PLG 554 PENGUJIAN PSIKOLOGIPensyarah : Dr. Aswati Hamzah Disediakan oleh : Goh Suw Wei SPM 0044/09

What is in this article about ? • You can’t touch it, but it affect how you feel.• You can't see it, but it's there when you look at

yourself in the mirror.• You can't hear it, but it's there everytime you talk

about yourself.• What is the important but mysterious thing ?• Yes, it’s your ???

SELF - ESTEEM (SE) / PENGHARGAAN KENDIRIMeaning (Kamus Dwi Bahasa Times Education)- Esteem : penghargaan, penghormatan, tanggapan.

Definasi (psychology term)- The value we place on ourselves.-Individual ‘s personal judgment of his own worth. ( Coopersmith,1967:Epstein,1973,1990 )- Feeling about ourselves based on who and what we belifef we are.- variety of beliefs about the self : appearance, emotions, behaviors.- High SE : well-being, optimism, being able exert some control over events- Low SE : pessimism, depression, lowered expectations.

Different Stages of Development- From infancy, toddlerhood, preschool, school age, adolescence, adult to old age.

Synonyms :self-worth, self-respect, self-value, self-acceptanceDistinct : self-confidence, self-efficacy, self-regulation.Antonyms : self-deprecation

SELF - ESTEEMKonstrak/Construct - tingkat abtraksi/rumusan yang tertinggi yang berguna untuk mengembangkan teori dan menginterprestasikan data. - Maksud : gagasan / plan, cadangan / view.

Psychological Construct - A pattern of behavior is performed consistently overtime and in different

contexts by many individual ( Cronbach, 1971 ).- Menjelaskan kriteria keperibadian : personality, motivatian & need,

attitude/sikap, appitude/bakat.

- Construct / Konstruk : skop , tingkat abtraksi yang berbeza - Konstrak merupakan aspek penting untuk diterangkan : Apakah yang diukur ? : Bagaimanakah mengukurnya ?- Boleh dibahagikan kepada sub -sub konstruk yang lebih kecil.

Teori Keperluan Abraham Maslow –- Self -Esteem

- Menghuraikan perkaitan motivasi antara hierarki keperluan

- Individu akan memenuhi peringkat keperluan asas (kekurangan)

- sebelum memenuhi keperluan sekunder (penyuburan)

- Apabila mendapat kepuasan dalam satu hierarki yang rendah, keperluan dalam satu hierarki lain yang lebih tinggi akan terhasil secara automatis.

- Self-esteem : Basic human motivatian, esteem need.

- People need inner self-respect & esteem from other people.

- To achieve self- actualization

(kebenaran/kesempurnaan).

Hierarki Keperluan Maslow

Aktualisasi kendiri

penghargaan kendiri

Kasih sayang & kepunyaan

keselamatan

fisiologi

Carl Roger ( 1902 –1987 ) –Self Theory (Roger,1959)

Manusia mempunyai motivasi dan kecenderungan ( build up self - esteem ) untuk mencapai kesempurnaan diri (self-actualization).

• Self esteem individu terbentuk sejak zaman kanak-kanak dan dipengaruhi oleh hubungan dengan ibu bapa dan orang yang singnifikan kpd mereka.

• Self-esteem -- bagaimana kita berfikir tentang diri kita, perasaan tentang diri kita, keyakinan tentang diri penting untuk mencapai self-actualization.

• Beliau menekankan kewujudan konsep kendiri/self dan self-concept hasil drp berinteraksi dengan persekitaran dan persepsi nilai orang lain.

• Keperluan Self tersebut membentuk self – image individu.• Self image sama dengan idea self, self actualizatioan akan tercapai.• Keadaan congruent , kesesuaian dan keselarasan berlaku.

Selfimage

Ideaself

Konstruk Self – Esteem / SE

Jenis –jenis SE Faktor-faktor SE

Dimensi SEKomponen SE

Konstruk Self - Esteem

Sub Konstruk Perincian

1. Faktor mempengaruhi SE

- Jantina ,umur, kesihatan, body-image, etnik. hubungan dengan ibu bapa,rakan sebaya- status sosial-ekonomi, persekirataran hidup.

2. Jenis SE - Implisit SE atau eksplisit SE.

3. Bentuk SE - mengikut jangkamasa

- JK panjang : sifat personaliti kekal – Trait- JK pendek : berlaku perubahan sifat – state

4. Komponen SE - 3 komponen utama( Branden ' s, 1969 )

- Keperluan manusia untuk melindungi diri, mengekalkan perkembangan normal dan sihat.- Muncul automatis drp keprcayaan, kesedaran.- berkait dgn pemikiran, sikap, perasaan, tindakan.

5. Tahap/kualiti SE - 3 peringkat

-Konsisten dan stabil pada bila-bila masa.-Tanpa bergantung kpd keadaan.(non-contingency)- berlaku secara semulajadi, psikologikal, tanpa sedar.

6. Kesan SE - pelbagai dimensi dlm hidup

- ciri-ciri persanoliti, tingkah laku kognitif, emosi.- pencapaian akedemik, kejayaan bekerja, akt jenayah.

Pengukuran / Measurement

• Dalam kajian empirikal, ujian SE dijalankan mengikut self-report inventory

dgn berdasarkan keputusan kuantitatif.• Instrumen digunakan mengandungi item/questionnaire yg memenuhi

ciri-ciri keesahan ( validity ) dan kepercayaan ( reliability ). • Mengukur sama ada : implisit self-esteem atau ekplisit self-esteem.

: Global self-estem, state self-esteem.• Indikator / Petunjuk : tinggi, sederhana atau rendah SE

: positif atau negatif SE• SE dapat menjadi variable dalam banyak aspek dan dimensi hidup individu• Diukur untuk menganalisa kolerasi antara self-esteem dengan perkara

berikut ( Crandall, 1973. Pg 45 ) :

personality -- happiness ( Freedman,1978 )

-- shyness ( Jones & Briggs, 1984 )

Clinical – depression ( Tennan & Herzberga, 1987 )

-- coping ability ( S.E. Taylor, 1983 )

Cognitive & emotion – bias, optimism, pessimism, aggressive, motivation.

Test / ujian Self – Esteem - Terdapat pelbagai jenis test yang menguji self-esteem.

- Untuk sample yg berbeza dari aspek jantina, umur, etnik, agama, status sosial-ekonomi, tahap akedemik, pekerjaan , latar budaya.

- Mengukur konstruk self-esteem berbeza :global self-estem, implisit self-esteem, ekslisit self-esteem, state self-esteem.

- Beberapa jenis test yg dibina oleh pakar psikologi dulu masih digunakan dengan meluas sehingga sekarang. - Test tersebut mengalami evolusi, diubahsuai mengikut situasi semasa dan dimanipulasikan dalam pelbagai bidang.

- Pengukuran self-esteem biasanya menggunakan kombinasi 2 test.

-Test tersebut harus memenuhi ciri-ciri psikometrik : validity, realiabity.

Antara Test / Alat Ukur tersebut : 1 Rosenberg Self- esteem Scale ( Morris Rosenberg, 1965)

2. Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory (Stanley Coopersmith 1961/1981)

3. Hudson Index of Self – Esteem ( Hudson, 1982 )

4. The Body Image Scale ( Franzoi & Shields, 1984 )

5. The Texas Social Behavior Inventory( Helmreich.R & Stapp.J, 1974 )

6. Tennesse Self- Concept Scale ( Fitts, 1965 )

7. Piers-Harris Children Self Concept Scale ( Piers, 1984 )

8. Personal Evalution Inventory ( Roid & Fitts, 1988 )

9. Collective Self- Esteem ( Luthanen & Crocker, 1992 )

10. Current Thoughts Scale ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 )

Konstruk Self-Esteem Definasi Operasi utk Sub Konstruknya :

Self - Esteem Implisit ( bermula 2 tahun ) - Menilai diri dgn positif/ negatif secara sepontan, automatis, tanpa disedari. - Motivasi intrinsik, insentif dlm akitiviti kehidupan : cabaran, dugaan.

Self – Esteem Eksplisit ( pertengahanan zaman kanak-kanak ) - Menilai diri secara sedar dan reflektif, respon dalam situasi sosial tertentu. - Motivasi eksplisit, , insentif sosial : pencapaian akedemik, kejayaan dalam pekerjaan.

Self-Esteem Global ( Trait Self- Esteem ) - Mengukur self - esteem secara keseluruhan, umum. - Termasuk self- esteem implisit dan self-esteem eksplisit - Penilaian ,perasaan tentang diri yang kekal dan stabil.

State self–esteem ( Feeling of Self – Worth ) Definasi operasi : self-esteem yang terhasil dalam situasi ketika itu, pada jangka masa yang pendek, singkat.

Apakah tanggapan atau penilaian individu tentang diri sendiri secara sepontan dalam situasi pada ketika itu. Reaksi perasaan,emosi positif atau negatif yang sementara.

Self – Evaluation (Domain Specific Self- Esteem )Definasi operasi • Individu mempunyai tahap self-esteem yang berbeza dalam pelbagai bidang / domain yang berlainan. • Self esteem adalah satu bentuk penilaian individu terhadap kebolehan, sifat fizikal dan ciri-ciri personaliti dalam dirinya. Contoh : Pelajar yang lemah dalam pelajaran akan memiliki self-esteem akademik yang rendah tetapi self esteem sukan yang tinggi jika baik dalam bidang sukan.• Sinonim : self-confidence, self-efficacy, self-appraisals, self-evaluations.• Banyak instrumen self-esteem mengandungi sub-scales yang mengukur domain – domain yang berbeza ( secara self-evaluations ).

Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Stanley Coopersmith, 1981)

Description / Type of accessment ( SEI ) :• To measure global self-esteem. • Instruments using self-report • Consists of 58 items, 8 of which comprise a lie scale.• The remaining items are scoerd on a dichotomous scale : like me

or not like me. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem.

Research : The Relationship between Self-Esteem and Parenting Style

(A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Australian and Vietnamese Australian Adolescents) • Instrument : Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory – the parenting bonding

Eysenk's Personality Questionnaire – an acculturation measure

• Purpose : To mesasure level of self-esteem with adolescent population.• Description of Measure : Same as above

• Sample : 238 adolescents ranging in age from 12 to 19 years. Anglo-Australian children (N = 120), Vietnamese - Australian children ( N = 118 ), lived in Australia for less than 10 years.

• Norms : The mean total self-esteem score was 34.88 (SD=8.69) for Anglo- Australian sample and 32.03 (SD=7.18) for the Vietnamese-Australian sample. This difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05).

• Realiblity : The alpha coefficients for the Total Self- Esteem scale was .88 and .79 for the Anglo-Australian and Vietnemese-Australian.

• Validity : 1. Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed. 2. The total self-esteem score was found to be significantly and negatively correlated with the neuroticism sub-scale of the

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire(EPQ) in both the Vietnamese -Australian and Anglo-Australian samples.

3. The total self-esteem score was siginficantly and positively correlated with the EPQ extroversion sub-scale.

• Outcome : Parenting characterized by high levels of protection and low level of acceptance related negatively with self-esteem for

both samples of adolescents.

• Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(6), 742-761, November 1999..

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale / RSES / SES ( Morris Rosenberg, 1965 )

Domains measured : Global self-esteem.

Description / type of Accessment : - Likert scale, self- report instrument to assess global self-esteem. - 10 question battery related to overall feeling of self-worth & self-

acceptance. - four point scale response system, from strongly agree to strongly

disagree - requires participant to indicate their level of agreement about the

statement given. - Sample : adolescent & adult. - Administration : complete within 5 minutes. - Scoring procedures : Sum the scores for the 10 items, the higher the

score, the higher the self-esteem. - Designed to be Gutman scale.

The Texas Social Behavior Inventory( Helmreich R. and Stapp.J, 1974) Description / Type of Accessment :• Is a 16 items measure of global self-esteem• Responses are made on scales ranging from 1 to 5, from strongly disgree to strongly agreely.• Address the respondent degree of self-confidence in group of people, ability to deal with stages, specific how comfortable and competent a person feel in a sosial situations.

The Body – Esteem Scale ( Franzoi & Shields, 1984) Description / Type of accessment :• Consists of 35 items which listed a number of body parts and functions.• 5 point scale response system, from have strong negative feelings to

have strong positive feelings. • Scoring : add up the individual scores for items on the subscale.• To identify degree of ssatisfaction among male or female about their body image and self esteem.• Analysis 3 main factors : • 1. male – PA (Physical Attractiveness), female – SA (Sexual Attractiveness); 2. male – UBS (Upper Body Strength), female – WC (Weight Concern); 3. male & female – PC (Physical Condition)

Tajuk Kajian : Miami 's self - Esteem

• Tujuan kajian : 1. Mengenal pasti tahap self-esteem mahasiswa dan mahasiswi yang tinggal di kampus Universiti

Miami.

2. Menganalisa self-esteem global pelajar tersebut tentang kemampuan menyesuaikan diri dalam kehidupan sosial di kampus. (coping skill)

• Instrumen kajian : 1. Self-esteem Scales / SES (Rosenberg) 2. The Texas Social Behavior Inventory (Helmreich)

• Sample : Pelajar sukarela di Kampus Universiti Miami• Dapatan kajian : Tahap Self-esteem sama ada tinggi atau rendah

mempengaruhi kebolehan pelajar untuk menyesuaikan

diri dengan keadaan sosial di kampus universiti• Pelajar pengkaji : Brad, Jon, July, Jess, Joseph Dorsey.• Jurnal penyelidikan : Jurnal Science, artikel dalam Lab Packet. • Tarikh siap : 19 April 2002.

Tajuk Kajian – The Effects of Media on Body Image and Self - Esteem in Females

( Joy Hott, Buena Vista University )

• Tujuan kajian : 1. Menganalisa pengaruh media massa terhadap tanggapan wanita dalam aspek body-image

2. Implikasi / kesannya ke atas self-esteem wanita

• Instrumen kajian : 1. The Body Esteem Scale (Fanzoni & Shields, 1984 ) 2. Self-esteem Scales / SES ( Rosenberg, 1989)

• Sample : Pelajar perempuan di Universiti Buena Vista, secara sukarela. Group A – menonton program tentang body-image kurus, langsing. Group B - menonton program tentang body-image sederhana,

biasa. Group C – tidak menonton program ( kumpulan kawalan )

• Dapatan kajian : 1. Media massa yang mendedahkan body-image yg kurus,slim akan mendatangkan kesan negatif kpd sample Group A. 2. Sample menjadi self-consciousness, tidak puas hati

terhadap bentuk badan seterusnya self-esteem menjadi rendah.

• Projek Pelajar : Joy Hott, mahasiswa di Universiti Buena Vista. • Tarikh siap : 22 April 2005.

Tajuk Kajian -- Most Facebook Users Have Low Self- Esteem ( Soraya Mehdizadeh, York University )

• Tujuan kajian : 1. Untuk menganalisa hubungan antara tahap self-esteem dengan amalan melayari (online) facebook.

• Instrumen kajian : 1. Self-Esteem Scales/SES (Rosenberg) 2. Narcissim Personality Inventory

• Sample : 100 0rang pengguna facebook, Umur : 18 – 25 tahun• Dapatan kajian : 1. Individu yang rendah self-esteem akan menghabiskan

banyak masa untuk melayari facebook. 2. Individu tersebut yang suka memuja diri

(Narcissism) melakukan self-promotion di ruangan face book. 3. Lelaki – utamakan isi kandungan : kata,

motto,nota. 4. Perempuan – hiasi gambar foto : posture, mimik

muka.• Jurnal Psikologi : Journal Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. • Tarikh : 9 September 2010

Current Thoughts Scale ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 )

Description / Type of Accessment :• A measure of state self-esteem, compares the sample in 3

aspects which are performance (A), sosial (S) and

and appearance (P).• It consists of 20 items, 5 point scale.• The response categories for each item are

: not at all, a little bit, somewhat, very much, extremely.• The items are scored as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.• Reverse scoring was done for the negatively worded items.• To measure what you are thinking at this moment, or what you

feel is true of yourself at this moment.

Kajian --- State Self-Esteem in Relation to Weight Locus of Control amongst Adolescents

( Neelam Rattan, Shirin Kang, Nisha Thakur )

Tujuan kajian : 1. Mengkaji penilaian individu tentang perawakan, penampilan diri dan tanggapan orang lain terhadap dirinya

dalam situasi sosial pada ketika itu. ( state self-esteem ) 2. Megenal pasti hubungan antara state self-esteem tersebut

dengan amalan menguruskan badan/Dieting Belief.

3. Menganalisa perbezaan kedua-dua aspek tersebut antara lelaki dan perempuan.Instrumen : 1. Current Thoughts Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991)

2. Dieting Beliefs ScaleSample : Pelajar remaja di Colleges Chandigarh

: 100 lelaki, 100 perempuan Dapatan kajian : 1. State self-esteem mempengaruhi amalan diet individu.

2. Perempuan lebih mengutamakan body image berbanding

dengan lelaki dan lebih cenderung mengamalkan diet.Jurnal Psikologi : Journal J. Indian Assoc .Child Adolesc. Mental Health 2006 .

Relations Among The Three Constructs of Self-Esteem( Self-Esteem Issues and Answers – Micheal H. Kernis, 2006 )

Self- esteem formation and functioning

1. A Cognitive bottom-up model of self-esteem

• To evaluative feedback, influences self-evaluations which determine

feeling of self-worth and global self-esteem.

• E.g. success or failure, interpersonal acceptance or rejection

• Assume that self-esteem is base on more elemental beliefs about

one's particular qualities.• If you think you are : attractive,

intelligent, popular – high Self-esteem

Bottom - Up Model

Evaluative Feeback

Self-Evaluations

State SE/Feeling ofSelf-worth

Global Self-Esteem

Immediate effect

Enduring

Self- esteem formation and functioning

2. An Affective ( Top-Down ) Model of Self – Esteem

• Self- esteem develops early in life in response to temperamental and relational factors.• Influences self-evaluations and

feeling of self-worth.• Lack of arrow between global self-

esteem and evaluativee feedback signfies it does not influence global

self-esteem.• Global self-esteem and evaluative

feedback combine to influence self- evaluations and feeling of self-

worth.• E.g. : when low SE people

encounter negative feedback, their self- evaluations become more negative and their feeling of self-worth fall.

Top – Down Model

Global Self-Esteem

Global SE XEvaluativeFeedback

Self-Evaluations

EvaluativeFeedback

State SE / Feeling ofSelf-Worth

ConclusionSelf - esteem is our accessment of our worth / value as a human being, it is a combination of related traits

and attitudes. It is our center / Self, the basis upon which we build our lives. So, the way we feel about ourselves effects how we relate to the people around us and every other aspect of life.

• The field of self-esteem consists of a body of work that focuses on researching these phonemenon by using extremely wide range of qualitative and quantitative methods, theorizing about what is found, and using that information to help at the practical level.

( Christoopher J. Mruk, 2006 )