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    Consumer Behavior Models in Tourism

    Analysis Study

    Muhannad M.A Abdallat, Ph.D.

    Assistant Professor

    Hesham El Sayed El - Emam, Ph.D.

    Assistant Professor

    Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Faculty of Tourism and Archeology

    King Saud University

    ABSTRACT

    The theories of consumer decision-making process assume that the

    consumers purchase decision process consists of steps through which the

    buyer passes in purchasing a product or service. However, this might not be

    the case. Not every consumer passed through all these stages when making a

    decision to purchase and in fact, some of the stages can be skipped depending

    on the type of purchases.

    The reasons for the study of consumers helps firms and organizations improve

    their marketing strategies by understanding issues such as:

    The psychology of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between

    different alternatives (e.g., brands, products);

    The psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his or her

    environment (e.g., culture, family, signs, media);

    The behavior of consumers while shopping or making other marketing

    decisions;

    Limitations in consumer knowledge or information processing abilities

    influence decisions and marketing outcome;

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    How consumers motivation and decision strategies differ between products,

    that differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the

    consumer; and

    How marketers can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and

    marketing strategies to more effectively reach the consumer.

    2.2Consumer Behavior

    The study of consumer behavior focuses on how individuals make decisions to

    spend their available resources (time, money, effort) on consumption-related

    items (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1997). The field of consumer behavior covers a

    lot of ground. According to Solomon (1996), consumer behavior is a study of

    the processes involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or

    dispose of products, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy needs and

    desires.

    The official definition of consumer behavior given by Belch (1998) is the

    process and activities people engage in when searching for, selecting,

    purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services so as to

    satisfy their needs and desires. Behavior occurs either for the individual, or in

    the context of a group, or an organization. Consumer behavior involves the use

    and disposal of products as well as the study of how they are purchased.

    Product use is often of great interest to the marketer, because this may

    influence how a product is best positioned or how we can encourage increased

    consumption.

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    Andreason (1965) proposed one of the earliest models of consumer behavior.

    This model is shown in Figure 2.1.The model recognizes the importance of

    information in the consumer decision-making process. It also emphasizes the

    importance of consumer attitudes although it fails to consider attitudes in

    relation to repeat purchase behavior.

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    Perceived beliefs,

    Norms,Values of significant others.

    Other customer

    Decision-makers

    Information

    4

    Intrinsic

    attributes

    Extrinsic

    attributes

    Price

    availability

    Advocate

    impersonalsources

    Independent

    impersonalsources

    Advocate

    personal

    sources

    Independent

    personalsources

    Information

    storage

    Attitudes

    towardssources

    Filtration

    Personality

    Direct

    experience

    Beliefs

    WantsWant strength

    Feelings

    Disposition

    Search

    Select

    Noaction

    Attitudes towards

    product, substitutes,complement

    Income, budget piorities,

    physical capacity,household capacity

    Ownership

    Other

    purchase

    decisions

    Hold

    Key

    Direct Flows

    Feedbacks

    Yes

    No

    Figure 2.1 Andreason, A.R (1965 Attitudes and Consumer Behavior: A Decision Model in New Research in

    Marketing (ed. l. Preston). Institute of Business and Economic Research, University of California, Berkeley, pp.1-61

    Constraints

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    A second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for a new

    product, was proposed by Nicosia (1976). This model is shown in Figure 2.2.

    The model concentrates on the firm's attempts to communicate with the

    consumer, and the consumers' predisposition to act in a certain way. These

    two features are referred to as Field One. The second stage involves the

    consumer in a search evaluation process, which is influenced by attitudes.

    This stage is referred to as Field Two. The actual purchase process is referred

    to as Field Three, and the post-purchase feedback process is referred to as

    Field Four. This model was criticized by commentators because it was not

    empirically tested (Zaltman, Pinson and Angelman, 1973), and because of the

    fact that many of the variables were not defined (Lunn, 1974).

    Perhaps, the most frequently quoted of all consumer behavior models is the

    Howard-Sheth model of buyer behavior, which was developed in 1969. This

    model is shown in Figure 2.3. The model is important because it highlights

    the importance of inputs to the consumer buying process and suggests ways

    in which the consumer orders these inputs before making a final decision.

    The Howard-Sheth model is not perfect as it does not explain all buyer

    behavior. It is however, a comprehensive theory of buyer behavior that has

    been developed as a result of empirical research (Horton, 1984).

    Schiffman and Kanuk (1997) mentioned that many early theories

    concerning consumer behavior were based on economic theory, on the

    notion that individuals act rationally to maximize their benefits

    (satisfactions) in the purchase of goods and services. A consumer is

    generally thought of as a person who identifies a need or desire, makes

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    a purchase, and then disposes of the product during the three stages in

    the consumption process in Figure2.2 (Solomon, 1996)

    2.2.1 NICOSIA MODEL

    This model focuses on the relationship between the firm and its potential

    consumers. The firm communicates with consumers through its

    marketing messages (advertising), and the consumers react to these

    messages by purchasing response. Looking to the model we will find

    that the firm and the consumer are connected with each other, the firm

    tries to influence the consumer and the consumer is influencing the firm

    by his decision.

    Field 1

    Attitude

    Field 2: SearchAnd evaluationOf mean/end(s)

    Experience relation(s)(Preaction field)

    MotivationField 4:Feedback

    Field 3: Act ofPurchase

    PurchasingBehavior

    Figure2-2. Nicosia Model of Consumer Decision Processe

    Source: Nicosia, (1976).

    Message

    Exposure

    Subfield 1

    Firms

    Attribute

    Subfield 2

    Consumers

    Attributes

    (Especially

    Predisposition

    Search

    and evaluation

    Decision

    (Action)

    Consumption

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    The Nicosia model is divided into four major fields:

    Field 1: The consumer attitude based on the firms messages.

    The first field is divided into two subfields.

    The first subfield deals with the firms marketing environment and

    communication efforts that affect consumer attitudes, the competitive

    environment, and characteristics of target market. Subfield two specifies

    the consumer characteristics e.g., experience, personality, and how he

    perceives the promotional idea toward the product in this stage the

    consumer forms his attitude toward the firms product based on his

    interpretation of the message.

    Field 2: search and evaluation

    The consumer will start to search for other firms brand and evaluate the

    firms brand in comparison with alternate brands. In this case the firm

    motivates the consumer to purchase its brands.

    Field 3: T he act of t he purchase

    The result of motivation will arise by convincing the consumer to

    purchase the firm products from a specific retailer.

    Field 4: Feed back

    This model analyses the feedback of both the firm and the consumer

    after purchasing the product. The firm will benefit from its sales data as

    a feedback, and the consumer will use his experience with the product

    affects the individuals attitude and predispositions concerning future

    messages from the firm.

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    The Nicosia model offers no detail explanation of the internal factors,

    which may affect the personality of the consumer, and how the

    consumer develops his attitude toward the product. For example, the

    consumer may find the firms message very interesting, but virtually he

    cannot buy the firms brand because it contains something prohibited

    according to his beliefs. Apparently it is very essential to include such

    factors in the model, which give more interpretation about the attributes

    affecting the decision process.

    2.2.2 HOWARD-SHETH MODEL

    This model suggests three levels of decision making:

    1. The first level describes the extensive problem solving. At this level

    the consumer does not have any basic information or knowledge about

    the brand and he does not have any preferences for any product. In this

    situation, the consumer will seek information about all the different

    brands in the market before purchasing.

    2. The second level is limited problem solving. This situation exists for

    consumers who have little knowledge about the market, or partial

    knowledge about what they want to purchase. In order to arrive at a

    brand preference some comparative brand information is sought.

    3. The third level is a habitual response behavior. In this level the

    consumer knows very well about the different brands and he can

    differentiate between the different characteristics of each product, and

    he already decides to purchase a particular product. According to the

    Howard-Sheth model there are four major sets of variables; namely:

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    a) Inputs.

    These input variables consist of three distinct types of stimuli

    (information sources) in the consumers environment. The marketer in

    the form of product or brand information furnishes physical brand

    characteristics (significative stimuli) and verbal or visual product

    characteristics (symbolic stimuli). The third type is provided by the

    consumers social environment (family, reference group, and social

    class). All three types of stimuli provide inputs concerning the product

    class or specific brands to the specific consumer.

    Inputs Perceptual Constructs Learning ConstructsOutputs

    Stimuli display

    Figure 2-3 A Simplified Description of the Theory of BuyerBehavior

    Source: Howard, and Sheth,Pp32 (1969)

    Significativea. Quality

    b. Pricec. Distinctive

    d. Service

    e. Availability

    Symbolic

    a. Qualityb. Price

    c. Distinctived. Service

    e. Availability

    Sociala. Family

    b. Referencegroups

    c. Social class

    Purchase

    Intention

    Attitude

    Brand

    Comprehe-

    Attention

    Overt

    search

    Stimulus

    ambiguity

    Attention

    Percept-

    ual bias

    Confidence

    Attitude

    Motives

    Choice

    Criteria

    Brand

    Compre-hension

    Intention

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    b) Perceptual and Learning Constructs,

    The central part of the model deals with the psychological variables

    involved when the consumer is contemplating a decision. Some of the

    variables are perceptual in nature, and are concerned with how the

    consumer receives and understands the information from the input

    stimuli and other parts of the model. For example, stimulus ambiguity

    happened when the consumer does not understand the message from

    the environment. Perceptual bias occurs if the consumer distorts the

    information received so that it fits his or her established needs or

    experience. Learning constructs category, consumers goals, information

    about brands, criteria for evaluation alternatives, preferences and

    buying intentions are all included. The proposed interaction In between

    the different variables in the perceptual and learning constructs and

    other sets give the model its distinctive advantage.

    c) Outputs

    The outputs are the results of the perceptual and learning variables and

    how the consumers will response to these variables (attention, brand

    comprehension, attitudes, and intention).

    d) Exogenous(External) variables

    Exogenous variables are not directly part of the decision-making

    process. However, some relevant exogenous variables include the

    importance of the purchase, consumer personality traits, religion, and

    time pressure.

    The decision-making process, which Howard-Sheth Model tries to

    explain, takes place at three Inputs stages: Significance, Symbolic and

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    Social stimuli. In both significative and symbolic stimuli, the model

    emphasizes on material aspects such as price and quality. These stimuli

    are not applicable in every society. While in social stimuli the model

    does not mention the basis of decision-making in this stimulus, such as

    what influence the family decision? This may differ from one society to

    another.

    Finally, no direct relation was drawn on the role of religion in influencing

    the consumers decision-making processes. Religion was considered as

    external factor with no real influence on consumer, which give the model

    obvious weakness in anticipation the consumer decision.

    2.2.3 ENGEL-KOLLAT-BLACKWELL MODEL

    This model was created to describe the increasing, fast-growing body of

    knowledge concerning consumer behavior. This model, like in other

    models, has gone through many revisions to improve its descriptive

    ability of the basic relationships between components and sub-

    components, this model consists also of four stages;

    First stage: decision-process stages

    The central focus of the model is on five basic decision-process stages:

    Problem recognition, search for alternatives, alternate evaluation (during

    which beliefs may lead to the formation of attitudes, which in turn may

    result in a purchase intention) purchase, and outcomes. But it is not

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    necessary for every consumer to go through all these stages; it depends

    on whether it is an extended or a routine problem-solving behavior.

    Figure 2-4.The Engel-Kollat-Blackwell Model of ConsumerBehavior.Source: Engel , Blackwell, and Miniard,(1995) page No 95

    Second stage: Information input

    At this stage the consumer gets information from marketing and non-

    marketing sources, which also influence the problem recognition stage

    of the decision-making process. If the consumer still does not arrive to a

    specific decision, the search for external information will be activated in

    Stimuli:Marketer-

    Dominated,

    other

    Exposure

    External

    search

    Attention

    Comprehension

    Perception

    Yielding/

    Acceptance

    Retention

    Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

    M

    E

    M

    O

    R

    Y

    ProblemRecognition

    SearchInternal

    search

    Outcomes

    Purchase

    Alternative

    evaluation

    IndividualCharacteristics

    :

    Motives

    ValuesBeliefs

    Attitude

    Intention

    SocialInfluences

    :

    Culture

    Reference

    group

    Situational

    Influences

    Input

    Information

    Processing Decision Process

    Variables Influencing

    Precision Process

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    order to arrive to a choice or in some cases if the consumer experience

    dissonance because the selected alternative is less satisfactory than

    expected.

    Third stage: information processing

    This stage consists of the consumers exposure, attention, perception,

    acceptance, and retention of incoming information. The consumer must

    first be exposed to the message, allocate space for this information,

    interpret the stimuli, and retain the message by transferring the input to

    long-term memory.

    Fourth stage: variables influencing the decision process

    This stage consists of individual and environmental influences that affect

    all five stages of the decision process. Individual characteristics include

    motives, values, lifestyle, and personality; the social influences are

    culture, reference groups, and family. Situational influences, such as a

    consumers financial condition, also influence the decision process.

    This model incorporates many items, which influence consumer

    decision-making such as values, lifestyle, personality and culture. The

    model did not show what factors shape these items, and why different

    types of personality can produce different decision-making? How will we

    apply these values to cope with different personalities? Religion can

    explain some behavioral characteristics of the consumer, and this will

    lead to better understanding of the model and will give more

    comprehensive view on decision-making.

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    2.2.4 Bettmans Information Processing Model of Consumer

    Choice

    Bettman (1979) in his model describes the consumer as possessing a

    limited capacity for processing information. He implicate that the

    consumers rarely analyze the complex alternatives in decision making

    and apply very simple strategy.

    In this model there are seven major stages.

    Stage No. 1: Processing capacity

    In this step he assumes that the consumer has limited capacity for

    processing information, consumers are not interested in complex

    computations and extensive information processing. To deal with this

    problem, consumers are likely to select choice strategies that make

    product selection an easy process.

    Stage No. 2: Motivation

    Motivation is located in the center of Bettman model, which influence

    both the direction and the intensity of consumer choice for more

    information in deciding

    Motivation

    Goalhierarchy

    Processingcapacity

    Attention

    Information

    acquisition

    andevaluation

    DecisionProcesses

    Consumption

    and

    learningprocesses

    Perceptual

    encoding

    Scannerand

    interrupt

    mechanisms

    interruptinterpretation

    and

    response

    Memorysearch

    External

    search

    Scannerand

    interrupt

    mechanisms

    Interruptinterpretation

    andresponse

    Scanner

    and

    interruptmechanisms

    Interrupt

    interpretation

    andresponse

    Scanner

    and

    interruptmechanisms

    Interrupt

    interpretation

    andresponse

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    Figure 2.5 the Bettman Information-Processing Model of ConsumerChoice

    Source: Bettman. (1979). Pp 402

    Between the alternatives Motivation is provided with hierarchy of goals

    mechanism that provides a series of different sub-goals to simplify the

    choice selection. This mechanism suggests that the consumers own

    experience in a specific area of market and he doesnt need to go

    through the same hierarchy every time to arrive at a decision, which

    make this mechanism serves as an organizer for consumer efforts in

    making a choice. No concern was given on religious motives, and how

    religion may motivate the consumer in his decision. Most of the general

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    theories of motivation such as Maslows hierarchy of needs (1970)

    emphasizes self-achievement, the need for power, and the need for

    affiliation.

    Stage No. 3: Attention and perceptual encoding.

    The component of this step is quite related to the consumer's goal

    hierarchy. There are two types of attention; the first type is voluntary

    attention, which is a conscious allocation of processing capacity to

    current goals. The second is involuntary attention, which is automatic

    response to disruptive events (e.g., newly acquired complex

    information). Both different types of attention influence how individuals

    proceed in reaching goals and making choices. The perceptual

    encoding accounts for the different steps that the consumer needs to

    perceive the stimuli and whether he needs more information.

    Stage No. 4: Information acquisition and evaluation

    If the consumer feels that the present information is inadequate, he will

    start to look for more information from external sources. Newly acquired

    information is evaluated and its suitability or usefulness is assessed.

    The consumer continues to acquire additional information until all

    relevant information has been secured, or until he finds that acquiring

    additional information is more costly in terms of time and money.

    Stage No. 5: Memory

    In this component the consumer keeps all the information he collects,

    and it will be the first place to search when he need to make a choice. If

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    this informations is not sufficient, no doubt he will start looking again for

    external sources.

    Stage No. 6: Decision Process

    This step in Bettmans model indicates that different types of choices are

    normally made associated with other factors, which may occur during

    the decision process. Specifically, this component deals with the

    application of heuristics or rules of thumb, which are applied in the

    selection and evaluation of specific brand. These specific heuristics a

    consumer uses are influenced by both individual factors (e.g.,

    personality differences) and situational factors (e.g., urgency of the

    decision); thus it is unlikely that the same decision by the same

    consumer will apply in different situation or other consumer in the same

    situation.

    Stage No. 7: Consumption and Learning Process

    In this stage, the model discusses the future results after the purchase

    is done. The consumer in this step will gain experience after evaluating

    the alternative. This experience provides the consumer with information

    to be applied to future choice situation. Bettman in his model emphasize

    on the information processing and the capacity of the consumer to

    analyze this information for decision making, but no explanation was

    given about the criteria by which the consumer accepts or refuses to

    process some specific information.

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    2.2.5 Sheth-Newman Gross Model of Consumption Values

    According to this model, there are five consumption values influencing

    consumer choice behavior. These are functional, social, conditional,

    emotional, and epistemic values. Any or all of the five consumption

    values may influence the decision. Various disciplines (including

    economics, sociology, several branches of psychology, marketing and

    consumer behavior) have contributed theories and research findings

    relevant to these values, (Sheth et al. 1991). Each consumption value in

    the theory is consistent with various components of models advanced

    by Maslow (1970), Katona (1971), Katz (1960), and Hanna (1980). Five

    consumption values form the core of the model:

    Figure 2-6: The five values influencing Consumer Choice Behavior

    Source: Sheth, Newman, and Gross (1991) Pp159-170

    The first value: Functional value

    To Sheth et al. (1991) the functional value of an alternative is defined as:

    "The perceived utility acquired from an alternative for functional,

    utilitarian, or physical performance. An alternative acquires functional

    Consumer Choice Behavior

    Functional Conditional Social

    Emotional Value

    Epistemic

    Value

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    value through the possession of salient functional, utilitarian, or physical

    attributes. Functional value is measured on a profile of choice

    attributes."

    Traditionally, functional value is presumed to be the primary driver of

    consumer choice. This assumption underlies economic utility theory

    advanced by Marshall (1890) and Stigler (1950) and popularly

    expressed in terms of "rational economic man." An alternatives

    functional value may be derived from its characteristics or attributes,

    (Ferber, 1973) such as reliability, durability, and price. For example, the

    decision to purchase a particular automobile may be based on fuel

    economy and maintenance record.

    By identifying the dominant function of a product (i.e., what benefits it

    provides), marketers can emphasize these benefits in their

    communication and packaging. Advertisements relevant to the function

    prompt more favorable thoughts about what is being marketed and can

    result in a heightened preferences for both the ads and the product,

    (Solomon 1996;160).

    Katz (1960) developed the functional theory of attitudes. He identifies

    four attitudes based on the functional values:

    1) Utilitarian function. The utilitarian function is related to the basic

    principles of reward and punishment. We develop some of our attitude

    toward products simply based on whether these products provide

    pleasure or pain.

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    2) Value-expressive function. Attitude that performs a value-expressive

    function expresses the consumers central values or self-concept. A

    person forms a product attitude not because of its objective benefits, but

    because of what the product says about him or her as a person.

    3) Ego-defensive function. Attitude formed to protect the person, either

    from external threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive

    function. Example of this function is deodorant campaigns that stress

    the dire, embarrassing consequences of being caught with underarm

    odor in public.

    4) Knowledge function. Some attitude is formed as a result of a need for

    order, structure, or meaning. This need is often present when a person

    is in an ambiguous situation or is confronted with a new product.

    The second value: Social value

    Sheth et al. (1991;161) defined social value of an alternative as:

    "The perceived utility acquired from an alternative association with one

    or more specific social groups. An alternative acquires social value

    through association with positively or negatively stereotyped

    demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural-ethnic groups. Social value is

    measured on a profile choice imagery."

    Social imagery refers to all relevant primary and secondary reference

    groups likely to be supportive of the product consumption. Consumers

    acquire positive or negative stereotypes based on their association with

    varied demographic (age, sex, religion), socioeconomic (income,

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    occupation), cultural/ethnic (race, lifestyle), or political, ideological

    segments of society.

    Choices involving highly visible products (e.g., clothing, jewelry) and

    good service to be shared with others (e.g., gifts, products used in

    entertaining) are often driven by social values. For example, a particular

    make of automobile is being chosen more for the social image evoked

    than for its functional performance. Even products generally thought to

    be functional or utilitarian, are frequently selected based on their social

    values.

    The third value: Emotional value

    Sheth et al. (1991; 161) defined emotional value of an alternative as:

    "The perceived utility acquired from an alternatives capacity to arouse

    feelings or affective states. An alternative acquires emotional value

    when associated with specific feelings or when precipitating those

    feelings. Emotional values are measured on a profile of feelings

    associated with the alternative."

    Consumption emotion refers to the set of emotional responses elicited

    specifically during product usage or consumption experience, as

    described either by the distinctive categories of emotional experience

    and expression (e.g., joy, anger, and fear) or by the structural

    dimensions underlying emotional categories such as pleasantness/

    unpleasantness, relaxation/action, or calmness/excitement. Goods and

    services are frequently associated with emotional responses (e.g. the

    fear aroused while viewing horror movie). Emotional value is often

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    associated with aesthetic alternatives (e.g. religion, causes). However,

    more tangible and seemingly utilitarian products also have emotional

    values. For example, some foods arouse feeling of comfort through their

    association with childhood experiences, and consumers are sometimes

    said to have "love affairs" with their cars.

    A number of different attempts have been made to identify the various

    emotions that people experience. Izard (1977) develops the taxonomy

    of affective experience approach that describes the basic emotion that

    people feel. He measures emotions using ten fundamental categories:

    interest, joy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame,

    and guilt. This approach has been used extensively by consumer

    researchers, for example, Westbrook and Oliver (1991).

    The fourth value: Epistemic value

    Sheth et al. (1991 ;162) defined epistemic value as:

    "The perceived utility acquired from an alternatives capacity to arouse

    curiosity, provide novelty, and/or satisfy a desire for knowledge. An

    alternative acquires epistemic value by items referring to curiosity,

    novelty, and knowledge."

    Epistemic issues refer to reasons that would justify the perceived

    satisfaction of curiosity, knowledge, and exploratory needs offered by

    the product as a change of pace (something new, different). Entirely

    new experience certainly provides epistemic value. However, an

    alternative that provides a simple change of pace can also be imbued

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    with epistemic value. The alternative may be chosen because the

    consumer is bored or satiated with his or her current brand (as in trying

    a new type of food), is curious (as in visiting a new shopping complex),

    or has a desire to learn (as in experiencing another culture).

    The concept of epistemic values has been influenced by theory and by

    several important areas of research. Exploratory, novelty seeking, and

    variety seeking motives have been suggested to active product search,

    trial, and switching behavior, (Howard and Sheth 1969). One of the most

    significant contributors to the study of the optimal stimulation and

    arousal has been Berlyne (1970), who contends that individuals are

    driven to maintain an optimal or intermediate level of stimulation. Finally,

    Hirschman (1980) has advanced innovativeness, or a consumer

    propensity to adopt new products.

    The Fifth value: Conditional value

    Sheth et al. (1991;162) defined the conditional value as:

    "The perceived utility acquired by an alternative is the result of the

    specific situation or set of circumstances facing the choice maker. An

    alternative acquires conditional value in the presence of antecedent

    physical or social contingencies that enhance its functional or social

    value. Conditional value is measured on a profile of choice

    contingencies."

    An alternatives utility will often depend on the situation. For example,

    some products only have seasonal value (e.g., greeting cards), some

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    are associated with once in a life events (e.g., wedding dress), and

    some are used only in emergencies (e.g., hospital services). Several

    areas of inquiry have also influenced conditional value. Based on the

    concept of stimulus dynamism advanced by Hall (1963), Howard (1969)

    recognized the importance of learning that takes place as a result of

    experience with a given situation. Howard and Sheth (1969) then

    extended Howards earlier work by defining the construct inhibitors as

    noninternalized forces that impede buyers preferences. The concept of

    inhibitors was more formally developed by Sheth (1974) in his model of

    attitude-behavior relationship as anticipated situations and unexpected

    events. Recognizing that behavior cannot be accurately predicted based

    on attitude or intention alone, a number of researchers during the 1970s

    investigated the predictive ability of situational factors (e.g., Sheth

    1974).

    The five consumption values identified by the theory make differential

    contributions in specific choice contexts. For example, a consumer may

    decide to purchase coins as an inflation hedge (functional value), and

    also realize a sense of security (emotional value) from the investment.

    Social, epistemic, and conditional values have little influence. Of course,

    a choice may be influenced positively by all five consumption values For

    example, to a first-time home buyer, the purchase of a home might

    provide functional value (the home contains more space than the

    present apartment), social values (friends are also buying homes),

    emotional values (the consumer feels secure in owning a home),

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    epistemic value (the novelty of purchasing a home is enjoyable), and

    conditional value (starting a family).

    2.2.6 Solomon Model of comparison process

    Figure 2.7 Model of comparison processSource: Solomon (1996) Pp33

    Figure 2.7 explains some of the issus that are addressed during each stage of

    the consumption process. The exchange, in which two or more organizations

    How does a consumer decide

    that he/she needs a product?

    What are the best sources of

    information to learn more

    about alternative choices?

    How are consumer attitudes

    toward products formed

    and/or changed?What cues do consumers use

    to infer which products are

    superior to others?

    CONSUMER'S PERSPECTIVE MARKETER'S PERSPECTIVE

    Is acquiring a product a

    stressful or pleasant

    experience? What does the

    purchase say about the

    consumer?

    How do situational factors,

    such as time pressure or

    store displays, affect the

    consumers purchase

    decision?

    Does the product provide

    pleasure or perform its

    intended function?

    How is the product

    eventually disposed of, and

    what are the environmental

    consequences of this act?

    What determines whether a

    consumer will be satisfied

    with a product and whether

    he/she will buy it again?

    Does this person tell others

    about his/her experiences

    with the product and affect

    PREPURCHASE

    ISSUES

    PURCHASE

    ISSUES

    POSTPURCHASE

    ISSUES

    25

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    or people give and receive something of value, is an integral part of

    marketing. He also suggested that consumer behavior involves many

    different actors. The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same

    person. People may also act as influences on the buying processes.

    Organizations can also be involved in the buying process. Much of marketing

    activity, they suggest, concentrates on adapting product offerings to particular

    circumstances of target segment needs and wants. It is also common to

    stimulate an already existing want through advertising and sales promotion,

    rather than creating wants. The definitions and models, which have been

    presented so far, have been from general marketing theory. Tourism is, by its

    very nature, a service rather than a product, which may have a considerable

    effect on consumer behavior.

    2.2.7 Stimulus-Response Model of Buyer Behavior

    Middleton (1994) presented an adapted model of consumer behavior tourism,

    which was termed the stimulus-response model of buyer behavior. The model

    is shown in Figure 2.8. This model is based on the four interactive

    components with the central component identified as 'buyer characteristics

    and decision process'.

    Range ofcompetitive

    produced andmarketed by

    the touristindustry

    Advertising

    Sales promotion

    Brochures

    Personal selling

    PR

    Friends

    Family

    Reference

    Group

    Product

    Brand

    Price

    Outlet

    Post-purchase andpost-consumption feelings

    Stimulus Input Communication

    channels

    Buyer characteristics and

    decision process

    Purchase outputs

    (response)

    Communication

    filters Motivation

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    Figure 2.8 a Stimulus-Response Model of Buyer BehaviorSource: Middleton (1994) Pp 104-112

    The model separates out motivators and determinants in consumer buying

    behavior and also emphasizes the important effects that an organization can

    have on the consumer buying process by the use of communication channels.

    Schmoll (1977) quoted in Cooper et al. (1993), developed a model which

    hypothesized that consumer decisions were a result of four elements as

    follows:

    travel stimuli, including guide books, reports from other travelers and

    advertising and promotion

    personal and social determinants of travel behaviour including motivators,

    desires and expectations

    external variables, including destination images, confidence in travel trade

    intermediaries and constraints such as cost and time

    Demographic

    economic and

    social position

    Psychographiccharacteristic

    Needs

    Wants

    Goals

    Attitudes

    Learning

    Perception

    Experience

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    Characteristics and features of the service destination such as the

    perceived link between cost and value and the range of attractions and

    amenities offered.

    2.2.8 Model of Travel-Buying Behavior Mathieson and Wall

    Mathieson and Wall (1982) suggested a linear five-stage model of travel

    buying behaviour, which is shown in Figure 2.9.

    Figure 2.9 Model of Travel-Buying BehaviorSource: Mathieson and Wall (1982) p95

    2.2.9 Model of Consumer Decision-Making Framework

    Gilbert (1991) suggested a model for consumer decision-making in which is

    shown in Figure 2.10 This model suggests that there are two levels of factors

    that have an effect on the consumer. The first level of influences is close to

    the person and includes psychological influence such as perception and

    learning. The second level of influences includes those, which have been

    developed during the socialization process and include reference groups and

    family influences. All these models that have been adapted for tourism offer

    some into the consumer behavior process involved during the purchase post-

    purchase decision stages.

    Felt need/travel

    desire

    Information

    collectionand

    evaluation

    image

    Travel

    decision(choice

    between

    alternatives)

    Travel

    satisfaction

    outcome and

    evaluation

    Travel

    preparation

    and travel

    experiences

    28

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    Figure 2.10 Consumer Decision-Making Framework

    Source: Gilbert, (1991) In Cooper (Ed.). Pp.78-105

    2.2.10 Integrated Model of Self-Congruity and Functional Congruity inExplaining and Predicting Travel Behaviour

    A more encompassing approach to the understanding of CS/D can be found

    in Sirgy's evaluative congruity models of consumer behavior (Sirgy 1983;

    Sirgy and Tyagi 1986). Sirgy explains the theoretical position associated with

    CS/D in terms of discrepancies between perceived and normative outcome

    levels. According to his theory, satisfaction is a function of evaluative

    congruity, which is a cognitive matching process in which a perception is

    compared to evoke referent cognition for the purpose of evaluating a stimulus

    object/action.

    The result of the cognitive process is postulated to produce either a

    motivational or an emotional state. CS/D is viewed as an emotional state

    because it prompts the consumer to evaluate alternative courses of action to

    Consumer or

    Decision-maker

    Socioeconomic

    influencesCultural influences

    Family influencesReference group

    influences

    Motivation or

    energizers

    Personality/

    attitude

    Perception

    Learning

    29

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    reduce an existing dissatisfaction state and/or to obtain future satisfaction

    state (Sirgy 1983; 1984; Sirgy and Tyagi 1986). Further, CS/D is viewed as a

    function of one or more congruities between perceptual (perceived value) and

    evoked referent (evoked value) states.

    Problem recognition (dissatisfaction) is the function of a directional

    discrepancy between the valence level of the perceived performance of a

    good/service and the valence level of a referent (standard of comparison or

    performance expectation). The "negative incongruity" condition (a state of

    negative performance perception and positive referent state) is hypothesized

    to produce the second highest dissatisfaction or problem recognition, followed

    by "negative congruity" (a state of negative performance perception and

    negative performance expectation), "positive congruity" (a state of positive

    performance perception and positive expectation) and "positive incongruity" (a

    state of positive performance perception and negative performance

    expectation), respectively.

    The theory of self concept was supported in empirical studies involving

    consumer evaluation of the automobile, typewriter, a bachelor's degree, and a

    house (Sirgy 1984; 1987). Sirgy (1982b) further argues that product images

    should be classified as being "functional" and "symbolic." The functional

    images of a product include the physical benefits associated with the product,

    whereas the symbolic images refer to the stereotypic personality images

    consumers have of a specific product often expressed in terms of the typical

    user image.

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    Relatedly, Sirgy (1982b) argues that CS/D is not only an evaluative function of

    the consumer's expectation and performance evaluation, but it is also an

    evaluative function of the consumer's self-image and product image congruity.

    That is, the consumer's self-concept should be understood in order to truly

    understand the individual's satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Self-concept,

    defined as "the totality of the individual's thoughts and feelings having

    reference to himself as an object," has been construed from a multi-

    dimensional perspective (Rosenberg 1979).

    The satisfaction level would be the lowest because the purchase of the

    product serves no function to the maintenance of either the self-esteem or

    self-consistency motives. Based on the review of literature on CS/D as related

    to the evaluative congruity models and self-concept, a logical interpolation can

    be drawn with respect to CS/D in tourism as related to the role of the tourist's

    perception of destination images.

    That is, CS/D in tourism is a function of both (1) the evaluative congruity of a

    tourist's expectation of destination and his/her perceived outcome of the

    destination experience; and (2) the evaluative congruity of a tourist's self-

    image and his/her perception of the destination's value-expressive image.

    Deference to him as an object," has been construed from a multi-dimensional

    perspective (Rosenberg 1979).

    For instance, the term "actual self" refers to how a person perceives one's

    self, and "ideal self" refers to how a person presents one's self to others

    (Rosenberg 1979). The self-image/product image congruity model in essence

    describes the effect of the cognitive matching process between value-

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    expressive attributes of a given product and the consumer self-concept on

    consumer decisions such as product preference, purchase intentions,

    purchase behavior, product satisfaction/dissatisfaction, and product loyalty

    (Sirgy 1982b).

    The theory explains the effect of self-image congruence on consumer attitude

    through the mediating effects of two self-concept motives: self-esteem and

    self-consistency. According to the self-image/product-image congruity model,

    a consumer's specific value-laden self-image belief interacts with a

    corresponding value-laden product-image perception in terms of the typical

    user image in a product purchase.

    The result of such an interaction occurs in the form of the following four

    congruity conditions.

    First, a "positive self-image congruity, occurs when there exists a state of

    positive self-congruity (a low discrepancy between one's actual self-image

    and the product image) and a state of positive ideal self-congruity (a low

    discrepancy between one's ideal self-image and the product image). That is,

    a product image matches up with one's actual self-image as well as with

    his/her ideal self-image. Such a situation would result in high consumer

    satisfaction because, by purchasing or identifying himself/herself with this

    product, the consumer would reach an emotional state that enhances his/her

    self-esteem motive and reinforces his/her self-consistency motive.

    Second, a "positive self-image incongruity" condition occurs when there

    exists a state of negative self-congruity (a high discrepancy between one's

    actual self-image and the product image), but a state of positive ideal self-

    congruity (low discrepancy between one's ideal self-image and the product

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    image). In this situation the individual might be motivated to purchase the

    product but his/her satisfaction level would be moderate. This occurs

    because, while the purchase would enhance one's self-esteem motive, the

    self-esteem motive would conflict with his/her self-consistency motive.

    Third, a "negative self-image incongruity" condition is the opposite of the

    "positive self-image incongruity" condition. That is, there is a state of positive

    self-congruity (low discrepancy between one's actual self-image and the

    product image,) but a state of negative ideal self-congruity (high discrepancy

    between one's ideal self-image and the product image). The situation again

    would result in a moderate satisfaction level because the individual's self-

    consistency motive would conflict with his/her self-esteem motive.

    Finally, "negative self-image congruity" occurs when there exists negative

    self-congruity (high discrepancy between ones actual self-image and the

    product image,) as well as negative ideal congruity (high discrepancy between

    his/her ideal self-image and the product image.) The satisfaction level would

    be the lowest because the purchase of the product serves no function to the

    maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives.

    Model of self-congruity and travel behavior is depicted in Figure2.11 the

    model posits that various aspects of the destination and its atmosphere are

    related to the destination visitor image. The destination visitor image is then

    evaluated in light of specific dimensions of the tourists self-concept to

    determine the degree of self-congruity which is systematically related to travel

    behavior.

    Destination

    Visitor Image

    33

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    Figure 2.11 an Integrated Model of Self-Congruity and FunctionalCongruity in Explaining and Predicting Travel Behaviour

    Source Sigry and Grewal (1997) Pp 229-241.

    2.3Desiccation

    Different models of consumer behavior describe satisfaction as the final

    output of the decision process or incorporate it in the feedback mechanism

    linking completed experiences to future behavior. For example; Nicosia (1976)

    Destination

    Environment

    TouristSelf-Concept

    Self-Congruity

    Functional-

    Congruity

    Self-Congruity

    Tourist

    PerceivedUtilitarian

    Destination

    Attributes

    Tourist

    Ideal

    Utilitarian

    Destination

    Attributes

    34

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    attributes the state of CS/D to the dominant interest in the "final act" of

    consumers that is the purchase of product. Further, the concept of CS/D is

    given greater emphasis in the works of McNeal (1973), Engel and Blackwell

    (1982), and Howard and Sheth (1967, 1969, and 1973). In their consumer

    behavior models, satisfaction is shown as the final output in the framework of

    purchase decisions.

    These buyer behavior models postulate that if the actual outcome of a product

    is judged to be better than or equal to the expected, the buyer will feel

    satisfied. If, on the other hand, actual outcome is judged not to be better than

    expected, the buyer will be dissatisfied. This disconfirmation paradigm of

    CS/D can be also found in the works of Suprenant (1977); Hunt (1977); and

    Oliver (1977, 1980).

    The theory of self-concept advances the notion that every self-image has a

    value association, which determines the degree of positive, or negative effect

    felt when that self-image is activated. This value component associated with a

    particular self-image replaces the traditional constructs of ideal self-image,

    ideal social-image, etc. Correspondingly, every product image has also a

    value component reflective of the affective intensity associated with attribute.

    A specific value-laden self-image interacts with a corresponding value-laden

    product image and the result occurs in the form of positive self-congruity

    (match between a positive product image and a positive self-image), positive

    self-incongruity (match between a positive product image and negative self-

    image), negative self-incongruity (match between a negative product image

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    and a positive self-image), or negative self-congruity (match between a

    negative product image and negative self-image). Sirgy et.al (2000) added on

    further by stating that tourists perception of the destination (type and quality

    of resorts, prices, hotel ambiance, atmosphere, etc) is likely to influence the

    formation and change of the destination visitor image. Given that self-concept

    is multidimensional in nature (actual, ideal, social, ideal social self), at issue is

    the particular dimension of the self-concept evoked in the psychological

    process of self-congruity the matching of the tourists self-concept with the

    destination visitor image.

    In addition to evaluating a destination by focusing on the symbolic (person-

    like) attributes of the destination, tourists may also evaluate destinations

    based on the destinations functional or utilitarian attributes. The match

    between the destinations level of a utilitarian attribute and the tourists

    expectation of the attribute is referred to as functional congruity may also

    affect destination travel and may be related to self-congruity.

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