19th Century Europe, 1815-1848, political and diplomatic history
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Transcript of 19th Century Europe, 1815-1848, political and diplomatic history
Nineteenth Century EuropePART ONE1815-1850
Session IPolitical & Diplomatic History, 1815-1848
some preliminary remarks--”Back to the 19th Century!”
My list of “losses” last week after Hurricane “Ike”:1. connection to the outside world
a. Internetb. cable news
2. light for reading3. refrigeration4. cooking
How the 19th century brought these:1. “penny press”--daily papers, 1830s, telegraph, 1842, trans-Atlantic cable, 1867, “yellow press,”
1890s, telephones, 1880s-1920s, radio, 1900s-1920s, films, 1900s-1920s
2. gas illumination, 1820s-1860s (urban only); electricity, 1890s-1910s (urban only)
3. refrigeration, (urban private homes) ice delivery, 1880s, electric refrigerators, 1920s
4. food heating, tremendous variations, biggest move was from open hearth cooking to cast iron stoves, first urban, then rural
General Observations
there is no major conflict between the Great Powers
fewer Europeans die as a result of international war than in any
comparable period since 1848
compared to the twentieth century it seems “a golden age of
harmony”
Craig, Europe, 1815-1914, p. 3
The cause of this peace?The result of a happy combination of:
The cause of this peace?The result of a happy combination of:
determination to avoid war
self-restraint when opportunities for unilateral aggrandizement
presented themselves
skillful diplomacy
war weariness
political tumultloyal son or destroyer of the
French Revolution?
Waterloo
the age of “isms”
the age of “isms”
the first to appear in English is “socialism”, 1827 (Robert Owen)
the age of “isms”
the first to appear in English is “socialism”, 1827 (Robert Owen)
“capitalism” appeared in French first, 1832
the age of “isms”
the first to appear in English is “socialism”, 1827 (Robert Owen)
“capitalism” appeared in French first, 1832
followed in short order by “liberalism”, “conservatism” and “protectionism”
the age of “isms”
the first to appear in English is “socialism”, 1827 (Robert Owen)
“capitalism” appeared in French first, 1832
followed in short order by “liberalism”, “conservatism” and “protectionism”
“communism” appears in 1840
Left versus Right
(traditional diagram)
Left versus Right
radicalism
(traditional diagram)
Left versus Right
radicalism liberalism
(traditional diagram)
Left versus Right
radicalism liberalism conservatism
(traditional diagram)
Left versus Right
radicalism liberalism conservatism reaction
(traditional diagram)
Left versus Right
radicalism liberalism conservatism reaction↑
moderation
(traditional diagram)
Left versus Right
radicalism liberalism conservatism reaction↑
moderation
“Every little boy and gal who’s born into the world alive,Is either a little liberal, or else a conservative”
Gilbert & Sullivan
(traditional diagram)
immovable object meets irresistible force
immovable object meets irresistible force
Industrial Revolution,
the bourgeoisie,constitutionalism,
republicanism
II. The Great Powersand the
Balance of Power
The Reconstruction of Europe1814-1815
the Congress of Vienna(1 October 1814 - 8 June 1815)
Principals & Principles
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Castlereagh
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Castlereagh
Talleyrand
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Castlereagh
Talleyrand
Friederich Wm III
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Castlereagh
Talleyrand
Friederich Wm III
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Castlereagh
Talleyrand
Friederich Wm III
legitimacy
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Castlereagh
Talleyrand
Friederich Wm III
legitimacy
compensation
Principals & Principles
Metternich
Alexander I
Castlereagh
Talleyrand
Friederich Wm III
legitimacy
compensation
balance of power
Two challenges
deal with the defeated enemy, France
reduce the confusion and disorder resulting from the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire
1
12
12
3
12
3 4
Compensation
Compensation
1
Compensation
1
2
Compensation
1
23
Court Dress, the Order of the Iron Crown, Vienna, 1815
Restoring the Old Order
Klemens Prince von Metternich
(1773-1859)
I say to myself twenty times a day how right I am and how
wrong the others are. And yet it is so easy to be right.
Tsar Alexander I(1777-1801-1825)
“Autocrat and ‘Jacobin’, man of the world and mystic, he appeared to his contemporaries as a riddle which each read according to his
own temperament.”
Robert Stewart Viscount
Castlereagh(1769-1822)
British Foreign Secretary, 1812-1822
bane of radicals
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord
(1754-1838)
the ultimate survivor
Friederich Wilhelm III
(1770-1797-1840)
“Unfortunately...he had all the Hohenzollern tenacity of personal power without the Hohenzollern
genius for using it.”
Wilhelm Freiherr von Humboldt
(1767-1835)
government functionary, diplomat, philosopher, linguist, founder of Humboldt Universität, friend of Goethe and Schiller, architect of the Prussian education system
Karl August Prince von Hardenberg
(1750-1822)
“...the new sentiment of nationality...in him found
expression in a passionate desire to restore the position of Prussia
and crush her oppressors.”
Count Karl Robert Nesselrode
(1780-1862)
head of Russia’s official delegation, but Alexander I
acted as his own foreign minister
British gains
British gains
Heligoland
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
Cape Colony
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
Cape Colony
Ceylon
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
Cape Colony
Ceylon
Ile de France (Mauritius)
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
Cape Colony
Ceylon
Ile de France (Mauritius)
Demerara (from Dutch Guiana)
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
Cape Colony
Ceylon
Ile de France (Mauritius)
Demerara (from Dutch Guiana)
St. Lucia
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
Cape Colony
Ceylon
Ile de France (Mauritius)
Demerara (from Dutch Guiana)
St. Lucia
Tobago
British gains
Heligoland
Malta
the Ionian Islands
Cape Colony
Ceylon
Ile de France (Mauritius)
Demerara (from Dutch Guiana)
St. Lucia
Tobago
Trinidad
Austrian gains
Austrian gains
Italian lands
Lombardy
Venetia
South Tyrol
Austrian gains
Italian lands
Lombardy
Venetia
South Tyrol
Polish lands
Teschen
Galicia
Ruthenia
Austrian gains
Italian lands
Lombardy
Venetia
South Tyrol
Polish lands
Teschen
Galicia
Ruthenia
Illyria (modern Croatia)
Russian gains
Russian gains
Finland (from Sweden)
Russian gains
Finland (from Sweden)
Bessarabia (from Turkey)
Russian gains
Finland (from Sweden)
Bessarabia (from Turkey)
desired all of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) including
the Prussian and Austrian parts as a Russian satellite
the 18th century background
19th century Poland
19th century Poland
Napoleon’s Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 1806
19th century Poland
19th century Poland
19th century Poland
Prussia’s gains
1811consists of Brandenburg, Silesia, Pomerania,and Prussia only
HUNGARY
Prussia now includes Rhenish (Rhineland) Prussia, the Polish lands of the 18th century partitions, gains from Saxony,and several central German states which had been on the “wrong [Napoleon’s] side”
Legitimacy
Bourbons replace Bonapartes in France and Spain
Italian dynasties replace the Bonapartist Kingdom of Italy
the House of Orange is restored in the Netherlands and given the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)
France is expelled from the Rhineland but not Alsace and Lorraine
BUT the Holy Roman Empire is not restored
The German ConfederationDer Deutsche Bund
a loose confederation of 39 states
the Federal Assembly in Frankfurt/Main represents the sovereigns, not the people
Austria and Prussia the largest by far
three member states are ruled by foreign monarchs (DK, NL, GB) as Duke of Holstein, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and King of Hanover (until 1837). Each has one vote in the assembly
six other larger states have one vote each: the King of Bavaria, the King of Saxony, the King of Würtemberg, the prince-elector of Hesse, the Grand Duke of Baden, and the Grand Duke of Hesse
23 smaller and tiny members share five votes in the assembly
the four free cities Lübeck, Frankfurt, Bremen and Hamburg share one vote
the Hundred Days and the second Peace of Paris
as the Congress argues, Bonaparte acts
leaving his exile on the island of Elba 26 February, he marches north to Paris by 20 March collecting his old soldiers
Louis XVIII flees and the Grand Alliance mobilizes to face him down once again
after defeating him at Waterloo 16-18 June 1815, a second, more punitive, treaty is imposed upon France (20 November)
reduced territory by half a million subjects
imposes a war indemnity of 700 million francs--by contemporary standards a very heavy burden
France must support an occupation army for a minimum of three years
the Holy Alliance
conceived by Alexander I
attempted to replace traditional diplomacy with the principles of Christianity
Castlereagh wants nothing to do with it
Austria and Prussia support it
all the European sovereigns sign on except Britain, the Vatican, and the Sultan of Constantinople
They [the founding sovereigns, Alexander I, Francis I, and Frederick William
III] solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object than to publish, in
the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, both in the administration of
their respective States, and in their political relations with every other
Government, to take for their sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of Justice, Christian Charity, and Peace, which, far from
being applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on
the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only means of
consolidating human institutions and remedying their imperfections.
The Congress System“The Concert of Europe”
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1818
evacuation of France agreed to, and military measures, if any, against another French outbreak discussed
rejection of Alexander’s memo to merge the Quadruple and Holy Alliance
secret protocol renewing the Quadruple Alliance “to keep the peace”
British proposals on suppressing the slave trade and the Barbary pirates rejected
Britain defeats discussing the revolt of the Spanish colonies
the first wave of revolutions1820s
Austria’s primary military focus
Metternich perceived Italy as both the linchpin of his European system and the empire’s most vulnerable sector. The local rebellions of the early 1820s further concentrated his attention across the Alps….Piedmont (the strongest of the Italian kingdoms) increasingly understood its relations with the empire as ultimately zero-sum : one could profit only by the other’s loss.
Dennis Showalter. The Wars of German Unification. p. 21
Congress of Troppau, 20 Oct-19 Nov 1820
the issues to be discussed are the Spanish and Neapolitan revolutions
the eastern powers are represented by their monarchs and foreign ministers
Britain and France send only observers; the division emerges
Alexander to Metternich: Today I deplore everything that I have said and done between the years 1814 and 1818 ... Tell me what you want of me. I will do it.
the outcomes--the Troppau Protocol and an early date to reconvene
the Troppau Protocol
the Troppau Protocol
States, which have undergone a change of government due to revolution, the result of which threaten other states, ipso facto cease to be members of the European Alliance, and remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alterations, immediate danger threatens other states the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be, by arms, to bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance.
Congress of Laibach, 26 Jan-12 May 1821
Alexander, Francis, and their ministers;Prussia and France by plenipotentiaries, but Britain by Castlereagh without full powers; of the Italian princes, Naples and Modena, the rest by plenipotentiaries
Britain distances herself from the Troppau Protocol
Metternich wants unanimity for Austrian intervention in Naples. Britain and France demure.
Austria intervenes in Naples and Piedmont
Congress of Verona, 20 October 1822
Alexander & Nestlerode, Metternich, Hardenberg, Chateaubriand, and the Duke of Wellington
the Italian, Turkish (Greek), and Spanish Questions
interventions or the end of the “Concert of Europe”?
Wellington
Alexander
Francis
ChateaubriandGerman liberal university
student
Italian liberalsFrederick William III beingrocked to sleep
Wellington
Alexander
Francis
ChateaubriandGerman liberal university
student
Italian liberalsFrederick William III beingrocked to sleep
Take care of that Bear, he has set his Mind on Poland& his voracious appetite will gorge both East & West, and he is only making you his Tools, to cut each others Throat that he may devour you all the more easily
the Spanish revolt, 1820
Spain’s new world colonies are in revolt and the cost of subduing them is bankrupting the country
Ferdinand’s rule is whimsical, cruel and incompetent
the Jesuits are a symbol of conservatism
an army revolt restores the Constitution of 1812 and imprisons Ferdinand until he accepts it
France intervenes in 1823 and defeats the “liberals”
Fernando VIII1784-1813-1833
the Carbonari
secret revolutionary cells in Italy, later Portugal and France
based their organization on Freemasonry
their “cover” was that of itinerant charcoal burners
began as resistance to Napoleonic occupation
continued to oppose the royalist restoration, anti-clerical
after 1831--La giovine Italia (Young Italy)Giuseppi Mazzini
1805-1872entered the Carbonari, 1830
the Greek war of independence(1821-1832)
the Greek war of independence(1821-1832)
Eugène Delacroix, The Massacre of Chios (1822)
επαναστασι (EpaNAStasi-Resurrection)
the Balkans had been under the Turks since the 15th century
the bloody events in Greece during the 1820s marked the beginning of a long series of disorders
they were the inevitable result of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire
Metropolitan of Patras, blessing the flag of Revolution, Theodoros Vryzakis, 1865,
Eugène Delacroix,“Greece expiring onthe ruins of Missa-longhi” (1827)
the Greek revival
European sympathy romanticized the Greek cause (“philhellenism” love of things Greek)
Byron famously died at Missalonghi inspiring thousands of other volunteers
American “Greek” college fraternities began to raise funds to support the cause
Southern plantation homes, banks and government buildings were modeled on Greek temples
naval battle of Navarino20 October 1827
the second wave of revolutions1830-1831
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
Belgium=predominantly Catholic Netherlands=militantly Calvinist
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
Belgium=predominantly Catholic Netherlands=militantly Calvinist
=flourishing but young industry =agricultural and commercial
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
Belgium=predominantly Catholic Netherlands=militantly Calvinist
=flourishing but young industry =agricultural and commercial
=protectionist =free trade
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
Belgium=predominantly Catholic Netherlands=militantly Calvinist
=flourishing but young industry =agricultural and commercial
=protectionist =free trade
=young professionals found the civil service jobs filled with Dutchmen
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
Belgium=predominantly Catholic Netherlands=militantly Calvinist
=flourishing but young industry =agricultural and commercial
=protectionist =free trade
=young professionals found the civil service jobs filled with Dutchmen
during the late 1820s a series of bad harvests led to rural unrest
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
Belgium=predominantly Catholic Netherlands=militantly Calvinist
=flourishing but young industry =agricultural and commercial
=protectionist =free trade
=young professionals found the civil service jobs filled with Dutchmen
during the late 1820s a series of bad harvests led to rural unrest
overproduction in the textile industries led to proletarian “immiseration”
long range causes of the Belgian Revolution
the Vienna settlement had placed the Belgians under the Dutch crown without any consideration of the people’s desires
there were significant conflicts of interest:
Belgium=predominantly Catholic Netherlands=militantly Calvinist
=flourishing but young industry =agricultural and commercial
=protectionist =free trade
=young professionals found the civil service jobs filled with Dutchmen
during the late 1820s a series of bad harvests led to rural unrest
overproduction in the textile industries led to proletarian “immiseration”
all that was needed was the “spark” from Paris, the July Revolution
Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834)
Palmerston in the well
Speaking for the Concert of Europe,a British foreign minister intervenes:
Henry Temple Viscount Palmerston
(1784-1865)
“We have no eternal allies, and we have no perpetual enemies. Our interests are eternal and
perpetual and those interests it is our duty to follow.”
--in Commons, 1 March 1848
Pam’s remarkable career
Pam’s remarkable career
maiden speech in 1807, defending Nelson’s bombardment of Copenhagen
Pam’s remarkable career
maiden speech in 1807, defending Nelson’s bombardment of Copenhagen
in government for most of the next sixty-three years! War Minister, Foreign Secretary, Home Secretary, and twice, Prime Minister
Pam’s remarkable career
maiden speech in 1807, defending Nelson’s bombardment of Copenhagen
in government for most of the next sixty-three years! War Minister, Foreign Secretary, Home Secretary, and twice, Prime Minister
the settlement of the Belgian crisis was his first great success
Pam’s remarkable career
maiden speech in 1807, defending Nelson’s bombardment of Copenhagen
in government for most of the next sixty-three years! War Minister, Foreign Secretary, Home Secretary, and twice, Prime Minister
the settlement of the Belgian crisis was his first great success
nicknamed “Pumice stone” for his abrasive qualities:
Pam’s remarkable career
maiden speech in 1807, defending Nelson’s bombardment of Copenhagen
in government for most of the next sixty-three years! War Minister, Foreign Secretary, Home Secretary, and twice, Prime Minister
the settlement of the Belgian crisis was his first great success
nicknamed “Pumice stone” for his abrasive qualities:
fondness for sensation, cocksureness, tendency to bully weaker opponents
Pam’s remarkable career
maiden speech in 1807, defending Nelson’s bombardment of Copenhagen
in government for most of the next sixty-three years! War Minister, Foreign Secretary, Home Secretary, and twice, Prime Minister
the settlement of the Belgian crisis was his first great success
nicknamed “Pumice stone” for his abrasive qualities:
fondness for sensation, cocksureness, tendency to bully weaker opponents
BUT, quick & accurate judgment, rapidity of decision, force of will, incredible capacity for work, and great skill in negotiation
Pam’s remarkable career
maiden speech in 1807, defending Nelson’s bombardment of Copenhagen
in government for most of the next sixty-three years! War Minister, Foreign Secretary, Home Secretary, and twice, Prime Minister
the settlement of the Belgian crisis was his first great success
nicknamed “Pumice stone” for his abrasive qualities:
fondness for sensation, cocksureness, tendency to bully weaker opponents
BUT, quick & accurate judgment, rapidity of decision, force of will, incredible capacity for work, and great skill in negotiation
London Treaty of 1831, the famous “scrap of paper” of 1914
Polonia1830-1831
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
Poland--”Martyr Nation”
The November Uprising
III. The Eastern PowersAbsolutism and its Limitations
III. The Eastern PowersAbsolutism and its Limitations
Metternich Euro2003
Joseph de Maistre(1753-1821)
“ ...a fierce absolutist, a furious theocrat, an intransigent legitimist, apostle of a monstrous
trinity composed of Pope, King and Hangman…”
Russia,1815-1848
Russia,1815-1848
St Petersburg under Tsar Nicholas I
Tsar Alexander I (1777-1801-1825)
imbibes liberal ideas from his grandmother Catherine the Great and his Swiss tutor La Harpe
comes to the throne at the murder of his father, Tsar Paul I (1796-1801)
unpredictably mixes reforms and religious idealism with conservative measures
by Alkruger, 1812
Count Alexey Andreyevich Arakcheyev
(1769-1834)general, War Minister
“That which ceases to grow begins to rot.”
military settlementsrepression
Decembrist Revolt1825, St PetersburgДекабристы
Tsar Nicholas I(1796-1825-1855)
“He is stern and severe--with fixed principles of duty which
nothing on earth will make him change; very clever I do not
think him…”Queen Victoria, 1844
Count Alexander von Benckendorff
(1783-1844)
warned of the Decembrists, created the secret police called
the Third Section(Третье Урок)
Sergei Sergeivich Uvarov(1765-1855)
Education Minister(1833-1849)
ПРАВОСЛАВИЕ (pravoslavieye)САМОДЕРЖАВИЕ (samoderzhavieye)
НАРОДНОСТЬ (narodnost)
OrthodoxyAutocracyNationality
by Orest Kiprensky, 1815-16
Pavel Petrovich Melnikov
(1804-1880)
Minister of Transport Communications,
the St Petersburg-Moscow Railroad(1842-1851)
the myth of the Tsar’s finger
the railroad was constructed in an almost straight line
through swamps, hills, valleys at great cost in human (serf) life
lamented by Nekrasov in his poem “The Railway”
the 17 km bend was [falsely] attributed to the tsar drawing a straight line with a ruler, the bump was caused by his finger
St Isaac’s Cathedral (1818-1858)
St Isaac’s Cathedral (1818-1858)
St Isaac’s Cathedral (1818-1858)
St Isaac’s Cathedral (1818-1858)
Prussia, 1815-1848
Prussia, 1815-1848
return to reaction
the period of resistance to Napoleon, 1807-1815, had produced reforms: emancipation of the serfs, army promotions by merit, promise of a written constitution
the influence of his fellow monarchs,Metternich, and the conservative Prussian aristocrats moved Fredrick William III to the right
liberal ministers were replaced by reactionary ones
Hegelianism replaced Humboldt’s educational reforms
Georg Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
German idealist philosopher
Volksgeist and Weltgeist
Hegelian dialectic: thesis vs. antithesis--> synthesis
University of Berlin, 1818-1831
Right and Left (Young) Hegelians
“progress toward freedom was possible within an authoritarian order”
Fredrick William IV (1795-1840-1861)
like his father, he first inspired hope among the liberal reformers
he was a romantic, perhaps the last true believer in divine right of kings
“devious methods and a habit of indecision in moments of crisis” ---Craig
“wanted to appear a wise and magnanimous ruler”--- Ibid.
“No power on earth will ever force me to transform the natural relationship...between prince and people into a constitutional one” (1847)
Austria, 1815-1848
Austria, 1815-1848
Austrian Lands and Peoples
Austria proper
Bohemia & Moravia
Galicia
Hungary
Illyria
Lombardy & Venetia
Germans
Czechs & Slovaks
Poles & Ruthenians
Magyars &c
Slovenes, Croats & Serbs
Italians
“Govern, and change nothing”--Francis I
“Govern, and change nothing”--Francis I
“indolent, but far from being a cipher” --Craig
“Govern, and change nothing”--Francis I
“indolent, but far from being a cipher” --Craig
“...the emperor knew exactly what he wanted, and he was autocrat enough to see that he got it” -- Metternich, 1820
“Govern, and change nothing”--Francis I
“indolent, but far from being a cipher” --Craig
“...the emperor knew exactly what he wanted, and he was autocrat enough to see that he got it” -- Metternich, 1820
Metternich tried to make the bureaucracy more efficient (not more liberal) but after 1826 was too busy protecting his own “turf” from arch rival, Czech Count Kolowrat
“Govern, and change nothing”--Francis I
“indolent, but far from being a cipher” --Craig
“...the emperor knew exactly what he wanted, and he was autocrat enough to see that he got it” -- Metternich, 1820
Metternich tried to make the bureaucracy more efficient (not more liberal) but after 1826 was too busy protecting his own “turf” from arch rival, Czech Count Kolowrat
the chief of the secret police, Count Joseph Sedlnitzsky, ran a widespread network of informers, including the clergy, who controlled the press and the educational system, professors and schoolteachers
Ferdinand I (1793-1835-1848-1875)
as many as 20 epileptic seizures a day
often dismissed as feeble minded, “Ich bin der Kaiser und ich will Knödel”
a council of state: Metternich, Kolowrat, and Archduke Ludwig,”the least gifted of Francis I’s brothers” ran the bureaucracy
again,reforms were not on the agenda
Ferdinand was convinced to abdicate in favor of his nephew Franz Josef in 1848
the Austrian mission
One of Metternich’s foreign colleagues said on one occasion that Austria was Europe’s House of Lords, meaning, no doubt, that its function was to restrain the passions and undo the mistakes of the common run of petty states in Europe
Craig, p. 54
Germany, 1815-1848
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852)
studied theology and philology at Göttingen
joined Prussian army after Jena, 1806
humiliated at Prussia’s defeat, taught gymnastics and nationalism to restore national pride
first Turnplatz in Berlin, 1811; invented parallel bars, balance beam, vaulting horse, and horizontal bars--> Turnvater Jahn
organized the Wartburgfest, 1817
WartburgfestStudentenzug, 18 Oktober 1817
terrorism19th century
styleAugust von Kotzebue(1761-1819)
(1795-1820)
Carlsbad Decrees(20 September 1819)
Carlsbad Decrees(20 September 1819)
outlawed the Burschenschaften
Carlsbad Decrees(20 September 1819)
outlawed the Burschenschaften
provided for university inspectors
Carlsbad Decrees(20 September 1819)
outlawed the Burschenschaften
provided for university inspectors
established press censorship
Carlsbad Decrees(20 September 1819)
outlawed the Burschenschaften
provided for university inspectors
established press censorship
led to the expulsion of reformers throughout the Germanies
French war scare of 1840
“Here for the first time the Germans were one”--Heinrich von
Treitschke
Die Wacht am Rhein, Max Schneckenburger
Deutschland über Alles, Hoffmann von Fallersleben
IV. France, 1815-48
IV. France, 1815-48Restoration?
Louis XVIII (1755-1795-1814-1824)
“sober good sense … in the first years of his reign”
granted his subjects the constitutional charter
steered a middle course between democracy and absolutism
after the assassination of the Duc d’ Berry (1820) he became a reactionary
authorized the Spanish expedition (1823)
Le Charte (the Charter)(1814-1848)
Le Charte (the Charter)(1814-1848)
insistence of the Allied Powers
Le Charte (the Charter)(1814-1848)
insistence of the Allied Powers
Chamber of Peers and Chamber of DeputiesPeers = hereditary (House of Lords)
Deputies = limited franchise (100,000 of 28 million)
Le Charte (the Charter)(1814-1848)
insistence of the Allied Powers
Chamber of Peers and Chamber of DeputiesPeers = hereditary (House of Lords)
Deputies = limited franchise (100,000 of 28 million)
civil libertiesequality before the law
freedom of religion and the press
civil and military “careers open to talent”
Charles X(1757-1824-1830)
younger brother to both Louis XVI and XVIII, comte d’ Artois,last king of the senior Bourbon
line
triumph of the “Ultras”
favors for the Church:
certain kinds of sacrilege punishable by death
University of Paris put under the archbishop, some courses suspended, “dangerous to morals”
favors for the nobility:
émigrés indemnified for losses during the Revolution
attempted to restore primogeniture
began the conquest of Algeria (1829-1830)
Jules Auguste Armand Marie, Prince de Polignac (1780-1847)
Jules Auguste Armand Marie, Prince de Polignac (1780-1847)
8th Prime Minister of France (August, 1829 - July 29, 1830)
Ultra-Royalist, former émigré
opponent of the Charter
visionary, claimed frequent conversations with the Blessed Mother
parliamentary crisis-->July Ordinances
Revolution of 1830
Eugène Delacroix, La Liberté guidant le peuple, 1830
Auguste de Marmont(1774-1852)
"Sire, it is no longer a riot, it is a revolution. It is urgent for Your Majesty to take measures for pacification. The honour of the crown can still be saved. Tomorrow, perhaps, there will be no more time... I await with impatience Your Majesty's orders."
--28 July 1830
France 1815-48the July Monarchy
France 1815-48the July Monarchy
NOTE-not King of France, King of the French
Louis-Philippe (1773-1830-1848-1850)
Prince du Sang (of the blood) of the Orleanist branch of the Bourbon line
his father had sided with the revolution, nicknamed Philippe Égalité, and Père du Peuple (Father of the People)
served in the revolutionary army until the Terror (1793-94) then exiled
travelled extensively, including four years in the U.S.
returned to court after 1815, but part of the liberal opposition
Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the Press
François Guizot (1787-1874)
historian, orator, statesman
Minister of Education, 1832-37
Foreign Minister, 1840-47
Prime Minister, September 19, 1847- February 23, 1848
limited vote to men of property, advising those who wanted to vote, enrichissez-vous, (“get rich”)
his January ban on political meetings was the catalyst of the revolution of 1848
V. Great BritainSocial Unrest and Social Compromise
1815-1848
V. Great BritainSocial Unrest and Social Compromise
1815-1848
Houses of Parliament, built 1834-64
the Peterloo Massacre16 August 1819
St Peter’s Field, Manchester15 killed, 400-700 injured
the increasingly constitutional monarchy
the Great Reform Bill of 1832
“rotten” & “pocket” boroughs
Catholic Emancipation
Ireland and Poland, the two “martyr nations”
Daniel O’Connell (1775-1847)
opposed violent revolution
elected to Commons, 1828 after “monster” outdoor rallies
Catholic Relief Act, 1829
O’Connell Monument, Dublin
from 0.5% to 2%
reduced the number of “rotten boroughs”
increased the electorate
altered the balance between:
Lords and Commons
Tories and Whigs
advanced democratization
“squirearchy” vs commercial & industrial interests
“Tories” (Conservatives) vs “Whigs (Liberals)
Municipal Reform Act, 1835
repeal of the Corn Laws (grain tariffs)
Chartism and Republicanism
Anti Corn Law League (1839)
GIVE US THIS DAY OUR DAILY BREAD
mass politics in the 1840s“the most effective propaganda machine that Britain had ever seen”
financed by contributions from the industrialists
the grain tariff was the heart of the protective system which the “Free Traders” wanted to dismantle
Tory landed interests held out against them until 1845 when the Potato Famine added its pathos to the demand for cheap food imports
Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel, “traitor to his party” and the Duke of Wellington, “traitor to his class,” led the fight to repeal
thus began government’s transition from an agricultural to a commercial and industrial economy
Anti-Corn Law Petition
Chartism
their demands
universal suffrage for all men age 21 and over
equal-sized electoral districts
voting by secret ballot
end of the property qualification for Parliament
pay for Members of Parliament
annual election of Parliament
Europe, East and West
on the eve of the Revolution of 1848 there were major differences
the farther east one went, the less:
representative government
urban, industrial development
the fewer individual liberties