1982_Lam_Determinants of Educational Plans of the Indeterminant High School Graduates

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Journal of Educational AdministrationDETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANS OF THE INDETERMINANTHIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

YEE-LAY JACK LAM

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To cite this document:YEE-LAY JACK LAM, (1982),"DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANS OFTHE INDETERMINANT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES", Journal of Educational

Administration, Vol. 20 Iss 2 pp. 213 - 229Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb009863

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THE JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

VOLUME XX NUMBER 2 SUMMER 1982

DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANS

OF THE INDETERMINANT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

YEE-LAY JACK LAM

Persistent concernforequal opportunitiesinhigher educationand thesignificant

decline of Universities' enrolment across Canada in the late 1970's increasingly

prompted researcherstofocus uponagrowing groupofhigh school students who

were undecided whether they should proceed with further studies orwhether they

should join

the

labour market. Data for the present study were obtained from

374

males and 423 female high school students close to graduation. Crucial socio

economic factors, school factors

and

intra-personal variables affecting their

perceived probability

for

further education

in

future were identified

and

their

conceptual causal linkages were empirically examined in two separate path

ana lyses. Som e striking similarities were located between male and female students

indicating that socio-economic factors play dominant roles accountng for the types

of school activities they engaged

in

These

in

turn exerted considerable influence

upon their educational plans and aspirations. Extreme pragmatic ou tlooks, new life

styles characteristic of students' subculture, and inaccurate assessment of the

educational level required for the professions to which they aspired were important

deterring factorstofurther studies for both groupsofstudents. On the other hand,

family size , maturity and school achievement had varying degrees

of

impact on the

two groups. Strategies aimingat more effective guidanceofstudents' choice were

entertained.

Due to declining enrolments in post-secondary institutions across North

America planners and administrators have become vitally interested in the

decisions of high school graduates. Of particular interest and importance is

a group of high school graduates who expressed the intention of delaying

further education but who had not ruled out the possibility of future study.

These indeterminant graduates constitute a growing proportion of the

secondary school population. Understanding their reasons for delaying

further education leads us to the exploration of actual and potential

barriers to higher education.

Governing the present investigation are two specific questions:

1. What are the crucial factors influencing the educational plans of grade

12 male students who expressed a preference for delaying further

education?

2 .

What are the crucial factors influencing the educational plans of grade

12 female students who expressed a preference for delaying further

education?

YEE-LAY JACK LAM

is

Chairman

of the

Department

of

Administrative

and

Education

Services, and Assistant to the Dean, Faculty of Education, Brandon University. He holds the

degreesofB.A. (Hons.) (Hong Kong), M. Ed. and Ph.D. (Toronto).


4/19

214 Determinants

of

Educational Plans

REVIEW OFLITERATURE

For the purpose of defining the theoretical premises for the subsequent

empirical paradigms, three broad categories of variables relevant to high

school students' further educational aspirations and attendance seem to

emerge from sociological research. These three categories, for

conv enien ce, could be termed intrapersonal , immediate external , and

remote external.

Intrapers onal factors refer to attitudes, perce ptions, motivation, value

system s, an d other person al dispositions. Imm ediate exte rnal factors

refer to a wide range of school activities, academic achievement, and the

influences exerted by such significant others as pa ren ts, pe ers , and

school pers onn el. Re m ote externa l factors refer to the socio-econom ic

backgrounds of students, such as parental income, parental educational

levels,

and family size.

Among research findings falling into the first category was the report by

Bradsha w and his associates

1

that occup ational goa ls and th e kind of value

attached to post-secondary education accounted greatly for the manifested

educational aspirations of students. Frymier et al.

2

re-affirmed the

importance of motivation as a factor explaining under and over-achievers,

and differentiating between college and non-college bound high school

students. In reviewing literature concerning barriers to women's

participation in post-secondary education, Westervelt and Mannings

stressed that attitudes of women towards themselves and in relation to

others, and motivation for achievement, were important as institutional

and situational barriers.

With respect to the explanation of imm ediate external factors, Carter

4

reported that special-needs students were often hampered by teacher

behavior in the classroom. Findings of Harvey et al.

5

relating to children's

SE S and tea cher expectations substantiated the midd le class bias

hyp othe sis. Reference to literature exam ining pe er gro up influence

shows that secondary students were affected significantly by peer group

pressure. For instance Damico

6

stated that peer pressu re ha d led ma ny

students either to over or underachieve to a significant degree. Parental

expectations were proven to be even more significant than peers'

influence, both in students' academic performance and plans.

7

In addition, stud ents ' involveme nt in school activities an d the am oun t of

information they secured pertaining to post-secondary education were

carefully investigated. Snyder

8

and Ot to

9

sepa rately confirme d that

participation in extra-curricular activities tended to have a salutary effect

upon achievement, and, as shown by Bradshaw

1 0

and Meyer

11

influenced

in many instances the educational goals which were cherished.

With respect to the information that students could secure from their

schools which would enhance their opportunity of furthering their

education, no factor was more important than the financial one. Jackson

and Weathersby

12

, in their review of literature on individual demand for

higher education, concluded that increasing financial assistance statistically

improves access to higher education. Brossman

13

stressed the ne ed for


5/19

Lam 215

more techniques to insure that potential students be made aware of the

opportunities for post-secondary education. All of these pointed to a

significant role which counsellors in schools had to play.

Turning to the rem ote external factors that might delay further

education, the Education Department of New York State

1 4

indicated,

among other factors postulated, that family income, familial values and

influence, an d social class w ere all im po rtan t. M ore specifically, H olde r

15

indicated that significant relationship existed between the occupational

class of parents and the academic results of students. Query and

Kuruvilla

16

found that the educational and occupational levels of the

mother exert a definite influence on both adolescent sons' and daughters'

academic records. Rehberg, Sinclair and Schafer

1 7

repor ted that

achievement practices conducive to a college expectation were more

characteristic of middle than of working class families. Given the wide

empirical support that parental expectations strongly affected students'

ex pe cta t ion s , M ey er ' s obs erv ed tha t the in f luences of sex ro le

differentiation and of social class situation were more readily reflected in

paternal orientation than in either maternal or student orientation. In

probing parental control over adolescents, Peterson and Kunz

19

found that

control efforts increased with increasing family size in middle class families,

whereas no such clear pattern existed in the working class.

CONCEPTUAL PREMISESOF THEEMPIRICAL MODELS

In synthesizing into some causal m odel the se thre e categories of variables

which are found separately to be significant to the academic aspirations

and attendance of post-secondary education students, i t would not be

difficult to perceive that the intrapersonal factors which trigger the ultimate

decision of pursuing or not pursuing a higher education are themselves the

end products of the interactive effects of immediate and remote external

factors. In other words, the value system, motivation, attitudes and

self-

image that students possess are in many instances the results of beneficial

or detrimental influences exerted upon them by various personal and

situational factors in the process of socialization. While remote external

factors tend to exert an under-lying persistent influence upon students'

ultimate decisions, many such influences are tempered and modified by

the immediate external factors most visible in the school environment.

Diagramatically, the theoretical linkage of these three sets of variables can

be expressed as Fig. 1:


6/19

21 6 Determ inants of Educational Plans

METHODOLOGY

(a) Sample

The sample of the study was extracted from the PDEM-II data file

compiled by the Manitoba Department of Education, Canada, during the

academic year of 1976-1977. Essentially, all the Grade 12 students were

stratifiedrandomly selected on a regional basis so that there is a

proportional geographical representation across the province. Of the data

collected, those who expressed an intention to delay further studies were

singled out for analysis. Th us, 79 7 G rade 12 students (374 male and 4 2 3

female) w ho constituted a bout on e-fourth of the total sam ple in the PDEM -

II file were utilized.

(b) Variables Selected and Initial Treatm ent

Some 70 items and sub-items which constituted part of the

questionnaire distributed to 1976 and 1977 Grade 12 students, and

pertaining in nature to the three broad categories of variables previously

reviewed, were initially selected. The criterion variable for this study was

the likelihood of pursuing further studies . This is assessed by a five-point

scale ranging from no probability (scale score 1) to extremely high

probability (scale score 5).

In order to construct the causal model with tenable variables, a number

of measures were taken to reduce the 70 items and sub-items selected:

(1) By simple addition, subtraction, or cross-checking, a great num ber

of items or sub-items have been subsumed under certain composite

variables. Thus, items pertaining to the number of dependants and siblings

were com bined so as to constitute the ne w variable Financial ne ed s .

Comparison of the figures given by respondents with their professed

Aw arenes s of student aid m ad e possible the develop me nt of Degree of

true awareness of student aids .

Scale scores of both utilitarian and morale value of Education were

synthesized to provide a com posite score for Value of Edu cation .

Likewise, the scale scores measuring adequacy of three different types of

counsellingeducational, financial, and careerwere summed up and

translated into a score for Counse lling a de qu ac y .

(2) Factor Analyses were em ploye d to extract basic underlying factors

from the numerous available items and to eliminate colinearity problems

that might contaminate linear models to be constructed later.

Three Factor Analyses dealing respectively with items assessing

influences of different gro ups of pe op le , high school activities, and possible

events that may induce students to pursue further studies were

undertaken:


7/19

Lam 217

Table 1.Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of People's Influence on Students' Plans

PERSO NNEL

Friends

Parents

Other Relatives

High School teachers

Counsellor

A College/University Student I know

College/University Representatives

Religious Leader

Employer(s) met

Others

Eigenvalue

% of variance

FACTOR LOADING

FACTOR 1

.11

.17

.20

.61

.72

.37

.46

.18

.01

.00

2.30

5 9

FACTOR 2

.53

.59

.54

.26

.12

.38

.20

.25

.05

- .01

1.06

27

FACTOR 3

-.05

- .07

- .01

- .03

- .04

- .02

.01

.04

.77

.68

.51

13

Three factors emerged from items measuring influences of different

groups of people (Table 1). By associating items with resultant factors, it

would se em that Factor I could best be terme d Influence of teach ers an d

university pe rso nn el ; an d Factor II, Influence of pa ren ts an d friends .

Factor III, whose eigen value was less than 1 and accounted for only 13

per cent of the variance was eliminated from further analysis.

Table 2.Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of influence of High School Activities on Students'

Plans

ACTIVITIES

Activities having usefulness

Skills for immediate employment

Prepared for continuing education

Personal contact with university

personnel

Those interested in my plans

Counselling service

Assistance in job-finding

Information for continuing training

and education

Others

Eigenvalue

% of variance

FACTOR LOADING

FACTOR 1

.37

.03

.60

.59

.53

.51

.10

.60

.11

1.83

5 2 %

FACTOR 2

.01

.00

.03

- .03

.01

.01

.00

.02

.67

.92

26%

FACTOR 3

.07

.43

- .22

.07

.24

.17

.65

.03

.00

.72

2 0 %

From the sec ond Factor Analysis (Table II) three factors were dev elop ed

from items measuring influences of various high school activities. In terms

of the item s that constituted the se factors, F actor I could be labelled


8/19

218 Determinants

of

Educational Plans

Activities related to con tinu ou s ed uc atio n ; Fac tor II, Extra-curricular

activities , an d Factor III, Activities rela ted to em plo ym en t .

Table 3.Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of Influence of Circumstances on Students' Plan

CIRCUMSTANCES

Present State of Employment

Employment Opportunities

Recreation Program

Social Life

New Life Style Desired

Opportunities to be away from home

Reputation of Instructor Chosen

Religious Relationship

Others

More Financial Assistance

Worsening Economic Condition

Easier Admission Requirement

Opportunities to train on the job

Repayment based on Salary

Opportunities to work and attend

Evening School

Opportunities for Home Study

Opportunities to take Post-Secondary

Courses at Regional Centres

Opportunities to take courses on the

Job

Large number unemployed in chosen

occupat ion

Reception of Large Wage Increases

Opportunities to attend private

educat ion programs

Repayment of Loans over 15 Years

Eigenvalue

% of variance

F l

- .04

- .04

- .01

.03

.00

.01

.11

- .22

- .02

.91

.94

.93

.90

.95

.94

.95

.96

.94

.92

.93

.95

.94

11.56

7 4 %

F 2

.54

.66

.31

.43

.17

.00

.15

.24

.04

.05

.01

- .02

- .03

- .02

- .03

- .03

- .01

- .04

- .00

- .04

.00

- .03

1.88

12%

F 3

.08

.04

.06

.34

.85

.38

.43

.08

.07

.04

.04

.03

.03

.00

.03

.01

.02

.02

.01

.02

02

.03

1.00

6 %

F 4

.00

- .02

- .07

- .09

- .06

.04

- .01

.01

- .84

.02

.00

.03

.00

.02

.00

.02

- .01

- .01

- .02

- .01

- .01

.02

.64

4 %

F 5

.04

.05

.23

.26

.07

.24

.45

.42

.00

.04

.01

- .03

.01

.03

- .00

- .00

.00

.02

.01

- .00

- .01

- .04

.34

2 %

From the third Factor Analysis (Table III) five basic factors were

generated from items measuring the influence of various possible

circumstances and events. Reference to the items that made up these

factors allows so m e labelling. Factor I pertains to Fa vo ura ble future

opportunities for further education ; Factor II Knowledge and skills for

employment ; Factor III New life-style ; Factors IV and V which had

small eigen values an d con stituted only small proportions of variance we re

excluded from further analysis.

T h u s ,

after these initial treatments, the 70 items and sub-items selected

were reduced to 20 factorized and unfactorized variables which would be

used to construct the empirical models (Table IV).

ANALYSIS

AND

INTERPRETATION

The two models emerging separately from the path analyses were

presented in order as follows:


9/19

Table4 .Effects ofVariablesin aModelforMale Grade 12StudentswhoDelayed Further

Education.

DEPEN

DENT

VARIA

BLE

X1

INDEPE

NDENT

VARIA

BLE

Xa

Xe

Xf

Xg

Xi

XI

x

P

Xq

Xs

TOTAL

CO VAR

.2462

.1872

.1974

.1580

.2457

.1725

.2457

.1477

.1816

CAUSAL

DIRECT INDIRECT

.1252

.1355

.1611

.1350

.1584

.1502

.0793

.1065

.1236

.0163

.0433

.0013

.0204

.0029

.0019

.0295

.0028

TOTAL

.1252

.1369

.1178

.1363

.1788

.1473

.0774

.1360

.1208

NON

CAUSAL

.1210

.0503

.0796

.0217

.0669

.0252

.1683

.0117

.0608


10/19

DEPEN-

DENT

VARI A-

BLE

Xa

Xb

Xc

Xd

Xe

Xh

Xi

Xj

Xm

I NDEPE-

NDENT

VARI A-

BLE

Xc

Xe

Xh

Xi

Xj

Xn

Xp

Xq

Xa

Xe

Xf

Xi

Xj

Xm

Xp

Xe

Xk

Xs

Xc

Xe

Xg

Xi

Xj

Xf

Xg

Xh

Xk

Xm

Xn

Xq

Xk

Xm

Xo

Xp

Xr

Xs

Xk

Xn

Xp

Xe

Xf

Xh

Xk

Xl

Xm

Xp

Xg

XI

Xo

Xa

TOTAL

CO VAR

. 1505

. 2183

. 1022

. 1899

. 1256

. 1224

. 1183

. 2072

. 2965

. 3175

. 1844

. 1509

. 2184

. 3702

. 1562

. 1765

. 1586

. 9984

. 1072

. 1612

. 1364

. 2918

. 1765

. 4688

. 3121

. 1317

. 3761

. 3613

. 1022

. 1003

. 1384

. 3559

. 1022

. 1348

. 1038

. 1999

. 1500

. 1037

. 1442

. 1704

. 2375

. 1394

. 2477

. 2007

. 2794

. 1986

. 0729

. 1883

. 0701

. 0577

CAUSAL

DI RECT

. 1102

. 1182

. 0726

. 1627

. 1209

. 1086

. 0957

. 1379

. 2007

. 2082

. 1176

. 0720

. 1925

. 3058

. 0845

. 1667

. 1141

. 0977

. 0933

. 1203

. 1190

. 2877

. 1201

. 2909

. 0736

. 0739

. 2529

. 3262

. 0814

. 0700

. 1351

. 2590

. 0863

. 1268

. 0982

. 1880

. 1424

. 0883

. 1056

. 0986

. 1913

. 0927

. 1729

. 1970

. 2269

. 1141

. 0634

. 1862

. 0633

. 0358

I NDI RECT

_

. 0301

. 0087

. 0204

. 0096

. 0206

. 0104

.

. 0274

. 0670

. 0326

. 0243

. 1062

. 0548

.

. 0421

. 0019

. 0273

. 0077

.

.

.

. 0099

. 0191

.

.

. 0094

. 0093

.

. 0286

. 0073

. 0240

. 0422

. 0340

. 0009

TOTAL

. 1102

. 1483

. 0813

. 1831

. 1209

. 1182

. 1163

. 1483

. 2007

. 2356

. 1846

. 1046

. 2167

. 4120

. 0297

. 1667

. 0720

. 0996

. 0933

. 0930

. 1267

. 2877

. 1201

. 2909

. 0736

. 0739

. 2430

. 3453

. 0814

. 0700

. 1351

. 2590

. 0769

. 1268

. 0982

. 1973

. 1424

. 0883

. 1056

. 0986

. 2199

. 1000

. 1969

. 1248

. 1929

. 1132

. 0634

. 1862

. 0633

. 0358

NON

CAUSAL

. 0403

. 0700

. 0209

. 0068

. 0047

. 0042

. 0020

. 0589

. 0958

. 0819

. 0002

. 0463

. 0017

. 0418

. 1265

. 0098

. 0866

. 8988

. 0139

. 0682

. 0097

. 0041

. 0564

. 1779

. 2385

. 0578

. 1331

. 0160

. 0208

. 0303

. 0033

. 0769

. 0253

. 0080

. 0056

. 0026

. 0076

. 0154

. 0386

. 0718

. 0179

. 0394

. 0508

. 0459

. 0865

. 0854

. 0095

. 0021

. 0068

. 0219


11/19

Lam 221

(a) Mo del for male students who d elayed further education

In the case of male students who wished to delay further education, the

perc eived Minimum educational level required for the job (Xa), the

Activities related to con tinuou s edu catio n (Xc), enga ged in by stud ents

in the high school, the De gree of influence exerted upo n stude nts by

teachers, counsellors, and university representatives visiting the school

(Xf), the De gree of influence par ents and intimate friends ha ve (Xg), the

A m oun t of financial nee d a stude nt exp erien ced (Xi), the kind of New

life-style (Xl) stud ents des ired, tog ethe r with stu de nts ' Family size (Xp ),

Fa the rs' educa tional levels (Xq), and their A ges (Xs), w ere all factors

in promoting their likelihood of going on to higher education. In examining

these variables m ore closely, it would see m that the perceived Minimum

educ ational level required for the job (Xa) is the m ost dom inan t factor a s

its total effect up on the possibility of further edu catio n is direct, an d tha t

many of the significant factors listed above exerted their impacts upon the

criterion variable through this intrapersonal factor.

Th e extent of involvem ent in Activities related to con tinuo us

ed uc atio n (Xe) in school by thes e male stud ents , while contributing to the

greater likelihood of post-secondary education at a future date, also

exerted substantial influence upon the occupation preferred, as well as

upon the type of value attached to further education. In terms of the

number of significant paths it established, this seems to be the most

influential external factor affecting many of the intrapersonal factors in the

model .

That a negative relationship existed in terms of the impact of school and

university personnel (Xf) upon students and their decision to delay further

education is indeed surprising. However, as school personnel also

involved th em in activities relate d to em plo ym en t (Xj), it be co m es clearly

evident that the desire for further education gave way for work after

graduation.

The influence parents, relatives and friends (Xg) had upon students'

educational plans is more straightforward. Their major influence is in the

encouragement of students to participate in activities related to further

education (Xe) in school. On the other hand, such influence did not

succeed in prompting those with financial problems to find out more about

Manitoba student aid programs.

Financial need (Xi) contributed significantly to the delay of their further

education for this group of students. Not only does it have an adverse

direct impact upon their educational plans, but it tends to shape their

values regarding further education, and reduces them to the necessity of

assessing realistically the minimum educational level required for

employment. The fact is, unfortunately, for members of this group, that

the gre ater their financial ne ed , th e less w as their awa rene ss of the stud ent

aid program.

The new life-style (Xl) cherished by this group seemed also to have an

adverse effect upon further education. Closer examination of its effect

upon other variables indicates that the new life-style encourages the


12/19

222 DeterminantsofEducational Plans

students to lean more toward activities related to employment rather than

to continuous education, and this accounted for their greater concern

about a minimum educational level for employment, and a lesser one

about the value of continuous education.

The size of the family (Xp) had also an unfavourable direct effect upon

immediate continuous education. Indirectly, it accounted for the degree of

financial need and the greater involvement of students in school activities

related to employment preparation, which subsequently aroused the

students' awareness of the minimum amount of education required for job-

hunting.

The educational level of fathers (Xq) had a direct positive effect upon

students' involvement in activities related to further education in school. Its

effect was also felt in alerting students to the minimum educational level

required for the job desired.

Age (Xs), as an indicator of degree of maturity, also had a positive direct

effect upon the greater likelihood of furthering education. On the other

hand, the close relationship of age with poorer academic achievement

(older students experienced more failure than younger ones in the same

class) and the fact that older students perceived more favorable

opportunities for education in the future, and therefore set a lower value

upon immediate further education, reduced somewhat the effect of such a

positive direct impact.

Two other intrapersonal factors deserve close attention. The

occupational range preferred by this group (Xc) reflected some degree of

discrepancy between what they aspired to do and the level of education

they w ished to attain. A search for an explanation from th e m od el suggests

that those involved in activities related to continuous education were less

realistic in their career aspirations than thos e w ho acquired kno wle dge an d

skills for more immediate employment. Such an unrealistic assessment of

occupational aspiration could in part be the result of either an ineffective

counselling programe in school or the infrequent use of such a service by

the students concerned. Furthermore, the discrepancy between

educational and occupational aspirations could in part reflect the lack of

aw are ne ss of stude nts confronted by financial problem s of the existence of

aid programs. Accordingly, they expressed little desire for continuing

education, but cherised the hope of securing a better-paid job.

The value attached to education (Xb) by this group of students seemed

to be the net balan ce of a vast hos t of conflicting factors. It cou ld be se en to

be a product of the extent of financial need, as well as to be traceable to the

size of the family, and to the more favorable opportunities perceived by

some students in the future, together with the activities they engaged in in

school which prepared them for employment, all of which factors

contributed to the lower value students attached to higher education, as

against the m inimum educa tional level required for the job. A higher value

attached to higher education was traceable to students' participation in

activities related to continuous education, together with the degree of

influence they had been exposed to in school and from university

personnel .


13/19

m

3

b) Modelforfemale studentswhodelayed further education

Included in the list of relevant factors accounting for the likelihood of

further education in this group were two distinct clusters: the first cluster,

co m po se d of the perceived Minimum educ ational level required for

em plo ym en t (Xa), participation in Activities related to continuo us

ed uc atio n (Xe) in school, the receptivity to the Influence of par ents an d

peers

(Xg), Scho ol ach ieve m ent (Xh), Kno wledge and skills for

em ploy m en t acquired in scho ol (Xk), an d Family inco m e (Xx), all

enhanced the probability of post-secondary education; whereas the

seco nd cluster of factors, co m pos ed of great Financial ne ed (Xi),

participa tion in Activities related to em plo ym en t (Xj) in sch ool, N ew

life-style (Xl) prefe rred, an d Fav oura ble future op po rtu nity of further

ed uca tion (Xn) all dec rease d such likelihood. A m ore detailed

exploration in the m odel of an explanation for such a ph en om en on see ms

to be in order.


14/19

ble

5.EffectsofVariablesin aModelforFemale Grade12StudentswhoDelayed Further

Education

DEPEN-

DENT

VARI A-

BLE

Xl

Xa

Xb

Xc

Xd

Xe

Xn

Xi

Xj

Xm

I NDEPE-

NDENT

VARI A-

BLE

Xa

Xe

Xg

Xh

Xi

Xj

Xk

XI

Xm

Xt

Xb

Xc

Xi

Xq

Xs

Xe

Xj

Xk

Xl

Xn

Xs

Xt

Xh

Xj

Xp

Xq

Xt

Xf

Xg

Xk

Xm

Xn

Xm

Xo

Xp

Xf

Xl

Xm

Xn

Xs

Xg

Xk

TOTAL

CO VAR

. 2049

. 2360

. 1813

. 1096

. 1718

. 1848

. 1003

. 1374

. 2712

. 1610

. 1715

. 2011

. 1287

. 0913

. 1714

. 2944

. 1188

. 1393

. 1073

. 1031

. 1230

. 1041

. 2007

. 1733

. 2506

. 0883

. 1495

. 4829

. 3274

. 2819

. 4102

. 1558

. 5036

. 2814

. 1326

. 2204

. 1372

. 1802

. 1584

. 2157

. 1802

. 1052

CAUSAL

DI RECT I NDI RECT

. 0963

. 1332

. 1125

. 0977

. 1351

. 1403

. 0711

. 1292

. 2413

. 0809

. 1198

. 1568

. 0818

. 0767

. 1209

. 1996

. 1115

. 1129

. 0941

. 0862

. 1209

. 0809

. 0976

. 1698

. 1499

. 0823

. 1024

. 3687

. 1787

. 1394

. 3559

. 0839

. 3695

. 0829

. 1046

. 2118

. 0845

. 1769

. 0607

. 0677

. 0935

. 0534

_

. 0023

. 0463

. 0015

. 0078

. 0013

. 0158

. 0030

. 0126

. 0009

. 0009

. 0006

. 0094

. 0100

. 0075

. 0158

. 0333

. 0190

. 0328

TOTAL

. 0963

. 1355

. 1588

. 0992

. 1429

. 1416

. 0553

. 1322

. 2539

. 0818

. 1198

. 1568

. 0818

. 0767

. 1218

. 1966

. 1115

. 1123

. 1035

. 0762

. 1284

. 0751

. 0976

. 1698

. 1499

. 0823

. 1024

. 3687

. 2120

. 1204

. 3559

. 0839

. 3695

. 0829

. 1046

. 2118

. 0517

. 1769

. 0607

. 0677

. 0935

. 0534

NON

CAUSAL

. 1086

. 1005

. 0225

. 0104

. 0289

. 0432

. 0450

. 0052

. 0173

. 0792

. 0517

. 0443

. 0469

. 0146

. 0496

. 0948

. 0073

. 0270

. 0038

. 0269

. 0054

. 0290

. 1031

. 0035

. 0009

. 0060

. 0471

. 1142

. 1154

. 1615

. 0543

. 0719

. 1341

. 1985

. 0280

. 0086

. 0855

. 0033

. 0977

. 1480

. 0867

. 0518


15/19

Lam

225

Th e perceive d Minimum educ ational level required for em plo ym ent

(Xa) is still by far the most important intrapersonal factor having a direct

impact upon the ultimate decision of the female students. This was

affected by the occupations these students preferred, by the value they

cherished regarding further education, by the degree of their financial

ne ed s (Xi), by their Fath ers' educational level (Xq), and by the d egre e of

their maturity represe nted by A ge (Xs). Further analysis indicated a

positive value in post-sec ondary edu catio n, a nd a m aturity that led them to

perceive a higher educational level required for employment, whereas the

other factors exerted an opposite effect. The activities related to

continuous education (Xe) in which they participated in school increased

their educational motivation and allowed them to develop positive values

towards their education, and this, in turn, raised their perceived

educational level required for employment.

The influence of parents and peers (Xg) upon this group of students as

regard s undertaking further educ ation is both direct and indirect. T hroug h

their direct persuasion for post-secondary education, and through their

encouragement that students should be involved in activities related to

continuous education in school, the likelihood of further education tends

to be enhanced.

The impact of school achievement (Xh) upon the choice of further

educ ation is an interesting o ne . While better acade mic perform ance

positively enhanced the probability of undertaking higher education, it did

not encourage students to select better occupations, nor did it assist

students to assess the educational requirement for employment properly.

The relatively little impact school personnel and counselling services

exerted upon this group may likely be held to have been responsible.

Tha t Kno wledge and skill (Xk) acqu ired for em ploym ent by this gro up

should enhance rather than reduce the likelihood of further education, can

be traced most clearly in the model through its indirect relationship with

other factors. The acquisition of knowledge and skills by the female

students actually encouraged them to involve in activities related to

continuous education as well as alerting them to the value of further

educat ion.

Family income (Xt), while deferring the possibility of further education

for those of limited means, surprisingly, is also positively and causally

related to awareness of student aid. In other words, the better off students

are the more familiar they are with the aid program. This implies that

financially more capable female students are more likely to resort to the

program than the really needy ones are.

Among factors that decreased the likelihood of further education,

financial feasibility (Xi) is a pro m ine nt o n e . Affected almost exclusively by

the family size, the degree of financial need tends to lead students to

underrate the educational level required for employment. This factor is

also reflected in the extent stude nts participated in Extra-curricular

activities .

The extent female students participated in activities related to


16/19

2 2 6 Determ inants of Educa tional Plans

employment in school (Xj) tended to increase their awareness of student

aid prog ram s in M anitoba , bu t it did no t lead to greater likelihood of further

education. Rather, such activities decreased their values toward higher

education and, in turn, reduced their probability of pursuing further

education.

The new life-style (Xl) professed by the female students induced them to

be more involved in activities related to employment and to perceive less

favourably any future opportunity for continuous education.

Those who held negative views regarding future opportunities for

further education were less susceptible to the influence of their parents and

peers. The amount of knowledge and skills they acquired in school

explains their relatively favourable assessment of future educational

opportunities.

DISCUSSION

In examining these two models accounting for the postponement and

discontinuation of further education for both male and female students,

one is struck by the very similar overall general pattern, and by the

somewhat dissimilar specific details. Further extraction of these are

essential to render subsequent recommendations more meaningful.

a) Similarities ofthe Two Groups

In a broad perspective, the theoretical linkages among different sets of

external and intrapersonal factors are all substantiated in the form of

separately derived empirical models. Socio-economic factors play

dominant roles accounting for students' involvement in a vast spectrum of

school activities which have both a direct and an Indirect effect on their

attitudes and concept values, and which account for the likelihood of

further education or of observed educational aspirations.

In both models presented, one is impressed with the pragmatic outlook

which students share with respect to higher education and which has a

determinant effect upon their educational plans. The perceived minimum

educational level required for the job they desired largely explains what

level of education they want to attain.

Another striking similarity is the inaccurate assessment of the

educational level required for the professions to which they aspire. This,

coupled with the fact that in both cases great financial need still is a major

stumbling block to further education and does not lead to greater

awareness of student aid programs available in Manitoba, raised the

question of whether counselling services in high schools are adequate.

Reference to both these cases shows that such services are of limited

influence and on no occasion have they had any direct impact upon the

likelihood of further education. Apparently more services are needed in

this area.

Another feature common to both groups is that the kinds of activities


17/19

Lam 227

students were involved in in school determined to a considerable extent

their educational plans and aspirations. For those who are greatly involved

in activities related to continuous education, i.e., seeking information

pertaining to continuing training and education and contacting

representatives of institutions of higher education, the likelihood of their

further education is enhanced. For those who are greatly involved in

activities related to employment, their chances of and aspirations to further

education are reduced.

In both cases, too, the new life-style professed by students had a

detrimental effectdirect, indirect and bothupon further education.

Unless more and more effective family and school interventions deal

squarely with such as are the norms of student sub-culture, more

sec ond ary stude nts will be deprived of the cha nce of continuing edu catio n.

Socio-economic backgrounds still exert a persistent influence upon

students' activities in school, and upon their future educational plans.

Ou tstanding in such a list are family incom e an d fathers' edu cation al level.

While more income and higher paternal education tend to enhance the

ch an ce of further ed uc atio n, it is perp lexing to note that the better-off

families are the ones which are more aware of student aid programs and,

therefore, make better use of them than the really needy ones. Reference

to a Canadian national survey

20

shows that nearly 60 per cent of post-

secondary students have never borrowed to finance their education. This

raises the question of how effective the student aid program is in elevating

their chances of further education. A related concern voiced elsewhere as

well

21

is w hethe r the wealthier sections ha ve learned to use the system in

such a way as to attract the lion's share of the money spent.

b) Differences

of

the

Two Croups

Differences detec ted from t he two m ode ls seem t o reflect very m uch the

de ep -ro ote d social expe ctat ions of different ge nd ers . Sch ool

ac hie ve m en t increas ed the likelihood of further educ ation for female

stud ents while it had no direct effect up on their ma le cou nter parts . Family

size

greatly reduced male students' opportunity to continue further

education whereas such a factor exerted no impact upon the female

students. Maturity as indicated by age enhanced male students' likelihood

for further education while for the female group, no direct effect was

de tec ted . Scho ol ach ieve m ent increase d the likelihood of further

education for female students who wished to delay, but it had no direct

effect up on their male cou nterp arts. Family size greatly redu ced

opportunities to continue further education.

Another interesting finding from the analysis was that mothers'

educational levels tended to affect their son's but not their daughter's

academic performance. This indeed signifies a partial rejection of Query

and Kuruvilla's conclusion

22

. More research perhaps needs to be done to

shed light on such a phenomenon.

A host of factors have been identified from the path models to be directly


18/19

2 2 8

Determinants of Educational Plans

or indirectly responsible for the future educational plans of the

indeterminant high school graduates. While some factors like socio

economic status are too deeply rooted in our social structure to be

amended, a few measures addressed to the school system can still be

attempted in order to equalize the educational opportunities for more

students. These are:

(1) There is a necessity to examine the effectiveness of the counselling

service in school. Information pertaining to higher education, to the

Manitoba Student Aid Program, and to the educational requirements

of various jobs, should be more widely disseminated to the student

body.

(2) T he te achin g staff sh ould ta ke a closer look at the sub -culture no rm of

the students. The provision of opportunities to discuss the new life

style may assist students to develop a more realistic attitude to

education and life.

(3) Activities related to the acquisition of knowledge and skills for

employment should not be viewed by the staff in the high school as

terminal activities for the less academically capable. Rather, they

should be linked to more advanced studies offered by the community

colleges and other post-secondary institutions.

(4) To ensure that students are better versed in the value of general

ed uc ati on , t he liberal arts subjects sho uld not be sacrificed in favour of

the vocational ones. If high school is not to be considered as the

terminal point for youth there is every necessity to controvert the

pragmatic outlooks so noticeable among today's high school students.

REFERENCES

1. Bradsha w, T.

et al. Post-Secondary Education Access Study Part III: High School

Graduates Follow-up Study.

DHE W. W ashington, D.C . Septem ber, 197 4.

2 .

Frymier , J .R. ,

et al.

A Longitudinal Stu dy of Acad emic Motivation

Journal of

Educat ional Research. 69, 2. 1975. pp. 63-66

3 . We stervelt, E.M.,

et al. Barriers to Wom en s Participation in Postsecondary Education:

A Review of Research and Comm entary as of 1973-74.

Nation al Ce ntre for

Educational Statistics. DHEW. Washington, D.C. 1975.

4 .

Carter, Rose M. Teac her Behavior and Classroom Casualties: S om e Preventive

Measures

American Vocational Journal.

50, 6 . 1975. pp . 55-57.

5 . Harvey, D.G. , et al. The Relationship Between Child's SE S and Teach er

Exp ectations: A Test of the M iddle Class Bias Hy pothesis Special Forces. 54, 1 . 1975.

p p .

140-159.

6. Dam ico, San dra B. The Effects of Clique Mem bership Upo n Academ ic Ach ievem ent

Adolescence. 10, 37 . 1975. pp . 93-99 .

7. Ka nde l, Denise and Lesser, G .S . Sch ool, Family and Pee r Influences on Educational

Plans of Adolescents in the United States and Den ma rk

Sociology of Education.

4 3 , 3.

1970. pp . 270-287.

8. Sn yd er, E.E. Athletics Te am Involvem ent, Educational Plans and the Coac h-Player

Relationships Adolescence. 10, 38 . 1975 . pp . 191-200.

9 . O tto , L.B . Extracurricular Activities in the Edu cational Attainm ent Pr oc ess

Rural

Sociology.

40 , 2 . 1975. pp . 16 2-176.

10.

Bradshaw, T.

op. cit.
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.2307%2F2576082http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.2307%2F2112067http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.2307%2F2112067http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.2307%2F2576082http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.2307%2F2112067


19/19

m 9

1 1. Mey er, J.W . High School Effects on College Intentions

American Journal of

Sociology.

76, 1 . 1970. pp . 59-7 0.

12. Jac ks on , G.A. and W eathersby, G.B . Individual Dem and for Higher Edu cation: A

Review and Analysis of Recent Empirical Studies

Journal of Higher Education.

46, 6.

1 9 7 5 .

pp . 623- 652 .

13.

Brossm an, S.W. Access to Higher Educat ion Through the Comm unity Col leges Los

Angeles. UCLA ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior College Information. 1973.

14.

New York State Education Dep artme nt. A

Longitudinal Study of the Barriers Affecting

the Pursuit of Higher Education.

Albany. Information Centre on Education. 1970. p.

64 .

15.

Ho lder, R. L. Sex , Social Class an d Stu den t Perform ance

University Quarterly.

24,

2 .

1970. p . 166.

16.

Qu ery, Joy M.N. and Kuruvilla, T .C . Male and Female Adolescent Ach ievem ent and

Maternal Employment

Adolescence.

10, 39 . 1975 . pp . 353-35 6.

17.

Reh berg, R.A., Sinclair, Jud ie and Schafer, W .E. Adolescent Ach ievem ent Behavior,

Family Authority Structure and Parental Socialization Practices

American Journal of

Sociology.

75, 6 . 1970. pp . 1012-103 4.

18. Meyer , J .W . op. cit.

19.

Pe terso n, E.T. and Kunz, P.R . Paren tal Control Over Ado lescents According to

Family Size

Adolescence.

10, 39 . 197 5.

2 0 .

Educa tional Sup port Branch of Secretary of Sta te.

Postsecondary Students in Canada:

A Review Symposium. Ottaw a. Minister of Sup ply and Services. 19 76 .

2 1 . Snyder , E.E.

op.cit.

2 2 .

Qu ery , J.M .N, and Kuruvilla, T .C .

op.cit.

1982_Lam_Determinants of Educational Plans of the Indeterminant High School Graduates

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