). The present study aims to integrate the measure-
ment of chills, music-induced emotions reflected by GEMS, and a
wider range of physiological changes.
1.4. The duration of musical stimuli
One important aspect that differentiates studies of music-in-
duced emotions is the duration of stimuli. For instance, many stud-
ies used short (i.e., several seconds), monotonic musical stimuli. It
has been suggested that even less than one second of music is suf-
ficient to prime an emotional meaning (e.g., Bigand, Vieillard,
Madurell, Marozeau, & Dacquet, 2005; Peretz, Blood, Penhune, &
Zatorre, 2001; Watt & Ash, 1998). However, this approach has at
least two limitations. First, it usually involves forced-choice re-
sponses that increase the difficulty of emotional valence process-
ing (Bigand et al., 2005; Peretz et al., 2001). Second, the correct
categorization of the emotional content of music may only reflect
the emotions that listeners perceive in music. One second may
not be enough time to develop an emotional response. At any rate,longer durations of musical stimuli increase the magnitude of1 A recent laboratory study on psychophysiological changes induced by opera came
to our attention while this article was under review. See Bernardi et al. (2009).
2 F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx
Please cite this article in press as: Baltes, F. R., et al. Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting. Brain and
Cognition (2011), doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012 -
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psychophysiological responses in music-induced emotions (Witvli-
et & Vrana, 2007). Psychophysiological studies generally used long-
er stimuli (i.e., ranging from 6 to 600 s), and it has been argued that
the use of full music pieces has greater external validity when
investigating emotional responses to music (Grewe et al., 2007a;
Nater, Abbruzzese, Krebs, & Ehlert, 2006; Rickard, 2004).
1.5. Multiple sources of emotion in operatic music
The duration of musical stimuli, as well as the integration of
music with congruent visual and verbal cues are important con-
tributors to emotional responses that people develop to musical
performance (Bezdek & Gerrig, 2008; Scherer & Zentner, 2001).
Operatic music performance involves both singing and acting,
which multiplies the mechanisms by which emotions are induced
in listeners. Opera adds the power of the dramatic plot and the per-
sonality of the performer to the affective message of the musical
score and the emotional expressivity of voice (Scherer, 1995).
The rich audiovisual background arising from the orchestra and
elaborate scenery and costumes are also important. The objective
of the present study was to investigate for the first time the cumu-
lative contributions of music listening, learning the context of theevents it portrays (i.e., plot), and watching the acting performance
to emotions induced by opera.
These sources may support the genesis of emotion either inde-
pendently or in concert. Research on film music supports the latter
possibility. For instance, music presented during the opening scene
of a film influenced the emotional valence of words that partici-
pants used in their continuations of the narratives (Vitouch,
2001). In addition, judgments of characters displaying neutral
emotions were significantly affected by the emotional content of
the music that accompanied the film (Tan, Spackman, & Bezdek,
2007). Lyrics are also important in emotional responses to music.
For instance, the emotional effects of music and lyrics were inves-
tigated by combining musical excerpts with lyrics that conveyed
the same emotion or another emotion (Ali & Peynircioglu, 2006;Stratton & Zalanowski, 1994). These studies indicated that lyrics
enhanced emotion in sad and angry music. Furthermore, these
emotions readily transferred to images that were arbitrarily asso-
ciated with songs (Ali & Peynircioglu, 2006). In addition, visual
cues such as facial expressions are preattentively integrated with
vocal cues and influence the emotional judgment of the latter (de
Gelder, Bocker, Tuomainen, Hensen, & Vroomen, 1999). Therefore,
it seems likely that facial expressions of singers influence the emo-
tional processing of music. Overall, music, lyrics, and visual cues
seem to significantly contribute to the genesis of music-induced
emotions, and their concerted contribution may explain why oper-
atic music is so effective in inducing emotions. However, this com-
plex issue has not been investigated to date.
1.6. Objectives of the present study
We investigated subjective and physiological emotional re-
sponses to operatic music. In order to maximize external validity,
we chose a dramatically coherent and musically complex excerpt
from Tosca by Giacomo Puccini. The soprano Maria Callas and the
baritone Tito Gobbi gave a legendary interpretation of the main
characters in Tosca, and their 1964 live performance at Covent Gar-
den was fortunately recorded on film. In this performance, both ar-
tists impress by their emotional identification with the characters,
and the way they deliver the mixture of lust and hate, fear, emo-
tional vulnerability and indignation through their voice (Huck,
1984). Studying the psychophysiology of emotion during this per-
formance offers us an opportunity to catch a scientific glimpse ofthe emotional force that artists such as Maria Callas have inspired.
The present study had three experimental conditions that
investigated the contributions of music, plot, and acting perfor-
mance to emotional responses. First, participants listened to the
musical excerpt. Then, they read a summary of the plot and lis-
tened to the same musical excerpt again. In the third condition,
they re-listened to music while they watched the subtitled film
of this acting performance. In between conditions, we measured
music-induced emotions using both dimensional, and specific mu-sic-induced emotion questionnaires. During the experimental con-
ditions, cardiovascular, electrodermal and respiratory responses
were continuously recorded, and the participants kept track of
their musical chills.
Since there are very few psychophysiological studies of emo-
tions in operatic music (and operatic music is so diverse), the pres-
ent study was consequently exploratory. Based on the musical and
dramatic content of this musical excerpt, we expected that it
would induce a pattern of emotions characterized by increased
unpleasant emotions (e.g., sadness) and decreased pleasant emo-
tions (e.g., joyful activation, peacefulness). In addition, based on
the literature in related areas (e.g., sadness induced by films), we
expected a change in the sympathovagal balance, with vagal with-
drawal and sympathetic activation, as well as decreases of SCL and
respiratory rate (RR). We were specifically interested in the way
each successive layer of complexity influenced music-induced
emotions and their physiological correlates.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
N= 37 healthy, right-handed Romanian volunteers (25 women;
mean age = 21.4 years, ranging between 19 and 24 years), with
good hearing, were selected for this study (out of an initial pool
of 45 volunteers). The sample size was determined by using a pri-
ori statistical power analysis (power = 0.95; alpha = 0.05; effect
size f= 0.25) run in the G-Power 3.1 software (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang,& Buchner, 2007). The participants had no significant musical edu-
cation, but they reported that music was an important part of their
lives. None of the participants reported having listened to Tosca be-
fore, a preference for classic or operatic music, or understood Ital-
ian. These inclusion criteria were important in order to control for
the degree of familiarity with the selected musical piece, and
understanding of the lyrics. None of the participants reported car-
diovascular or neurological problems, or any kind of medical treat-
ment that would interfere with cardiovascular and autonomic
functions. Participants were asked to refrain from alcohol, caffeine
and smoking at least four hours before the experiment. All the par-
ticipants signed an informed consent to participate to the experi-
ment and the procedures complied with the recommendations of
the Declaration of Helsinki for human studies.
2.2. Materials
We used an excerpt from Giacomo Puccinis Tosca (Act II), filmed
at Covent Garden in 1964, starring Maria Callas as Floria Tosca, Tito
Gobbi as Scarpia, and Renato Cioni as Mario Cavaradossi (Zeffirelli,
2002). Weselected andjuxtaposedtwo excerpts(i.e., excerpt 1 from
110:0000 [Scarpia:Edor fra noi parliamda buoni amici]to220:3100 [Scar-
pia: Io? Voi!], and excerpt 2 from 230:3600 [Tosca: Quanto?]t o3 10:3500
[Tosca: Perch me ne rimuneri cosi?]) for the following reasons. First,
these excerpts contain the plot (see Supplementary materials)
involvingall the three main characters (i.e., Tosca, Scarpia, and Cav-
aradossi). Second, these excerpts are musically and dramatically
heterogenous, with a variety of rhythmical dynamics, ascendingand descending scales, large vocal range and emotional tension. In
F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx 3
Please cite this article in press as: Baltes, F. R., et al. Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting. Brain and
Cognition (2011), doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012
http://-/?-http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://-/?- -
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addition, our approach to inducing music-related emotions explic-
itlyreliedon using longer excerpts(e.g.,190:3000 in thepresentstudy)
frompopularoperatic compositions in order to crediblyreplicatethe
musical context that induces emotions in the real world (Grewe
et al., 2007a; Juslin & Vastfjall, 2008; Rickard, 2004). Music waspre-
sented using Technics RP-F600 high-quality noise canceling closed
headphones. Before the start of the experiment, a test tone was
played, giving participants the opportunity to adjust the loudnessto an individually comfortable level. After the participants read the
plot before the second experimental condition, the experimenters
checked how well the plot was understood by asking the partici-
pants the following questions: (1) who are the main characters; (2)
what happens in this opera; and (3) what happens in this excerpt
of the opera? The great majority of the participants answered cor-
rectly to these questions, but those who omitted or were not sure
of certain details were allowed toreadthe summary of theplotagain
and assisted with supplementary explanations by the experiment-
ers. This experimental condition started only after each participant
correctly answered all the questions regarding the plot. The video
was displayed on a Samsung SyncMaster 205BW monitor
(50.8 cm),located1.5 min front of theparticipantschair.The exper-
imental room was small anddimly lit, andwas maintained at a com-
fortable ambient temperature.
2.3. Procedure
There were three conditions of musical experience: (1) music
listening; (2) music re-listening after learning the plot; and (3) mu-
sic re-listening while watching the acting performance. Previous
studies revealed that the psychophysiological responses induced
by music are not significantly affected by repeated exposure
(Grewe et al., 2007a, 2007b). However, we also included a control
condition in which an independent sample of N= 9 participants
(five women) successively listened three times to the same musical
excerpt, in order to check whether the repeated exposure to music
influenced the subjective and physiological measures. The same
questionnaires and physiological recordings were used in the mainexperiment and the supplementary control condition, except SBP
and DBP that were not measured in the latter condition. The partic-
ipants in this control experiment met all the inclusion criteria that
applied to the main experiment.
At the arrival to the laboratory, each participant completed the
general scales of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-
I) (Watson & Clark, 1994), in order to control for differences in
affective mood before the start of the experiment. After a habitua-
tion period during which participants were explained that several
non-invasive recordings will be taken during music listening, the
physiological electrodes for SCL and electrocardiogram (ECG), as
well as the respiration transducer and an arm cuff coupled to an
automatic blood pressure monitor were attached. Participants
were instructed to sit comfortably and relax, and carefully listento the music while monitoring the music-related emotions they
felt without trying to control them in any way. They were in-
structed to identify emotions they felt during music listening,
and not emotions that the music expressed. They were also re-
quested to keep a count on a scratch sheet of the number of chills
they experienced during each condition.
Each condition was preceded by a 5 min interval during which
baseline physiological recordings were made. Participants com-
pleted each condition and unless they wanted a break, they moved
onto the following condition. First, they listened to the musical ex-
cerpt. In the second condition, they were given a summary of the
plot (see Supplementary materials). Using a brief questionnaire,
the experimenters first made sure that participants understood
the plot and knew the characters, and then music was playedagain. In the third condition, the participants listened to music
while also watching the acting performance. In order to facilitate
the complete understanding of the plot and acting performance,
the movie was subtitled in Romanian.
After each condition, participants were required to rate the
emotional arousal (1 non-arousing to 5 arousing) and valence
(1 unpleasant to 5 pleasant) induced by music; and completed
GEMS (Zentner et al., 2008) for music-induced emotions.
2.4. Self-report measures
The positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) scales of PANAS-I
(Watson & Clark, 1994) include 20 items each, which measure
the affective mood in the past few weeks until present. Emotional
arousal and valence were measured using the Self-Assessment
Manikin (SAM) (Bradley & Lang, 1994). SAM is a non-verbal picto-
rial assessment technique that directly measures the pleasure and
arousal (as well as dominance, which was not used in the present
study) associated with a persons affective reaction to a wide vari-
ety of stimuli. For the measurement of emotions induced by music
(e.g., wonder, transcendence, tenderness, peacefulness), we used
the long (i.e., 45 items) variant of GEMS ( Zentner et al., 2008).
GEMS scores are grouped on nine factors: wonder; transcendence;
tenderness; nostalgia; peacefulness; power; joyful activation; ten-
sion; and sadness. Whereas the dimensional rating allowed us to
document general changes of emotional arousal and valence, GEMS
offered us the possibility of actually identifying the specific emo-
tions that were induced by each experimental condition. Self-re-
ports of chills were also collected.
2.5. Physiological measures
ECG, SCL, and respiration were continuously recorded during
the baseline and experimental conditions, using a BIOPAC MP150
system and specific electrodes and transducers. Blood pressure
was intermittently measured at fixed intervals during the experi-
mental condition.
2.5.1. Cardiovascular measures
ECG was recorded using disposable pregelled Ag/AgCl electrodes
placed in a modified lead II configuration, at a sample rate of 500
samples/s, and amplified using an ECG100C module. After visual
inspection of the recordings and editing to exclude artifacts in
AcqKnowledge3.9.0.17, all therecordings wereanalyzed using Nev-
rokard 7.0.1 (Intellectual Services, Ljubljana, Slovenia). We calcu-
lated HR, and HR variability (HRV) indices in the time and
frequency domains: mean IBI between successive R waves (HR and
IBI are negatively correlated); power in the high frequency
(HF-HRV) band ($0.150.4 Hz in adults) of HRV, also known as
RSA; power in the low (LF-HRV) ($0.050.15 Hz), and very low
frequency (VLF-HRV) ($00.05 Hz) bands of HRV, as well as LF/HF
ratios. The latter three measures, obtained by spectral analysis, arereported in normalized units (see Task Force Report, 1996). RSA
reflects vagal modulation of the heart, whereas LF-HRV reflects a
complex interplay between sympathetic and vagal influences (see
Eckberg, 1997; Kingwell et al., 1994; Miu, Heilman, & Miclea,
2009; Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Electro-
physiology, 1996). These measures were derived fromeach baseline
and experimental conditions. The statistical analyses of RSA in-
cluded respiration frequency as covariate in order to control for
the influence of respiration on this measure. Therefore, the results
reported here controlled for the influence of respiration on RSA.
2.5.2. Skin conductance
After cleaning and abrading the skin of the palms, TSD203
electrodermal response electrodes filled with isotonic gel were at-tached to the volar surfaces of the index and medius fingers. SCL
4 F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx
Please cite this article in press as: Baltes, F. R., et al. Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting. Brain and
Cognition (2011), doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012
http://-/?-http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://-/?- -
7/30/2019 2. Emotions Induced by Operatic Music
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recordings were amplified using a GSR100C module. We estimated
SCL by extracting the area under the curve (lS/s) from each base-
line and experimental condition, after the downdrift in the SCL
waves was eliminated using the difference function of Acq-
Knowledge, as described in (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Lee,
1999; Miu, Heilman, & Houser, 2008).
2.5.3. RespirationOne channel of respiration was measured using a top respira-
tion band placed on the chest, below the breast. The data were re-
corded with the RSP100C module and the TSD201 Transducer of
the Biopac system. TSD201 can arbitrarily measure slow to very
fast thoracic and abdominal respiration patterns with no loss in
signal amplitude, optimal linearity and minimal hystheresis. RR
(in cycles per minute) was calculated breath by breath using Acq-
Knowledge software.
2.5.4. Blood pressure
SBP and DBP (in millimeters of mercury) were measured inter-
mittently with an automatic blood pressure monitor (Digital Blood
Pressure monitor, Vital System) through an arm cuff at the partic-
ipants right upper arm. Inflation was initiated at the end of thebaseline, at minutes 5, 10, 15, and at the end of the musical
condition.
2.6. Data reduction
For the continous physiological measurements (i.e., all except
SBP and DBP), we calculated difference scores by subtracting each
baseline measure (i.e., the quiet sitting period immediately preced-
ing each musical experience condition) from the corresponding
experimental condition measure (see Kreibig et al., 2007). In the
case of SBP and DBP that were intermittently measured, we first
calculated the arithmetic mean of the physiological data from
baseline and experimental conditions, and then derived the same
difference score. The raw scores were transformed to T scores fornormalization.
2.7. Statistical analysis
Data were inspected for outliers (Stevens, 2002, pp. 1417)
only 0.8% of the data were excluded. We used repeated measure
ANOVA and ANCOVA, followed by post hoc tests, in order to deter-
mine whether there were differences in emotion experience and
physiological responses between the musical experience condi-
tions. Effect sizes for t-tests and AN/COVA are reported as Cohensd and g2p , and interpreted as follows: d = 0.2 or g
2p = 0.01 small ef-
fect size; d = 0.5 or g2p = 0.059 medium effect size; and d = 0.8 or
g2p = 0.138 large effect size (Cohen, 1988). We also used the Fried-
mann non-parametric test to analyze potential differences be-tween the frequency of chills in the experimental conditions. In
addition, correlation analyses allowed us to test the association be-
tween emotion experience, physiological responses, and chills.
Simple regressions were used to test whether affective mood
(i.e., PA and NA) predicted affect (i.e., dimensional and specific
emotion ratings) and physiological responses. The data are re-
ported in the graphs as means one standard error of the means
(SEM).
3. Results
3.1. General affect
A 3 (musical experience: music listening vs. learning the plot vs.watching the acting performance) 2 (sex: women vs. men)
ANCOVA indicated that musical experience had a significant main
effect on self-reported emotional arousal (F[4, 32] = 6.19, p = 0.002,
g2p = 0.12). NA and PA were included as covariates in these analyses
in order to control for the affective mood of participants before the
experiments.
The analyses of the data from the supplementary control sam-
ple indicated that the repeated exposure to music had no signifi-
cant effects on emotional arousal and valence (p = 0.3 for both)
(see Supplementary Fig. 1). In addition, we compared the first mu-
sic listening condition in the control experiment to the music lis-
tening condition from the main experiment, in order to verify
their similarity. Indeed, there were no significant differences be-
tween the arousal (t[45] = 1.29, ns) and valence scores
(t[45] = 1.23, ns) in the first conditions of the main and control
experiments, respectively.
Although emotional arousal and valence were not measured be-
fore the first condition because it would have been hard to find an
equally complex, but emotionally neutral stimulus to which to
compare the first experimental condition, we explored the affective
experience that music listening induced by one sample Student t-
tests. The expected mean was the mid-value of the SAM rating
scale. These analyses indicated that music listening was associated
with increased emotional arousal (t[35] = 2.42, p = 0.02, Cohensd = 0.3) and valence scores (t[35] = 8.57, p < 0.0001, Cohens d =
1). Next, by comparing between the three experimental condition,
we found that watching the acting performance significantly in-
creased emotional arousal compared to learning the plot, and music
listening (see Fig. 1). Neither the main effect of sex, nor the interac-tion of sex musical experience on emotional arousal and valence
were statistically significant.
3.2. Music-induced emotions
The effects of musical experience and sex on music-induced
emotions measured by GEMS were also investigated. A 3 (musical
experience: music listening vs. learning the plot vs. watching the
acting performance) 2 (sex: women vs. men) ANCOVA indicated
that musical experience induced specific emotions. NA and PA
were again included as covariates in these analyses.
The analyses of the data from the supplementary control sam-
ple indicated that the repeated exposure to music had no signifi-cant effects on any of the GEMS measures (p > 0.1 for all) (see
Fig. 1. Changes in emotional arousal and valence (SAM) induced by music listening
(1), learning the plot (2), and watching the acting performance (3).
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Supplementary Fig. 2). We also compared the pattern of GEMS
scores between the first conditions of the main and control exper-
iments. There was only one significant difference on tenderness
(t[45] = 2.25, p = 0.02), with higher scores in the music listening
condition of the main experiment.
By comparing between the three experimental condition, we
found that learning the plot and watching the acting performance
had significant effects on distinct music-induced emotions (see
Fig. 2). On the one hand, learning the plot reduced the scores of
peacefulness (F[4, 32] = 7.84, p = 0.0009, g2p = 0.23) and joyful acti-
vation (F[4, 32] = 5.85, p = 0.004, g2p = 0.17), and increased sadness
(F[4, 32] = 10.98, p = 0.0001, g2p = 0.32). On the other hand, watch-
ing the acting performance increased the scores of wonder
(F[4, 32] = 8.13, p = 0.0007, g2p = 0.23) and transcendence
(F[4, 32] = 4.02, p = 0.02, g2p = 0.11). Neither the main effect of sex,
nor the interaction of sex musical experience on specific emo-
tions were statistically significant.
3.3. Physiological responses
The analyses of the data from the supplementary control sam-
ple indicated that the repeated exposure to music had no signifi-
cant effects on any of the physiological measures (p > 0.39 for all)
(see Supplementary Fig. 3). However, a couple of physiological
measures were significantly different between the first conditionsof the main and control experiments: IBI (t[45] = 4.77, p < 0.0001)
and RR (t[45] = 2.09, p = 0.04), with lower values in the first condi-
tion of the control experiment.
There were significant main effects of musical experience on
physiological responses. In comparison to baseline measures, mu-
sic listening (i.e., the first condition) significantly decreased RR
(F[4, 32] = 9.12, p = 0.005, g2p = 0.29), IBI (F[4, 32] = 3.11, p = 0.02,
g2p = 0.09), and SCL (F[4, 32] = 29.76, p < 0.0001, g2p = 0.75). In the
following experimental conditions, both learning the plot, and
watching the acting performance specifically influenced physiolog-
ical measures (Fig. 3). On the one hand, learning the plot signifi-
cantly decreased RSA (F[4, 32] = 3.05, p = 0.05, g2p = 0.08) and
increased LF-HRV (F[4, 32] = 3.49, p = 0.03, g2p = 0.09) and LF/HF
(F[4, 32] = 3.77, p = 0.02, g2
p = 0.1) in comparison to music listening.On the other hand, watching the acting performance significantly
decreased IBI (F[4, 32] = 2.98, p = 0.05, g2p = 0.08), and SCL
(F[4, 32] = 3.2, p = 0.04, g2p = 0.09) in comparison to music listening.
3.4. Experienced chills
The repeated exposure of the independent control sample to
music had no significant effect on self-reported chills (p
= 0.3).There were no differences between the frequency of chills in the
control and main experiments, respectively.
A Friedman non-parametric test compared between the three
experimental conditions in the main experiment and indicated
that the exposure to the acting performance significantly increased
the number of reported chills (v2 = 8.92, p = 0.01) in comparison to
learning the plot and music listening.
3.5. Relationships between music-induced affect, chills, and
physiological responses
We analyzed the correlations between emotions, chills, and
physiological responses within each musical experience condition.
The following paragraph reports the main patterns of correlations
for which we had a priori hypotheses (for detailed results, see
Tables 13). These analyses indicated that LF-HRV positively, and
RSA negatively correlated with emotional arousal after learning
the plot. In the same condition, the frequency of chills also corre-
lated with arousal. In contrast, RR positively correlated with emo-
tional valence (i.e., increased RR for positive valence) during music
listening.
The analyses of music-induced emotions showed that LF-HRV
positively, and RSA negatively correlated with the level of wonder,
power, and joyful activation after learning the plot. Also, LF-HRV
positively and RSA negatively correlated with the frequency of
chills both after learning the plot, and while watching the acting
performance. Chills consistently correlated positively with the lev-
els of wonder and transcendence in all three musical experienceconditions. We also checked if this correlation was replicated in
the control experiment and we confirmed that chills correlated sig-
nificantly with wonder (r= 0.65, p = 0.05) and marginally with
transcendence (r= 0.6, p = 0.08). Another consistent pattern of po-
sitive correlations was that between RR, wonder (during all three
musical experience conditions), and transcendence (during music
listening, and watching the acting performance).
3.6. Previous mood and music-induced affect
PA and NA significantly correlated (r= 0.45, p < 0.01), but the
low correlation allowed us to use both as predictors (i.e., negligible
multicollinearity). Our hypotheses were that NA would positivelypredict unpleasant emotions measured by GEMS (i.e., nostalgia,
sadness, tension), and negatively predict pleasant emotions (i.e.,
wonder, transcendence, power, tenderness, peacefulness, joyful
activation). We also expected that PA would negatively predict
unpleasant emotions and positively predict pleasant emotions. In
addition, based on the work of Panksepp (1995), we also hypothe-
sized that NA would negatively predict chills and RSA. On the
assumption that only the first condition (i.e., music listening)
would be directly affected by previous mood, regression analyses
were run on music-induced emotions and chills recorded during
the first condition. The results indicated that power (R = 0.53,p = 0.0009, g2p = 0.28) and joyful activation (R = 0.45, p = 0.05,
g2p = 0.21) were negatively predicted by NA. In contrast, PA posi-
tively predicted power (R = 0.51, p < 0.001, g2
p = 0.26) and joyfulactivation (R = 0.38, p = 0.02, g2p = 0.15).
Fig. 2. Changes in GEMS scores induced by music listening (1), learning the plot (2),
and watching the acting performance (3).
6 F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx
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4. Discussion
The results of this study confirmed that music listening, learn-
ing the plot, and watching the acting performance had specific ef-
fects on emotional responses measured at the subjective and
physiological levels.
4.1. Effects of music, plot and acting
In comparison to expected mean scores, music listening in-
creased, as one would expect, emotional arousal and valence. In
addition, music listening decreased RR, IBI and SCL, in comparison
to baseline physiology. These results seem to extend previous
observations that sad music is associated with decreased SCL,
and sadness induced by music is well discriminated by respiratory
changes (Krumhansl, 1997; Nyklcek et al., 1997). Moreover, our
observation of decreased SCL associated with this music excerpt
is also in line with studies that induced sadness by directed facial
action tasks (Ekman et al., 1983; Levenson, 1992).
It may seem that the pattern of reduced RR and SCL, and in-
creased HR (i.e., decreased IBI) in the music listening condition iscontradictory. Early observations indicated that the minor tonali-
ties of music increased HR (Hyde & Scalapino, 1918), whereas
the tempo of music influenced RR (Diserens, 1920). Bernardi and
colleagues (2009) have recently reported that music crescendos
or emphases (e.g., in Nessun dorma from Puccinis Turandot) in-
duced skin vasoconstriction along with increases in blood pres-
sures and HR. There was also increased breath depth during
music crescendos, but these modulations of respiratory power
were independent of cardiovascular modulations. The present
study also shows that music listening independently modulated
RR and HR, and the former correlated with negative valence, won-
der and transcendence. Also in line with the present results, Naka-
hara, Furuya, Francis, & Kinoshita, (2010) found that playing Bachs
No. 1 Prelude with emotional expression increased HR and de-creased RR in pianists, in comparison to playing the same piece
without emotional expression. Therefore, these studies suggest
that music-induced emotions can independently modulate cardio-
vascular and respiratory activities, and this pattern of physiological
changes may contribute to the receptiveness or arousal to music
(Bernardi et al., 2009; the present study) and the capacity of
performers to incorporate expressiveness in their performance
(Nakahara, Furuya, Francis, & Kinoshita, 2010).Our control analyses on the data from an independent sample
indicated that re-listening to the musical excerpt for three times
did not increase emotional arousal and valence, or induced addi-
tional physiological changes by itself. Whereas there were no dif-
ferences between the conditions of the control experiment,
which argued that repeated music listening alone did not affected
the subjective and physiological measurements, the relevance of
the physiological measurements from the control experiment is
limited. There were differences in IBI and RR between the sample
used in the main and control experiments, respectively. This was
probably due to the reduced sample size in the control experiment
(N= 9, in comparison to N= 37 in the main experiment). Overall,
the control data supported the view that the changes observed in
the main experiment were not due to repeated music listeningalone, although this inference should be taken with caution in re-
gard to some of the physiological results. Replicating the control
findings with a sample size that is similar to that of the main
experiment would be necessary in order to unequivocally confirm
that the repeated music listening alone does not change physiolog-
ical activity.
Learning the plot before listening to the musical excerpt the
second time (in the main experiment) induced a pattern of emo-
tional changes that included reduced peacefulness, joyful activa-
tion, and increased sadness. At the physiological level, learning
the plot decreased RSA and increased LF-HRV. The change in RSA
reflects vagal suppression that has been associated with negative
emotional states and traits, such as anxiety and depression (Bleil,
Gianaros, Jennings, Flory, & Manuck, 2008; Miu et al., 2009). Thesummary of the plot that the participants read before they
Fig. 3. Changes in interbeat intervals (IBI), heart rate (HR), power in the very low frequency (VLF), and low frequency (LF) bands of heart rate variability, respiratory sinus
arrhythmia (RSA), sympathovagal balance (LF/HF), skin conductance level (SCL), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and respiratory rate (RR)
induced by music listening (1), learning the plot (2), and watching the acting performance (3).
F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx 7
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re-listened to the musical excerpt described negative emotional
events (e.g., Scarpia tortures Cavaradossi and harasses Tosca; see
Supplementary materials). Therefore, we argue that the sadness in-
duced by learning the plot triggered vagal suppression that was
neither explained by concomitant respiratory changes (i.e., RR
was controlled for in the analyses of RSA), nor by re-listening to
the musical excerpt by itself. The increase in LF-HRV suggests that
learning the plot also facilitated sympathetic activity. However, LFprobably reflects a complex interplay between sympathetic and
vagal influences on the heart (Eckberg, 1997; Miu et al., 2009), so
the effect of learning the plot on sympathetic activity should be ta-
ken with caution. Overall, learning the plot significantly influenced
music-induced emotions and changed sympathovagal balance in
the direction of greater preparedness for action.
Watching the acting performance increased emotional arousal
and valence (SAM) compared to the first two experimental condi-
tions. Furthermore, it increased wonder and transcendence
(GEMS). Notably, wonder and transcendence are emotions that
are specifically induced by music (Zentner et al., 2008). In compar-
ison to music listening and learning the plot, watching the acting
performance added social-emotional and visuospatial cues to the
musical experience: facial expressions, gestures and postures,
translated lines, and scenery. These factors probably contributed
to the semantic processing of music and vocal expressions, and
we argue that this experimental condition best approximated the
full musical experience of listeners attending a live opera perfor-
mance. Watching the acting performance decreased IBI and SCL
in comparison to music listening. Previous studies reported that
music-induced sadness ratings correlated positively with IBI and
negatively with SCL (Krumhansl, 1997; Nyklcek et al., 1997). In
addition, watching the acting performance was also related to sig-
nificantly more music-induced chills. Another recent study showed
that music-induced chills correlated with increased SCL and HR
(Guhn, Hamm, & Zentner, 2007). The apparent divergence between
these previous results and the present findings of increased won-
der and transcendence associated with decreased IBI and SCL,
and increased music-induced chills may be explained by differ-ences in experimental design and measures. First, previous studies
used short excerpts from classical orchestral music, whereas we fo-
cused on opera. Second, the previous studies investigated music
listening alone, whereas our observations are based on a condition
that involved music listening while watching the acting perfor-
mance. Third, their conclusions are based on comparisons between
music expressing negative and positive emotions, identified using
basic emotions questionnaires. In the present experiment, watch-
ing the acting performance induced wonder and transcendence
measured using GEMS. Overall, our results show for the first time
that watching the acting performance contributes to music-in-
duced wonder and transcendence that are associated with de-
creased IBI and SCL, and increased chills.
In summary, both music listening (compared to baseline), andwatching the acting performance (compared to music listening)
decreased IBI and SCL. As shown in Fig. 3, IBI followed the same
decreasing trend, whereas SCL remained at the same level after
learning the plot compared to music listening. This means that
learning the plot did not significantly influence these physiological
variables, but they nonetheless remained at the level induced by
music listening (i.e., they did not return to baseline). Therefore,
music listening decreased RR, IBI, and SCL, learning the plot had
no effect on these measures, and watching the acting performance
significantly decreased IBI and SCL again. This indicates that IBI and
SCL are the main physiological variables that are influenced by mu-
sic listening and watching the acting performance. The only vari-
ables that were specifically influenced by learning the plot were
RSA and LF-HRV, which indicates that they are sensitive to theaddition of meaning in this context.Tab
le
1
Correlationsbetweenphysiologicalresponses,
chills,a
ndaffectduringmusiclistening.
Self-Assessment
Manikin
Gen
evaEmotionalMusicScale
Chills
Arousal
Valence
Wo
nder
Transcendence
Power
Tenderness
Nostalgia
Peacefulness
Joyful
activation
Sadness
Tension
Systolicbloodpressure(SBP)
0.2
3
0.1
2
0.2
3
0.3
6*
0.3
4*
0.1
3
0.2
9
0.0
3
0.1
7
0.3
0.0
7
0.0
9
D
iastolicbloodpressure(DBP)
0.0
6
0.1
7
0.1
3
0.1
6
0.1
5
0.0
6
0.0
2
0.1
1
0.1
5
0.15
0.0
3
0.1
1
Skinconductancelevel(SCL)
0.0
8
0.1
2
0.0
5
0.1
5
0.1
4
0.1
2
0.1
4
0.0
1
0.0
2
0.15
0.0
7
0.1
1
R
espiratoryrate(RR)
0.0
1
0.4
*
0.3
5*
0.3
5*
0.7
0.2
3
0.3
2
0.0
8
0.1
2
0.04
0.0
0
0.2
7
C
ardiacinterbeatintervals(IBI)
0.0
5
0.1
1
0.1
7
0.0
1
0.2
1
0.0
1
0.1
5
0.0
1
0.0
2
0.1
0.0
2
0.2
1
H
eartrate(HR)
0.0
4
0.0
8
0.1
4
0.0
1
0.1
8
0.0
3
0.1
2
0.0
2
0.0
4
0.11
0.0
6
0.1
8
Powerintheverylowfrequencyofheartratevariability(VLF-HRV)
0.2
1
0.3
1
0.0
7
0.0
2
0.6
0.3
6*
0.1
1
0.4
5**
0.0
7
0.1
0.0
8
0.0
3
Powerinthelowfrequencyofheartratevariability(LF-HRV)
0.1
0.0
5
0.0
03
0.0
9
0.7
0.0
3
0.2
9
0.1
3
0.2
1
0.11
0.0
9
0.0
4
R
espiratorysinusarrhythmia(RSAorHF-HRV)
0.0
2
0.0
1
0.0
7
0.0
5
0.0
1
0.0
7
0.2
7
0.1
6
0.2
5
0.13
0.0
4
0.1
5
R
atiobetweenlowandhighfrequencypowersof
heartratevariability
(LF/HF)
0.1
5
0.1
5
0.1
9
0.0
7
0.1
6
0.0
9
0.2
2
0.1
5
0.1
0.00
0.0
4
0.0
5
C
hills
0.2
2
0.0
8
0.4
4**
0.4
6**
0.1
1
0.0
0
0.1
9
0.1
2
0.1
2
0.1
0.2
6
*
p
6
0.0
5.
**
p
6
0.0
1.
8 F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx
Please cite this article in press as: Baltes, F. R., et al. Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting. Brain and
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4.2. Coherence between subjective and physiological changes
There has been an active emotivist vs. cognitivist debate be-
tween scholars who argue that music listeners really experience
emotions, or only identify emotions that music expresses (Kivy,
1990; Scherer & Zentner, 2001). This study integrated subjective
and physiological measures of emotional responses, thus adding
to the developing literature on the psychophysiology of music. Inthis line, a novel and important contribution of the present study
is that we correlated music-induced emotions measured with a do-
main-specific instrument (i.e., GEMS), with an extensive array of
emotion-related physiological changes. For instance, we found that
music-induced wonder positively correlated with RR and chills
across conditions. Moreover, by comparing the correlations of sub-
jective and physiological changes between the three experimental
conditions, one would observe that the psychophysiological coher-
ence increases the most after learning the plot. This might suggest
that the addition of meaning may be more closely related to the
coherence between subjective and physiological changes induced
by music, than the provision of additional sensory information
(e.g., watching the acting performance).
4.3. Affective mood and sex
The present findings that affective mood predicted emotions in-
duced by music listening (e.g., power, joyful activation) suggests
that future studies of music-induced emotions should control for
this potential confound. Specifically, NA negatively predicted, and
PA positively predicted power and joyful activation induced by
music listening. This argues for the role of affective mood in the
genesis of music-induced emotions, which is also in line with other
studies (see Kreutz, Ott, Teichmann, Osawa, & Vaitl, 2008). In a re-
cent field study (F.R. Baltes, M. Miclea, & A.C. Miu, unpublished
observations), we have confirmed and extended the relationship
between the affective mood that the participants reported before
the beginning of a live opera performance, and the music-induced
sadness and transcendence (GEMS). This indicates that the influ-ence of affective mood is not limited to wonder and transcendence.
However, the specificity of this association in relation to the musi-
cal stimuli, and the physical setting (i.e., laboratory vs. field stud-
ies) might be investigated by future studies.
We also controlled for sex differences in the present analyses. A
previous study showed that in comparison to men, women rated
the chill-producing songs as being sadder (Panksepp, 1995). An-
other study reported that women showed elevated SCL to heavy
metal compared to Renaissance music (Nater et al., 2006). In light
of these results, the present study tested the effects of sex, and the
interaction of sex and musical experience. We expected that after
learning the plot, and especially during watching the acting perfor-
mance, women would be more reactive due to increased emotional
empathy with the female character in the musical excerpt. How-ever, we found no significant main effect, or interaction of sex with
musical experience, on subjective or physiological responses.
4.4. Potential limitations and implications
One potential limit is that the mere repeated exposure may
have influenced the present pattern of results. However, this
possibility was controlled by measuring the same subjective and
physiological responses while an independent control sample
re-listened to the same musical excerpt for three times. The results
from this sample indicated that the emotional arousal and valence,
the music-induced emotions, or the physiological measures did not
change with mere re-listening. This is also in line with the studies
of Grewe et al. (2007a, 2007b). However, we acknowledge that areal limitation of the present study comes from the small size ofTable
2
Corr
elationsbetweenphysiologicalresponses,
chills,a
ndaffectduringmusiclisteningafterlearningthe
plot.
Self-Assessment
Manikin
GenevaEmotionalMusicScale
Chills
Arousal
Valence
Wond
er
Transcendence
Power
TendernessNostalgia
Peacefulness
Joyful
activation
Sadne
ss
Tension
Systolicbloodpressure(SBP)
0.1
2
0.1
0.23
0.0
9
0.2
4
0.0
8
0.0
5
0.0
1
0.0
5
0.04
0.0
1
0.1
D
iastolicbloodpressure(DBP)
0.0
2
0.1
5
0.00
0.1
6
0.1
3
0.3
9**
0.2
3
0.1
9
0.1
1
0.00
0.0
8
0.0
5
Skinconductancelevel(SCL)
0.0
2
0.0
7
0.13
0.0
9
0.0
6
0.0
4
0.1
8
0.0
6
0.0
8
0.02
0.4
7**
0.1
8
Respiratoryrate(RR)
0.0
8
0.2
9
0.3
3
*
0.4
2
0.2
6
0.1
3
0.1
0.0
4
0.3
2*
0.01
0.0
1
0.4
5**
Cardiacinterbeatintervals(IBI)
0.0
9
0.2
1
0.27
0.1
7
0.3
4*
0.1
1
0.1
6
0.0
4
0.3
3*
0.1
0.1
8
0.0
9
H
eartrate(HR)
0.0
5
0.1
6
0.25
0.1
3
0.3
5*
0.0
5
0.1
3
0.0
2
0.2
9
0.09
0.2
2
0.0
7
Powerintheverylowfrequencyofheartratevariability(VLF-HRV)
0.0
2
0.2
3
0.08
0.0
7
0.0
2
0.0
7
0.2
0.1
5
0.1
6
0.02
0.1
3
0.1
3
Powerinthelowfrequencyofheartratevariability(LF-HRV)
0.3
6*
0.0
2
0.5
6
**
0.5
6**
0.4
6**
0.3
9*
0.4
3**
0.0
1
0.4
7**
0.4
4
**
0.2
9
0.3
5*
Respiratorysinusarrhythmia(RSAorHF-HRV)
0.3
4*
0.0
1
0.5
6
**
0.5
6**
0.4
6**
0.4
1**
0.4
3**
0.0
0
0.4
7**
0.4
2
**
0.2
9
0.3
5*
Ratiobetweenlowandhighfrequencypowersofh
eartratevariability
(LF/HF)
0.1
6
0.1
5
0.09
0.1
4
0.1
7
0.0
8
0.0
7
0.0
3
0.1
1
0.00
0.0
7
0.3
1
Chills
0.3
4*
0.0
3
0.3
6
*
0.3
9*
0.2
8
0.0
2
0.2
7
0.1
0.4
*
0.12
0.3
6*
*
p
6
0.0
5.
**
p
6
0.0
1.
F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx 9
Please cite this article in press as: Baltes, F. R., et al. Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting. Brain and
Cognition (2011), doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012 -
7/30/2019 2. Emotions Induced by Operatic Music
10/12
the control sample in comparison to the sample from the main
experiment.
In light of the previous literature, musical expertise and (not)
understanding the original language performance are also unlikely
to have confounded our results. For instance, Bigand et al. (2005)
showed that the classification of musical excerpts according to
the emotional content did not differ between music graduates
and nonmusicians. Another study found that emotional responsesare not affected by song translation of non-native original language
performance (Chiaschi, 2007), such as we did in our third experi-
mental condition. It is also unlikely that listening to music with
eyes open influenced music-induced emotions in the present study
(Kallinen, 2004). However, future studies might control for person-
ality variables (e.g., absorption) that are known to affect emotional
arousal induced by music (Kreutz et al., 2008).
These results have theoretical and methodological implications.
First, they contribute to the literature supporting the emotivist po-
sition in the psychology of music. Second, they also add evidence in
favor of the physiological differentiation of emotions. Third, con-
sidering that psychophysiological measures tended to correlate
more highly with GEMS scores, and wonder and transcendence
played a particularly prominent role, the present results emphasize
the utility of domain-specific instruments to assess music-induced
emotions. Fourth, many previous studies have paid a high price for
experimental control, by using sound clips lasting a few seconds
and crude measures of emotion (Peretz et al., 2001; Vieillard
et al., 2008). Although these studies contributed to the understand-
ing of the minimal conditions that are necessary to express an
emotional meaning, it remains often unclear whether findings
from such studies have any bearing on the experience of music
in real life. Consequently, we chose to use a 19 min excerpt fromTosca, edited to contain a coherent plot, in order to realistically
simulate the real life conditions in which opera induces emotions.
The rich and complex pattern of psychophysiological results in the
present study underscores the importance of external validity in
laboratory studies of music-induced emotions.
Each experimental condition in the present study manipulatedan additional variable in relation to the previous conditions (i.e.,
the plot for the second condition, and the visual context for the
third condition). The rationale behind this type of within-subject
design is that any change that develops in one condition relative
to the previous one is determined by the additional variable that
was manipulated in that condition. However, it is possible that
rather than being specifically induced by each new variable that
was manipulated in a certain experimental condition, the changes
could be due to simply increasing the sensory and semantic com-
plexity of the musical experience. For instance, the visual context
that was added in the third experimental condition might have
clarified the meaning of the music, or allowed increased depth of
processing in relation to the first two conditions. Other studies
have used similar approaches by juxtaposing music and images,or lyrics and music, and claimed that emotional changes were spe-
cifically induced by the variable that differed between conditions
(e.g., Ali & Peynircioglu, 2006).
One may wonder whether this pattern of findings might gener-
alize to all opera, or is unique to this style of operatic music perfor-
mance (i.e., pertaining to verismo), composer, composition, excerpt,
or interpretation. Scherer and Zentner (2001) have emphasized
that music-induced emotions depend on several factors, such as
structural features of music (i.e., pitch, melody, tempo, rhythm,
harmony), performance features (e.g., physical appearance, expres-
sion, reputation, technical and interpretative skills of the per-
former), listener features (e.g., musical expertise, personality,
affective mood), and contextual features (e.g., location of the
performance, social framing of the event). The present studyinvestigated the influence of affective mood, and controlled forTable
3
Correlationsbetweenphysiologicalresponses,chills,
andaffectduringmusiclisteningwhilewatching
theactingperformance.
Self-Assessment
Manikin
Gen
evaEmotionalMusicScale
Chills
Arousal
Valence
Wonder
Transcendence
Power
TendernessN
ostalgia
Peacefulness
Joyful
activation
Sadn
ess
Tension
Systolicbloodpressure(SBP)
0.1
7
0.1
8
0.15
0.3
9*
0.0
9
0.2
0.2
1
0.1
0.0
9
0.22
0.3
9**
0.0
2
Diastolicbloodpressure(DBP)
0.1
3
0.2
3
0.25
0.3
2
0.1
0.1
2
0.0
4
0.0
1
0.1
3
0.1
0.2
1
0.0
17
Skinconductancelevel(SCL)
0.0
0
0.1
6
0.04
0.0
5
0.0
9
0.0
1
0.1
0.0
5
0.0
2
0.16
0.1
0.0
9
Respiratoryrate(RR)
0.3
2
0.2
0.
39**
0.4
9**
0.3
4*
0.2
0.0
8
0.0
1
0.2
7
0.28
0.2
2
0.5
3**
Cardiacinterbeatintervals(IBI)
0.1
7
0.0
5
0.18
0.2
5
0.0
1
0.0
3
0.0
1
0.1
2
0.0
3
0.21
0.0
7
0.0
4
Heartrate(HR)
0.1
9
0.0
0
0.17
0.2
5
0.0
4
0.0
6
0.0
8
0.1
6
0.0
0
0.17
0.0
2
0.0
0
Powerintheverylowfrequencyofheartratevariability(VLF-HRV)
0.0
2
0.0
0
0.13
0.0
4
0.1
2
0.1
5
0.1
2
0.2
5
0.2
0.00
0.1
3
0.1
4
Powerinthelowfrequencyofheartratevariabil
ity(LF-HRV)
0.0
8
0.0
6
0.16
0.1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.1
1
0.1
1
0.0
3
0.00
0.0
4
0.3
6*
Respiratorysinusarrhythmia(RSAorHF-HRV)
0.0
2
0.1
2
0.16
0.1
0.0
3
0.0
2
0.1
1
0.0
6
0.0
2
0.12
0.0
5
0.3
8*
Ratiobetweenlowandhighfrequencypowersof
heartratevariability
(LF/HF)
0.0
5
0.0
3
0.16
0.2
2
0.1
9
0.0
8
0.0
7
0.0
3
0.1
5
0.06
0.2
7
0.2
9
Chills
0.2
0.1
2
0.
36*
0.3
4*
0.2
7
0.1
2
0.2
2
0.1
2
0.2
8
0.24
0.0
23
*
p
6
0.0
5.
**
p
6
0.0
1.
10 F.R. Baltes et al. / Brain and Cognition xxx (2011) xxxxxx
Please cite this article in press as: Baltes, F. R., et al. Emotions induced by operatic music: Psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting. Brain and
Cognition (2011), doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012 -
7/30/2019 2. Emotions Induced by Operatic Music
11/12
important listener features (i.e., musical expertise, familiarity with
the selected musical piece, preference for classic or operatic mu-
sic). In addition, all the participants listened to the music in the
same physical setting (i.e., our laboratory). This argues for the gen-
erality of our findings. It was beyond the purpose of this study to
investigate the influence of musical structure, and performance
features. It is likely that the stellar performance of Maria Callas
and Tito Gobbi in thisTosca
performance increased the effective-ness of this excerpt in inducing emotions. However, we speculate
that the pattern of emotions reported here would not have been
different had we used another interpretation of this opera by ar-
tists that are vocally and dramatically comparable (or at least
close) to Maria Callas and Tito Gobbi. Future studies might investi-
gate whether these findings can be replicated with excerpts from
other operas.
4.5. Conclusion
In conclusion, this study found that music listening, learning the
plot, and watching the acting performance had specific effects on
music-induced emotions and their physiological correlates. Opera
poses enormous challenges to research due to the multitude of
musical and dramatic means by which it induces emotions.
Although the present study only scratched the surface, it opens
new perspectives for future studies on the mechanisms of music-
induced emotions in opera.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Dr. Laurel J. Trainor and two anonymous
reviewers for important suggestions that helped us in improving
the present article, and Dr. Marcel Zentner for permission to use
the Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS-45) in the study. We also
thank Silviu Matu for help with data collection. This research was
supported by the 2010 Arnold Bentley Award from the Society for
Education, Music, and Psychology (SEMPRE) to R.F.B. and A.C.M.,
and grant 411/2010 from the National University Research Council
to A.C.M.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.01.012 .
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