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Transcript of 19c14Module 1 PPT Afm
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Amity Business School
Amity Business School
MBA Class of 2010, Semester I
MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING
Module I
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ACCOUNTANCY, ACCOUNTING ANDBOOK-KEEPING
Accountancy
Accounting
Book-Keeping
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ACCOUNTINGAccounting is a process of Identifying, Measuring, Recording,
Classifying, Summarizing, Analyzing, Interpreting and
Communication the economic information of an organizationto its users.
Accounting is also called the language of business
Accounting is a method to communicate financial information tointerested internal and external parties.
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BOOK-KEEPING
Book-keeping is an art of recording the financial transaction ofa business, or an individual, in terms of money, in a set of
books accurately and systematically in order to obtainnecessary information about the conduct and status of business.
Book-keeping is a part of Accounting and it starts withidentifying the transaction and ends with recording thetransaction in the books of accounts.
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ACCOUNTANCY
Accountancy is a field of knowledge concerned with theprinciples and techniques which are applied in accounting in
order to meet the specific the need of a particular concern.
For the purpose of simplicity, the accountancy can be dividedinto two parts:
(1) Book-Keeping (2) Accounting
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Activities Under
Accounting
MeasuringIdentifying Recording Classifying Summarizing
Analyzing Interpreting Communication
Transactions
Events
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ACCOUNTING CYCLEAccounting cycle is a complete sequence beginning with the
recording of the transaction and ending with preparationof the final accounts.
Steps in Accounting cycle:
1. Journalizing (Recording the Transaction)
2. Posting (Transfer of transaction in respecting a/c)3. Balancing (Calculating diff. b/w both sides of a/c)
4. Trial Balance (Preparing list of all a/c)
5. Income Statement (Preparing Trading and P&L a/c)
6. Balance sheet (Preparing Balance Sheet)
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Users of Accounting
Creditors (Short term and Long term)
Investors (Present and Potential)
Management
Employees
Tax Authorities
Customers
Government and their Agencies
Public
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Usefulness of Accounting Facilitates to replace memory
Facilitates to comply with legal requirement
Facilitates to ascertain net result of operations
Facilitates to ascertain financial position
Facilitates the users to take decisions
Facilitates a comparative study
Assists the management
Facilitates control over assets
Facilitates the settlement of tax liability
Facilitates the ascertainment of value of business
Facilitates raising loans
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Accounting Limitations
Ignores the qualitative elements
Not free from bias
Estimated position and not real position
In some cases ignores the price level changes
Window Dressing
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Branches of Accounting
Cost AccountingFinancial
AccountingManagement
Accounting
Social
Responsibility
Accounting
Financial Accounting: Process of identifying, measuring, recording,classifying, summarizing, analyzing, interpreting and communicating the financial
transactions and events.
The main purpose of this branch of accounting is to keep systematic records toascertain financial performance and financial position and to communicate the
accounting information to the interested parties.
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Cost Accounting:Process of accounting and controlling the cost of a product,operation or function.
Purpose of this branch of accounting is to ascertain the cost, to control cost and to
communicate information for decision-making.
Management Accounting: This Branch of accounting provides informationdesigned to help all levels of management in planning and controlling the activities ofbusiness enterprise and decision making.
Purpose of this branch is to supply any and all information that management may need in
taking decision and evaluate the impact of its decisions and actions.
Social Responsibility Accounting: Process of identifying, measuring, andcommunicating the social effect of business decisions to permit informed judgement and
decisions by the users of the information.
Accounting for environment and ecology is part of social responsibility accounting.
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Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP)
Those rules of action or conduct which are derived from experience and
practice and when they prove useful, they become accepted as principles of
accounting.
General Acceptance of accounting principles or practices depends upon how
well they meet the following criteria:
Relevance : Should be relevant to the extent it results in information that is
meaningful and useful to the user of accounting information.
Objectivity : Should be objective to the extent the accounting information is
not influenced by personal bias or judgment of those who provide it.
Principles should be verifiable also.
Feasibility : Should be feasible to the extent it can be implemented without
much complexity of cost.
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Kinds of Accounting Principles Basic Concepts or Assumptions
Basic Principles
Modifying Principles
Basic Concepts or Assumptions: To make the accounting language convey the samemeaning to all people and to make it more meaningful, most of the accountants have agreed
on a number of concepts which are usually followed for preparing the financial statements.
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Basic Assumptions ofAccounting
Money
Measurement
Assumption
Accounting Entity
Assumption
Accounting Period
Assumption
Going Concern
Assumption
Accounting Entity Assumption:Business is a separate entity that is distinct from itsowner(s), and all other economic proprietors. E.g. in case of proprietary concern, though the
legal entity of the business and its proprietor is the same, for the purpose of accounting, they
are to be treated as separate.
MoneyMeasurement Assumption:Only those transactions which are capable ofbeing expressed in terms of money are included in the accounting records. E.g. If the sales
director is not on speaking terms with the production director, the enterprise is bound to
suffer. Since monetary measurement of this information is not possible, this fact is not
recorded in accounting records.
Verifiable
Objective
Evidence
Assumption
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Accounting Period Assumption:Also known as Periodicity assumption or Timeperiod assumption. The economic life of an enterprise is artificially split into periodic
intervals which are known as accounting periods, at the end of which an income
statement and position statement are prepared to show the performance and
financial position.
Going Concern Assumption:Also known as Continuity assumption. Enterpriseis normally viewed as going concern, that is, continuing in operation for the
foreseeable future. It is assumed that the enterprise has neither the intention nor the
necessity of liquidation or of curtailing materially the scale of operation.
Verifiable Objective Evidence Assumption:All accounting transaction thatare recorded in the books of accounts should be evidenced and supported by
business documents.
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Basic Principles of
Accounting
Principle of
Expense
Revenue
Recognition
Principle
Dual Aspect
Principle
Matching
Principle
Fill Disclosure
Principle
Basic Principles of Accounting:On the basis of the concepts of accounting discussedabove, certain principles have been developed that guide how transactions should be
recorded and reported. These basic principles are as follow:
Principle of Revenue Recognition:Revenue is earned by sale of goods or byproviding a service. This principle determines or the particular period in which the revenue is
realized. The basis that may be used for determining the period in which revenue is realized
are: On the basis of Sales, On the basis of Cash, On the basis of Production.
Principle of Expenses:According to this principle of expenses, expenses are notrecognized when cash is paid for them but only when they are actually used to generate
revenue
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Principle ofMatching Cost and Revenue:In determining the net profit frombusiness operation, all costs which are applicable to revenue period should becharged against that revenue. Accordingly, for matching costs with revenue, first
revenue should be recognized and then costs incurred for generating that revenue
should be recognized.
Principle of full disclosure:All significant information relating to the economic
affair of the enterprise should be completely disclosed. In other words, there shouldbe sufficient disclosure of information which is of material interest to the users of the
financial statements such as proprietors, present and potential creditors, investors
and others. Thats why we are showing Contingent liabilities as a footnote in financial
statements.
Dual Aspect Principles
:Every business transaction is recorded as having a dualaspect. In other words, every transaction affects at least two accounts. If one account
is debited, any other account must be credited. This system of recording transactions
based on this principle is called as Double Entry System. Thats why the two sides
of the balance sheet are always equal and the following accounting equation will
always hold good at any point of time:
Assets = Liabilities + Capital orCapital = Assets - Liabilities
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Modifying Principles
Principle of
Consistency
Principle of
Materiality
Principle of Conservatism
Or Prudence
Principle of
Timeliness
Principle of
Accounting Practice
Modifying Principles: There are certain accounting principles which can be slightlymodified by different accountants according to the situations and requirements of the business.
This is done in order to make the financial statements more relevant and reliable. These
principles are:
Principle of Materiality: This principle is an exception to the principle of full disclosure.According to this principle, items having an insignificant effect or being irrelevant to the user
need not be disclosed. These unimportant items are either left out or merged with other items,otherwise accounting statements will be unnecessarily overburdened. It should be noted what
may be material for one concern may be immaterial for another. E.g. the cost of small tools
may be material for a small repair workshop, but the same figure may be immaterial for
Escorts Ltd. Similarly the nature of transaction should also be taken into consideration. A
difference of Rs. 5,000 in valuation of stock may be regarded as immaterial, but a difference of
Rs. 5,000 in cash could be termed material.
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Principle of Consistency: Accounting principles and methods should remain
consistent from one year to another. These should not be changed from year to year, inorder to enable the management to compare profit & loss A/c and Balance sheet of different
periods and draw important conclusion about the working of the enterprise.
But this principle of consistency should not be taken to mean that it does not allow a firm to
change the accounting methods according to changed circumstances of the business.
Otherwise, the accounting will become non-flexible and the improved techniques of
accounting will not be used.Principle of Conservatism or Prudence: All anticipated losses should be recordedin the books of accounts, but all anticipated or unrealized gain should be ignored. In other
words, it is a policy of playing safe. Provision is made for all known liabilities and losses
even though the amount can not be determined with certainty.
Principle of Timeliness: Financial statements should be prepared quickly at the end of
accounting period and made available to management and other external users at theearliest possible time. If they are delayed, they will be of little or no use.
Principle of Industry Practice: Some time the unique characteristics or the peculiarnature of industry requires the departure from accounting principles to report the true
results of the business. E.g. if a particular method of providing depreciation and valuing
stock is prevailing in an industry, it becomes the industry practice. An accountant must
follow the accounting practices prevailing in the industry which preparing financialtatement .
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Introduction to Accounting Standards Accounting standards deal with the system of financial measurement and disclosure
used to prepare fairly presented financial statements.
These standards draw boundaries within which acceptable conduct should lie. In
other words, they provide Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) and
procedures as pronounced by professionally competent organizations. These
standards suggest rules and criteria of accounting measurement.
Accounting Standards in India:On 27thApril 1977, The institute of CharteredAccountants of India constitute Accounting Standards Board (known as A.S.B.) with a
view to harmonize accounting policies and practices used in India. The main function
of A.S.B. is to formulate the standards after taking into consideration the applicable
laws, customs, usages and business environment.
Types of Standards:The Standards are of two types: Recommendatory andMandatory. Initially the standards are recommendatory in nature. Certain period is
allowed for smooth transition to conform to the Standards from existing practices.
This period is decided by Institute of Chartered Accountant of India. Mandatory
standards imply that compulsory adherence to the standards by all enterprises
covered by standards, is to be ensured.
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Accounting Equation means the total of assets will be equal to the total of liabilities. The basic idea behind this equation is that the business does not have
anything of its own. All assets of the business are claimed by someone (either owner of
outsiders). It follows, therefore that, whenever an asset comes into business, and equal
claims arises or an equal value of other asset goes away. As no asset can drop from
heaven, it must be accompanied by a claim. This expression can be shown in the form
of following equation:Assets = Equities*
or
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
*Claims of various parties against the assets
Example:
Govind commenced business with capital of Rs. 60, 000.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash = Liabilities + Capital
60, 000 = Nil + 60, 000
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Govind purchased goods from Gopal on credit for Rs. 20, 000
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Goods = Creditors + Capital
Old Equation 60, 000 + 0 = 0 + 60, 000
Transaction 0 + 20, 000 = 20, 000 + 0
New Equation 60, 000 + 20,000 = 20, 000 + 60, 000
Govind purchased furniture for cash Rs. 2, 000.
Govind purchased goods for cash Rs. 30, 000.
Goods costing Rs. 15, 000 sold on credit for Rs. 18, 000. Paid Rent Rs. 600.
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S.N.
Transactions Accounts AffectedAssets Liabilities and Capital
1 Capital brought in Cash increases Capital increase
2 Purchased goods for cash Stock increases
Cash Decreases
3 Purchased goods on credit Stock Increases Creditors increases4 Purchased furniture for cash Cash decreases
Furniture increases
5 Paid rent Cash decreases Rent = Expenses Therefore,
Capital decreases
6 Received Commission Cash increases Commission = IncomeTherefore, Capital Increases
7 Withdrew cash for private use Cash decreases Capital decreases
8 Paid to creditors Cash decreases Creditors decreases
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Meaning of Debit and Credit
In actual practice, the individual transactions of like nature are recorded, added and
subtracted at one place. Such place is customarily termed as an Account . Prior to
understanding the meaning of debit and credit, it is essential to understand the
meaning and form of an account.
An account is a ledger record in a summarized form, of all the transactions thathave taken place with the particular person of things specified
- Carter
All accounts are divided into two sides. The left side of an account is arbitrarily or
traditionally called Debit side and the right side of an account is called Credit side.
In the abbreviated form, Debit is written as Dr. and Credit is known as Cr.
Debit (Dr.) Cash Account Credit (Cr.)
The above account is often called T shape account. An account is abbreviated as A/c.
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Rules of Debit and Credit In order to decide when to write on the debit side of an account and when to write on the
credit side of an account. There are two approaches:
a) Modern approach and
b) Traditional approach
Modern Approach:
Debit means decrease in proprietor equity and credit means increase in proprietors
equity
The rules of debit and credit depends on the nature of an account. For this purpose, all the
accounts are classified into the following five categories:
I. Assets Accounts
II. Liabilities Accounts
III. Capital Account or Owners Equity Account
IV. Revenue or Income Accounts
V. Losses or Expenses Accounts
Assets Accounts: Increase in assets will be recorded on debit side and Decrease in assets will
be recorded on credit side.
Liabilities Accounts: Decrease in liability will be recorded on debit side and increase in
liability will be recorded on credit side.
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Capital Account: Decrease in capital will be recorded on debit side and increase in capital
will be recorded on credit side.
Revenue or Income Accounts: Decrease in gains and incomes will be recorded on debit
side and increase in gains and incomes will be recorded on credit side.
Losses or Expenses Accounts: Increase in losses and expenses will be recorded on debit
side and Decrease in losses and expenses will be recorded on credit side.
English Approach: English approach is also known as Double Entry System. According
to this system every business transaction affects at least two accounts in opposite directions.
For example, if the furniture is purchased in the business, furniture is increased whereas the
cash is decreased. There can be no transaction in the business which affects only one account
or which has only one aspect. As such, both the aspects of every transaction are recorded
under this system. It may, however, be noted that the double entry does not mean that atransaction is recorded twice. But it means that at least two accounts are affected by a
transaction one account receiving a benefit and the other account yielding a benefit. The
person or the account receiving a benefit is debited and the person or the account who gives
something to the business is credited. The amount of every transaction is written twice, once
as a debit and again as a credit. E.g. We received Rs. 5,000 from Mohan. Here cash account is
receiving, hence debited whereas Mohan is yielding, hence credited.
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Every business transaction has a two-fold effect and that it affects two accounts in
opposite directions and if a complete record were to be made of each suchtransaction, it would be necessary to debit one account and credit another account. It
is this recording of the two-fold effect of every transaction that has given rise to the
term Double Entry System
-J. R. Batliboi
Characteristics ofDouble Entry System
Every business transaction affects two accounts
Recording of both personal and impersonal aspects
Recording is made according to certain specified rules
Preparation of Trial Balance
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Classification ofAccounts
Impersonal AccountPersonal Account
Natural Artificial Representative Real Accounts Nominal Account
Tangible Intangible
Personal Account:The accounts which relates to an individual, firm, company or an
institution are called personal account. Account of Mohan, account ofRam Chander, KrishanChander, Account of D.C.M. Ltd, Account of Delhi University, Bank Account, Capital Account
of the proprietor, Drawing account of the proprietor etc.
Rule:Debit the receiver andCredit the giver
In other words, Debit that persons account who receives something from the business and
Credit that persons account who gives something to the business"
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Example 1: Paid Rs. 1,000 to Hari:
In this case two accounts affected are Haris A/c and Cash A/c. Haris account will be
debited as he is the receiver of cash, the account of cash will be credited, as cash
has gone out and the entry will be:
Hari (Debit the receiver) Dr. 1, 000
To Cash A/c 1, 000
Example 2: Received Rs. 500 from Mohan:
In this case, cash account will be debited as cash has been received, and Mohans
account will be credited according to the rule of Credit the Giver. And the entry willbe:
Cash A/c Dr. 500
To Mohan (Credit the Giver) 500
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Types or Classification of Accounts
1) Natural Personal Account:Accounts of Natural Persons means the accountsof human beings. For example, Mohans A/c, Sohans A/c, Proprietors Capital A/c,
Proprietors Drawings A/c, Debtors A/c, Creditors A/c etc.
2) Artificial Personal Account:These accounts do not have physical existence ashuman beings but they work as personal accounts. For example, any Firms account,
any limited companys account, any institutions account and any other banksaccount. These are treated as artificial persons for the recording of business
transactions. These transactions also include the accounts of Clubs, Insurance
Companies and the accounts of Government departments which are recognized as
persons in the business dealings.
3) Representative Personal Accounts:
When an account represents a particularperson or group of persons, it is termed as a representative personal account. For
example, if the salaries for the month of December are not paid to the employees, the
amount payable to these employees will be added and put under one common title
Salaries Outstanding Account. This account represents the accounts of all the
persons to whom salaries have to be paid. This is therefore termed as
Representative Personal Account.
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Real Accounts:The accounts of all those things whose value can be measured in
terms of money and which are the properties of the business are termed as RealAccount. Such as Cash Account, Furniture Account, Machinery Account, Building
Accounts, Goodwill Accounts etc.
Rule:Debit what comes in andCredit what goes out
In other words, whenever any property comes into the business, it is debited and
when it goes outside the business, it is credited.
For Example, if furniture forRs. 5, 000 has been purchased for cash, furniture
account should be debited according to the rule of Debit what comes in, while cash
account should be credited according to the rule of Credit what goes out. And the
entry should be:
Furniture A/c (Debit what comes in) Dr. 5, 000
To Cash A/c (Credit what goes out) 5, 000
Types of Real Accounts:
a) Tangible Real Account:Accounts of the things which can be touched, felt,
measured, purchased and sold etc. E.g. Cash A/c, Furniture A/c, Land A/c etc.
b) Intangible Real Account:Accounts of things which can not be touched but, of
course, their value can be measured in term of money. E.g. Goodwill A/c, Trade Mark
A/c, Patent A/c, Copyright A/c etc.
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Nominal Accounts:These accounts include the accounts of all expenses and
incomes. E.g. Salaries paid, Rent paid, Discount Allowed and Bed Debts etc.
Rule: Debit the expenses and losses andCredit the incomes and gains
Example 1: Paid Rs. 5, 000 for Salaries.
In this case two accounts being affected are Salaries A/c and Cash A/c. Salaries
represents expenses and as such, Salaries account will be debited according to therule ofDebit the expenses. On the other hand, Cash A/c will be Credited according
to the rule ofCredit what goes outand the entry will be:
Salaries A/c (Debit the Expenses) Dr. 5, 000
To Cash A/c (Credit what goes out) 5, 000
Example 2:
Received Rs. 1, 000 for Commission.Commission A/c is a nominal account and represents an income. As such,
Commission A/c will be credited according to the rule ofCredit the incomes. Cash
A/c is a real account and cash is coming in, therefore Cash A/c will be debited
according to the rule ofDebit what comes in.And the entry will be:
Cash A/c (Debit what comes in) Dr. 1, 000
To Commission A/c (Credit the incomes) 1, 000
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Advantages ofDouble Entry System
Scientific System
Complete record of every transaction
Preparation of Trial Balance
Preparation of Trading and Profit & Loss A/c
Knowledge of financial position of the business
Knowledge of various information
Lesser possibility of fraud
Legal Approval
Comparative Study
Expensive system
Difficult to apply rules of debit and Credit
Only arithmetical accuracy of accounts is checked by preparing a trial balance under
the double entry system. Following types of errors are not disclosed:
Errors ofOmission, Errors of Commission, Errors of Principle, and Compensating
Errors.
Disadvantages ofDouble Entry System
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Stages/ Parts ofDouble Entry System
Original Record:All the transactions are first recorded in a primary book calledJournal. When a business is a big one and the number of transactions is large,
journal is divided into various books which are called Sub-division of Journalor
Subsidiary Books. Thus recording in Journal or in its subsidiary books is the first
stage of double entry system. This stage is also known as Original record stage.
Classification:In this stage, all the transactions recorded in the Journal or itssubsidiary books are transferred (posted) in a classified form to another book which is
called Ledger. This book contains, on different pages, individual account heads
under which all financial transactions of similar nature are collected at one place, so
that the combined effect of all the transactions relating to a particular account may be
ascertained. Posting in ledger is also known as Classification Stage.
Summary:In this stage, all the ledger are balanced off and are put in a list, debitbalances on one side and credit balances on other side. The list so prepared is called
a Trial Balance. With the help of Trial Balance a Trading and Profit & Loss A/c is
prepared to ascertain the profit earned of loss suffered during a particular period and
a Balance Sheet is prepared to show the financial position of the business.
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Books of Original Entry - Journal
The books in which a transaction is recorded for the first time from a sourcedocument are called Books ofOriginal Entry. Journal is one of the basic books of
original entry in which transactions are originally recorded in a chronological (day-to-
day) order according to the principles of double entry system. When the size of the
business is a small one, then it is possible to enter each and every transaction in the
journal. But when the size of the business grows, it becomes no longer possible to
record each and every transaction in the journal. As such, the Journal is sub-divided
into a number of Sub-Journals known as special purpose subsidiary books orbooks
of original entrysuch as: Cash Book, Purchase Book, Sales Book, Sales Return
Book, Purchase Return Book, Bills Receivable Book, Bills Payable Book, Journal
Proper.
Documents on the basis of which entries are recorded in the books of accounts are
named as source documents. The following are the most common source
documents:a) Cash Memo b) Invoice and Bill
c) Receipt d) Debit Note
e) Credit Note f) Pay-in-Slip
g) Cheque
Vouchers