19.4worthington

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Ethics and theL i m i t s o f L a n g u a g e i nWittgens te in ' s Trac ta tus

B . A . W O R T H I N G T O N

T H I S A R T IC L E IS A ST UD Y o f t h e " m y s t i c a l " p a s s a g e s a t t h e e n d o f W i t t g e n -s t e i n ' s Trac t a t u s a n d w ill p u t f o r w a r d a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f W i tt g e n s te i n 'sd o c t r i n e s o f t h e i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y o f e t h i cs a n d m e t a p h y s i c s . ' M y fi rs t p r in c i p a lc l a i m i s t h a t t h e r e j e c t i o n o f m e t a p h y s i c s is b a s e d o n a b e l i e f, e v i d e n t i n t h em y s t i c a l p a s s a g e s , t h a t m e t a p h y s i c a l r e f l e c t i o n i s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m m e t a -p h y s i c a l a n x i e t y a n d i s t h e r e f o r e t o b e a v o i d e d . W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s e t h i c o f " l i fei n t h e p r e s e n t " i s p u t f o r w a r d a s a m e a n s b y w h i c h f r e e d o m f r o m m e t a p h y s i-c a l c o n c e r n s m a y b e a c h i e v e d . S i n c e " l if e i n t h e p r e s e n t " is p r e s e n t e d i n t h eNotebooks a s a m e a n s o f o v e r c o m i n g " t h e m i s e r y o f th e w o r l d , " I s u g g e s t t h a tt h i s p a r t o f W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s s y s t e m i s b a s e d u p o n h i s a c c e p t a n c e o f S c h o p e n -h a u e r ' s d o c t r i n e t h a t " t h e m i s e r y a n d s u f f e r i n g o f l i fe " i s t h e s o u r c e o f m a n ' sm e t a p h y s i c a l i m p u l s e , a n d , m o r e o v e r , t h a t " l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t " i s i t s el f ad e r iv a t i v e o f S c h o p e n h a u e r ' s p r e s c r i p t i o n o f " t h e d e n i a l o f t h e w i ll " a n d " t h el i b e r a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e f r o m t h e w i ll ." S in c e i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e f a ct s w i ll b ei n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e f a ct s , I a r g u e t h a t t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n o f" l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t " e n t a i ls a n d e x p l a i n s t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e i n e x p r e s si b i l it yo f e t h ic s .

M y s e c o n d p r i n c i p a l c l a i m is t h a t t h e a s s o c i a ti o n o f m e t a p h y s i c a l r e fl e c -t i o n a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l a n x i e t y i s a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e s u p p o r t o f t h e c e n tr a ls e m a n t i c d o c t r i n e o f t h e Tracta tua: t h a t l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e u s e d t o d e s c r i b ei ts o w n s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e . I f th i s s e c o n d c l a i m is c o r r e c t , i t m e a n s t h a tt e c h n ic a l s e m a n t i c c o n s i d e r a ti o n s f o u n d e d o n t h e p r o b l e m s o f p r o p o s i ti o n a l

My very real g ratitude is due to Professor J. A. Faris and to M s. A. C. Stubbs. My thanksare also due to Mr. J. C. B. Glov er for his kindness and encouragem ent during the early stagesof the work on this article.[4 81 ]


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W I T T G E N S T E I N 4 8 3s t a n d t h e p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s w o r d i t is n e c e s s a r y to t u r n t o t h e 6 . 3 s ,w h e r e W i t t g e n s te i n d i sc u ss e s t h e c o n t i n g e n c y a n d i n d e p e n d e n C e o f e l e m e n -t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n s . H e r e i t is s t a t e d :6 . 3 T h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f l o gi c m e a n s t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s s u b j e c t t o/ aw . An d ou t s i de l og ic eve ry t h i ng i s acc i den t a l.F o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t hi s t h e m e a r e :6 . 3 7 T h e r e is n o c o m p u l s i o n m a k i n g o n e t h in g h a p p e n b e c a u se a n o t h e r h a shappened . T he on l y necess i t y t ha t ex i s t s i s l o g i c a l necess i ty .6 . 3 7 3 T h e w o r l d is i n d e p e n d e n t o f m y w il l.6 .374 E ven i f a ll t ha t we wi sh fo r were to happ en , s ti ll t h is woul d on l y be af avour g r an t ed by f a t e , so t o speak : fo r t he r e i s no l o g i c a l c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e nt he wi l l and t he wor l d , whi ch woul d gua ran t ee i t , and t he supposed phy s i ca l

con nex i on i t s e l f i s su r e l y no t so met h i ng t ha t we cou l d wi ll .A n a l m o s t i d e n t i ca l f o r m o f t h e la s t t w o r e m a r k s a p p e a r s i n t h e N o t e b o o k s a t5 . 7 .1 6 . A l ik e ly e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e i r m e a n i n g i s t o b e f o u n d i n t h e im m e d i -a t el y p r e c e d i n g r e m a r k ( w h ic h a r e p a r t o f t h e p r e v io u s e n tr y , m a d e n e a r ly am o n t h e a r l i e r ) :

I cann o t be nd t he h app en i ng s o f t he w or l d to my wil l: I am com pl e t e l y power l es s .I c a n o n l y m a k e m y s e l f i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e w o r ld , a n d s o i n a c e rt a i n s e n sema s t e r i t, by r enou nc i n g any i n f l uen ce on happe n i ngs . [ l 1 .6 . a6 ]4I n t h e s e r e m a r k s W i t t g e n s t e i n is a p p a r e n t l y s t re s s i n g o u r i n ab i li ty to d e t e r -m i n e t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y r e c o m m e n d i n g a c c e p t a n c e o ft h e w o r l d a s it is . T h e d o c t r i n e o f th e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f w o r l d a n d w i llt h e r e f o r e a l so a p p e a r s t o b e a n a s s e r t i o n o f o u r i n a b i li ty to c o n t r o l e v e n t s.T h e t h e m e o f " r e n o u n c i n g i n f lu e n c e o n h a p p e n i n g s " r a p id l y b e c o m e st h e d o m i n a n t t h e m e o f t h e N o t e b o o k s . A s i t d e v e l o p s i t a s s u m e s t h e f o r m o f af a m i li a r e n o u g h a r g u m e n t , w h i c h p r o p o s e s a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e w o r ld a s t h eo n l y w a y o f c o m i n g t o t e r m s w i t h s u f f e r i n g t h a t w e a r e o t h e r w i s e p o w e r l e s st o e s c a p e . H e s p e a k s o f b e i n g " h a p p y i n s p it e o f t h e m i s e r y o f th e w o r l d "( t 3 . 8 . t 6 ) 5 a n d o f " l i fe i n t h e p r e s e n t " ( 8 . 7 . x 6 ) : I t is e a s y t o se e t h e c o n n e c -t i o n b e t w e e n t h i s l as t i d e a a n d " r e n o u n c i n g i n f l u e n c e o n h a p p e n i n g s . " A t1 4 . 7 . 1 6 w e r e a d , " w h o e v e r l i v e s in t h e p r e s e n t l iv e s w i t h o u t f e a r a n d h o p e . ''7T h o s e w h o a c c e p t t h e w o r l d a s i t is wi ll n e i t h e r f e a r n o r h o p e f o r ar~ y c h a n g ei n t h e w o r l d ; t h e y w i ll t h e r e f o r e b e l i vi n g w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e f u t u r e a n di n t h i s s e n s e w i l l b e l i v i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t .

4 N o te b oo k s z 9 t 4 - z 6 , ed. G. H , von W right and G . E. M. Ansco mbe , tran s. G. E. M. An-scomb e (Oxford: Blackwe ll, 1961 .Notebooks , p . 8 l .6 No tebooks , p. 75-7 No tebooks , p. 76.


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4 8 4 H I S T O R Y o r P H I L O S O P H YI t i s p o ss i bl e t h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s d o c t r i n e " t h e w o r l d is i n d e p e n d e n t o f m y

w i ll " d e r i v e s o r i g i n a l l y f r o m S c h o p e n h a u e r , s i nc e t h e l a t te r u s e s a n a l m o s ti d e n t ic a l p h r a s e a n d u s e s it , m o r e o v e r , t o e x p r es s t h e u n d e r l y i n g t r u t h o fS t o i c i s m :I f in the wr idngs of the Stoics which are lef t to us , a l l of which are unsystematical lycomp osed , we look f o r th e g r o und of tha t unshakeab le equan imi ty which is con-s tan t ly expec ted of us , we f ind none o the r than the knowledge tha t t h e c o u r s e o f t h ew o r l d i s en t i r el y i n d e p e n d e n t o f o u r w i l l and consequently that the evi l that befal ls us isinevitable ,aF u r t h e r m o r e , t h e b u r d e n o f S c h o p e n h a u e r ' s s y s te m li es i n hi s t w i n p r e sc r ip -t i on s o f " t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e f r o m t h e w il l" a n d o f " t h e d e n i a l o f t h ew i ll ." T h e s e a r is e f r o m h i s e x t e n d e d d i s cu s s io n o f " t h e s u f f e r i n g a n d m i s e r yo f l i f e " a n d c o n s i s t i n a b s t e n t i o n f r o m t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h e w i ll . It s e em s l i k e ly ,e s p e ci a ll y in v i e w o f o t h e r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s I w ill s h o w b e t w e e n S c h o p e n -h a u e r a n d W i t t g e n s t e i n , t h a t t h e s e p r e sc r i p ti o n s a r e a s o u r c e o f W i t t g e n -s t e i n 's " l if e i n t h e p r e s e n t , " t o w h i c h t h e y b e a r a n o b v i o u s r e s e m b l a n c e .

W i t h t h is e x c u r s i o n c o m p l e t e w e c a n n o w r e t u r n t o 6 .4 1 . I h a v e a r g u e dt h a t t h e w o r d " a c c i d e n t a l , " w h i c h l a st a p p e a r e d i n 6 . 3 , a l l u d e s t o t h e d i s c u s -s i on i n t h e 6 .3 s o f t h e c o n t i n g e n c y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i -t io n s ; a n d I h a v e f u r t h e r a r g u e d t h a t w h a t i s " a c c i d en t a l " c a n n o t b e o f v a l u eb e c a u s e i t w i ll b e " i n d e p e n d e n t o f m y w i l l" ( 6 .3 7 3 ). T h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h ee q u i v a l e n t s o f 6 .3 7 3 a n d 6 . 3 7 4 a p p e a r i n th e N o t e b o o k s s h o w s t h a t t h i s p h r a s em e a n s " b e y o n d m y c o n t r o l ." T h e a s s er t io n t h a t v a l u e " m u s t l ie o u t s i d e t h ew h o l e s p h e r e o f w h a t h a p p e n s a n d is t h e ca s e " b e c a u se " a ll t h a t h a p p e n s a n di s t h e c a s e i s a c c i d e n t a l " n o w h a s t h e e f f e c t t h a t n o v a l u e c a n l i e i n w h a th a p p e n s a n d i s t h e c a s e b e c a u s e a l l t h a t h a p p e n s a n d i s t h e c a s e i s b e y o n dm y c o n t r o l . P r o p o s i t i o n 6 . 4 1 c a n t h e r e f o r e b e s e e n a s a r e i t e r a t i o n o f t h ep r e s c r i p t io n o f " r e n o u n c i n g i n f l u e n c e o n h a p p e n i n g s " in t h e N o t e b o o k s . T h a tv a l u e c a n n o t l i e i n t h e w o r l d s i m p l y m e a n s t h a t w e a r e n o t t o a t t a c h v a l u e t ot h e f a c t s o f t h e w o r l d .

I t r e m a i n s t o c o n s i d e r W i t t g e n s te i n ' s i m m e d i a t e l y s u b s e q u e n t s t a t e m e n tt h a t " w h a t m a k e s i t n o n - a c c i d e n t a l " m u s t l i e o u t s i d e t h e w o r l d . T h e s e n -t e n c e s " I n t h e w o r l d e v e r y t h i n g is a s i t i s, a n d e v e r y t h i n g h a p p e n s a s i t d o e sh a p p e n : i n i t n o v a l u e e x i s t s " a n d " I f t h e r e i s a n y v a l u e t h a t d o e s h a v e v a l u e , .i t m u s t l ie o u t s i d e t h e w h o l e s p h e r e o f w h a t h a p p e n s a n d is t h e c as e " a r ea p p a r e n d y i n t e n d e d t o s u p p o r t t h e a s s er ti o n i m m e d i a te l y p re c e d i n g t h e m :" T h e s e n s e o f t h e w o r l d m u s t l ie o u ts i d e t h e w o r l d ." I f o n e d o e s n o t a s s u m et h is , t h e n t h e l a st s e n t e n c e a p p e a r s u n s u p p o r t e d a n d a w k w a r d l y d e t a c h e d

s The W or l d as Wi l l and R e pre sen t a ti on , trans. E. F.J. Payne, 2 vols. (New York: Dover, 1966 ,~: 156 -57 (my italics).


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W I T T G E N S T E I N 4 8 5f r o m t h e r e s t . T h e p h r a s e " w h a t m a k e s it n o n - a c c i d e n t a l " m u s t b e i n a p p o s i -t i o n t o " v a l u e . " T h i s i s q u i t e c e r t a i n . W h e n t h is p h r a s e o c c u r s w e h a v ea l r e a d y b e e n t o l d t h a t v a l u e c a n n o t l i e w i t h in t h e w o r l d , b e c a u s e t h e a c c i d e n -t a l n a t u r e o f e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e w o r l d p r e c l u d e s v a l u e f r o m b e i n g i n t h ew o r l d . T h e s e n t e n c e " W h a t m a k e s i t n o n -a c c i d e n ta l c a n n o t l ie within t h ew o r l d , s i n c e i f it d i d i t w o u l d i t s e l f b e a c c i d e n t a l " is o b v i o u s l y i n t e n d e d t oe x p l a i n t h is , b u t i t c a n h a v e n o r e l e v a n c e a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n u n l es s w e p r e -s u m e a n i n t e n d e d a p p o s i t io n b e t w e e n " v a lu e " a n d " w h a t m a k e s it n o n -a c ci -d e n t a l . " T h e w o r d " i t" m u s t r e f e r t o " a ll t h a t h a p p e n s a n d is t h e c as e " s in c ei n t h e G e r m a n t e x t t h e r e is n o o t h e r w o r d o r p h r a s e i n t h e w h o l e o f 6 . 4 1w h i c h a g r e e s w i t h it i n g e n d e r . " A l l t h a t h a p p e n s a n d is t h e c a s e " is , o fc o u r s e , t h e w o r l d , s i n c e " t h e w o r l d is a ll t h a t i s t h e c a s e " ( t h o u g h i n t h eG e r m a n t e x t t h e r e is n o p a r a l l e l to t h e d u a l o c c u r r e n c e o f "i s t h e c a se " ). T h i sa c c o u n t o f t h e w o r d " i t" a p p e a r s t o b e a c c e p t e d b y A n s c o m b e , w h o a s ks ," W h y t h e n , h a v i n g s a id t h a t w h a t e v e r h a p p e n s a n d is t h e c a se is a c c i d e n ta l ,d o e s W i t t g e n s t e i n s p e a k o f ' w h a t m a k e s i t n o n - a c c i d e n t a l '? '9 T h e i d e n ti f ic a -t i o n o f " v a l u e " w i t h " w h a t m a k e s i t n o n - a c c i d e n t a l " e n a b l e s u s to a n s w e r h e rq u e s t i o n . V a l u e , a " v a l u e t h a t d o e s h a v e v a l u e ," is p r e s u m a b l y t o b e f o u n d i n" l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t . " S i n c e l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t w i l l m a k e u s i n d i f f e r e n t t o "howt h i n g s a r e i n t h e w o r l d " ( 6 . 4 4 ), i t w ill m a k e u s i m m u n e t o t h e i n d e p e n d e n to r " a c c i d e n t a l " n a t u r e o f t h e w o r l d . T h e w o r l d i s " a c c i d e n t a l" in t h e s e n set h a t i t is " i n d e p e n d e n t o f m y w i l l, " b u t l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t w il l m a k e i t" n o n - a c c i d e n t a l " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it s a c c i d e n t a l n a t u r e w ill n o l o n g e r a f f e c tu s . I f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 6 . 4 1 i s c o r r e c t , t h e n 6 . 4 - - " A l l p r o p o s i t i o n s a r e o fe q u a l v a l u e " - - i s l i k el y t o m e a n " t h e r e i s n o m o r e v a l u e i n o n e p r o p o s i t i o n ' sb e i n g t r u e t h a n in a n o t h e r ' s b e i n g t r u e . "

P r o p o s i t i o n s 6 . 4 a n d 6 1 41 , w it h w h i c h w e h a v e s o f a r b e e n c o n c e r n e d , a r en o t t h e m s e l v e s e x p l i ci t ly c o n c e r n e d w i th t h e i n e x p r e ss i b il i ty o f e t h ic s . T h i sd o c t r i n e i s a s s e r t e d a t 6 .4 2 a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f 6 . 4:6 .4 2 S o t oo i t i s i mposs i b l e fo r t he r e t o be p ropos i t i ons o f e t h ic s .P ropo s i t i ons can expres s no t h i ng o f wha t i s h i ghe r .T h e p h r a s e " s o t o o , " w h i c h a p p e a r s i n th e m o r e r e c e n t e d i t i o n s o f t h e P e a rsa n d M c G u i n n e s s t r a n s l a t io n , r e p l a c i n g t h e e a r l ie r " a n d s o ," d o e s n o t c l e ar l ys u g g e s t t h a t t h i s d o c t r i n e i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e e a r l ie r r e m a r k s . T h e r e c a n ,h o w e v e r , b e n o d o u b t t h a t w e a r e i n t e n d e d t o ta k e i t t h is w a y , f o r in th eG e r m a n t e x t 6 . 4~ b e g i n s w i t h t h e w o r d Datum, a w o r d n o r m a l l y t r a n s l a t e d a s" t h e r e f o r e " ( O g d e n h a s " h e n c e a ls o" ).

9 G . E . M . A n sco m b e , An In t roduct ion to Wi t tgens tein ' s " 'Tracta tus" ( L o n d o n : H u t c h i n s o n ,1959), pp- 17o-71 .


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4 8 6 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H YI t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o s e e w h y W i t t g e n s t e i n s h o u l d d e d u c e t h e i n e x p r e s s i b i l-

i t y o f e t h i c s f r o m 6 . 4 a n d 6 . 4 1 . L a n g u a g e i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s t a t i n g f ac t s.F r o m t h i s i t f o l l o w s t h a t i f n o v a l u e c a n l i e i n t h e f a ct s , n o v a l u e c a n l ie i na n y t h i n g t h a t l a n g u a g e c a n d e s c r i b e . A n y s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f o r m " I t is g o o dt h a t X " ( o r " I t i s n o t g o o d t h a t X " o r " I t is g o o d t h a t n o t X ") in v o l v e s u s i na t t a c h i n g v a l u e t o t h e f a c t s o f t h e w o r l d . S i n c e n o v a l u e c a n l i e i n t h e f a c t s ,s u c h a s t a t e m e n t i s n e c e s s a r i l y f a l s e a n d t h u s m e a n i n g l e s s . P r o p o s i t i o n s o fe t h ic s a r e t h e r e f o r e i m p o s s ib l e .

2 . THE SOLUTI ON OF THE PROBLEM OF LI FET h i s s e c t io n i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p o s it iv e s i d e o f W i t t g e n s te i n 's r e m a r k s o ne t h ic s . I n p a r t i c u l a r i t w i ll a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e a n a c c o u n t o f " t h e s o l u ti o n o ft h e p r o b l e m o f l i f e " ( 6 .5 2 t a ) .

T h e r e is a r e p e a t e d s u g g e s t i o n i n b o t h t h e T r a c t a t ~ a n d t h e N o t e b o o k s t h a tc o m p l i a n c e w i t h W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s e t h i c a l p r e s c ri p t i o n s w i ll c o n d u c e t o t h e d is -c o v e r y o f " t h e s e n s e o f t h e w o r l d " a n d o f " t h e s o lu t i o n o f th e p r o b l e m o fl i f e . " F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e N o t e b o o k s w e r e a d :

The so lu t ion of the p r ob lem of l i f e i s to be s een in the d i sappear ance of th i sp r o b l e m .But is i t poss ible for one so to l ive that l i fe s tops being problematic? That one is/ /v/rig in e terni ty an d no t in t ime?" [6.7.16] ~0T h i s a s p e c t o f t h e N o t e b o o k s m a y b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s s t r e s s o nh a p p i n e s s a n d w i t h h i s d o c t r i n e t h a t a p e r s o n w h o f o l lo w s t h e e t h ic o f " l if ei n t h e p r e s e n t " w i ll b e " h a p p y . " T h i s d o c t r i n e i s s t at e d i n " O n l y a m a n w h ol iv e s n o t i n t i m e b u t i n t h e p r e s e n t is h a p p y " ( 8 . 7 . i 6 ) '~ a n d i s s u g g e s t e d b y" T h e g o o d l if e i s t h e w o r l d s e e n s u b s p e c i e a e t e r n i t a t i s " ( 7 .1 o . 1 6 ) ? ' T h e c o n -n e c t i o n b e t w e e n l if e i n t h e p r e s e n t , o r a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e w o r l d , a n d h a p p i -

9h e s s c a n e a s i ly b e s e e n , s i n ce t h e f o r m e r i s p r o p o s e d p r e c i se l y as a m e a n s o fb e i n g " h a p p y i n s p i t e o f t h e m i s e r y o f th e w o r l d . " T h e l ik e ly c o n n e c t i o nb e t w e e n h a p p i n e s s a n d " t h e s o l u t i o n o f th e p r o b l e m o f li fe " is t h a t o n c eh a p p i n e s s i s u n d e r s t o o d a s a b s e n c e o f d e s i re i t s u g g e s t s a t r a n q u i l l i t y t h a tw o u l d e x c l u d e m e t a p h y s i c a l p e r p le x i t y . T h a t s o m e s u c h r e a s o n i n g i n fl u -e n c e d W i t t g e n s t e i n is s u g g e s te d b y r e m a r k s o n 6 . 7 .1 6 . O n t h e d a y f o ll o w i n ga s e ri e s o f r e m a r k s w h i c h r e a p p e a r i n t h e T r a c t a t u s a m o n g t h e 6 . 4 3 s W i t t -g e n s t e i n c o n t i n u e s :

An d in th i s s ense Dos to ievsky i s r igh t when he s ay s tha t the m an w ho i s happy i sf u l f il l ing the pur p ose o f ex i s tence .'~ Notebooks, p. 74." I b i d .'" Notebooks, p. 83.


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W l T T G E N S T E I N 4 8 7Or aga in we cou ld s ay tha t the man i s f u l fi l ling the pu r pose o f ex i s tence who no

longer needs to have any pur pose excep t to l ive . Tha t i s to s ay , who i s con ten t .[6. 7.16] ~sT h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n " l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t " a n d " t h e s o l u ti o n o f t h e

p r o b l e m o f li f e" a p p e a r s a g a i n i n th e Tractatus a t 6 .4 3 1 2 . H e r e w e a re t o l dt h a t " t e m p o r a l i m m o r t a l i t y " w o u l d n o t s o lv e t h e " r i d d l e o f li fe ." In t h ep r e v i o u s r e m a r k " t e m p o r a l i m m o r t a l i t y " is sh a r p l y c o n t r a s te d w i t h "t i m el e ss -n e s s , " w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e l a t t e r s t a te is t o p r o d u c e s u c h as o l u t i o n . W e a r e , m o r e o v e r , a s s u r e d t h a t t h i s s t a t e w i ll b e p o s si b l e f o r t h o s ew h o a d o p t W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s e t h i c o f " l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t , " s i n ce " i f w e t a k ee t e r n i t y t o m e a n n o t i n f in i t e t e m p o r a l d u r a t i o n b u t t im e l e ss n e ss , t h e n e t e r -n a l l i f e b e l o n g s t o t h o s e w h o l iv e in t h e p r e s e n t " ( 6. 43 1 l) .

T h e s a m e c o n n e c t i o n is f o u n d i n 6 .4 1 , w h e r e t h e a s se r ti o n t h a t v a l u em u s t l i e o u t s i d e t h e w o r l d i s e v i d e n t l y u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h es e n s e o f t h e w o r l d m u s t l ie o u t s i d e t h e w o r l d . A s I a r g u e d i n t h e p r e v i o u ss e c t io n , t h i s i s t h e o n l y n a t u r a l w a y o f r e a d i n g t h e r e m a r k . I t fo l l ow s t h a t t h ed i s c o v e ry o f " t h e s e n s e o f t h e w o r l d " m u s t b e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e d is c o v e ry o fa " v a l u e t h a t d o e s h a v e v a l u e . "

T h e r e m a r k s o n t h e m y s t i c a l a l so c o n t a i n t h i s a s s o ci a t io n . A f t e r t h e r e -m a r k a t 6 .5 2 t h a t t h e r e a r e n o q u e s t i o n s e x c e p t " s ci e n ti f ic q u e s t i o n s " a n dt h a t r e a l i z i n g t h i s w i ll p r o v i d e t h e s o l u t i o n t o " t h e p r o b l e m s o f l i fe , " a n da f t e r t h e r e m a r k a t 6 . 5 2 1 (a ) t h a t " t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f li f e is s e e ni n t h e v a n i s h i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m , " W i t t g e n s te i n c o n t in u e s :6 . 5 ~ Th er e a r e , inded , th ings tha t cannot be pu t in to wor ds . The y make them-selves manifest. Th ey a re what is myst ical.T h e r e i s a n o b v i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n h e r e t h a t " w h a t i s m y s t ic a l " w i ll b e , o r w i llp r o v i d e , t h e " s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l if e ." A t 6 . 4 5 w e a r e t o ld :6 . 45 To v iew the wor ld sub specie aeterni is to view i t as a whole- -a l imitedwhole .

Feel ing th e wor ld as a l imited w hole - - i t is this that is myst ical.F r o m t h i s i t s e e m s t h a t v i e w i n g t h e w o r l d sub specie aeterni i s " m y s t i c a l " a n dt h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f l if e. I p r e s u m e t h a t v i ew -i n g t h e w o r l d sub specie aeterni w i l l b e t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h o s e w h o " l i v e i n t h ep r e s e n t . "

L a s tl y , i t s h o u l d b e n o t i c e d t h a t t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f " /h e s e n se o f t h ew o r l d " o n g o o d c o n d u c t i s e x p l i c i t l y a s s e r t e d i n t h e Notebooks v e r s i o n o f 6 . 4 3( w h i c h a p p e a r s a t 5 . 7. 1 6 ). H e r e t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t " g o o d o r b a d w i l l i n g " w i ll

'~ Notebooks,p. 73-


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4 8 8 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Yc a u s e t h e w o r l d t o " w a x o r w a n e a s a w h o l e " i s f o l l o w e d b y t h e p h r a s e " a s i fb y a c c e s s i o n o r l o ss o f m e a n i n g . " I t h a s g e n e r a l l y e s c a p e d a t t e n t i o n t h a t t h ew o r d S i n n t h a t A n s c o m b e h e r e t r a n s l a t e s as " m e a n i n g " i s t h e s a m e w o r d t h a ti n 6 . 4 1 P e a r s a n d M c G u i n n e s s t r a n s l a t e a s " s e n s e ." T h e e f f e c t o f g o o d o rb a d w i l li n g , t h e n , w i ll b e t h e a c c e s s i o n o r l o s s o f " t h e s e n s e o f t h e w o r l d "m e n t i o n e d i n 6 . 4 t . O f c o u r s e , s i n c e t h e p h r a s e " a s i f b y a c c e s s i on o r lo s s o fm e a n i n g " d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n th e T r a c t a t u s i t m u s t h a v e f a i l e d t o " h i t t h e n a i lo n t h e h e a d . T M I t n e v e r t h e l e s s g i v e s u s a g o o d i d e a o f w h a t n a i l W i t t g e n s t e i nw a s t r y i n g t o h i t .

A p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h is p o s i t io n b e g i n s t o e m e r g e w h e n i tis n o t i c e d t h a t S c h o p e n h a u e r r e g a r d s t h e m i s e r y a n d i n s e c ur i ty o f t h e w o r lda s t h e s o l e s o u r c e o f t h e " u r g e t o m e t a p h y s i c s . " T h i s c l a i m i s m a d e r e p e a t -e d l y t h r o u g h o u t h is c h a p t e r " O n M a n ' s N e e d f o r M e t a p h y si c s " in T h e W o r l da s W i l l a n d R e p r e s e n t a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e : " B u t u n d o u b t e d l y i t is t h e k n o w l e d g eo f d e a t h , a n d t h e r e w i t h t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t he s u f f e r i n g a n d m i s e r y o f l if e,t h a t g i v e t h e s t r o n g e s t i m p u l s e t o p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n a n d m e t a p h y s i c a le x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d . ' ' ' s

T h e r e i s, t h e r e f o r e , r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n a c c e p t e d t hi s v i ewo f S c h o p e n h a u e r a n d r e g a r d e d " l if e i n t h e p r e s e n t " as a so l u ti o n to m e t a -p h y s i ca l p r o b l e m s o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t b y e n a b l i n g us to b e " h a p p y i n s p it eo f t h e m i s e r y o f t h e w o r l d , " " l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t " w i ll c u t o f f o u r m e t a p h y s i c a lu r g e a t t h e s o u r c e . F u r t h e r s u p p o r t f o r m y s ug g e s t io n i s t h a t, f o r S c h o p e n -h a u e r , c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h is m i s e r y is c l o se l y b o u n d u p w i t h c o n s c i o u s n e s s o fp a s t a n d f u t u r e . '6

A f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h i n g s u c h a n e x p l a n a t i o n c a n b e f o u n d i f w et u r n t o 6 . 5 ~ a n d 6 . 5 2 ~ i n t h e T r a c t a t u s .6 .52

6 .521

W e f e e l t h a t e v e n w h e n al l poss ible sc i ent i fi c q u es t io n s h av e b ee n an s w ered ,t h e p r o b l e m s o f li f e r e m a i n c o m p l e t e l y u n t o u c h e d . O f c o u r s e t h e r e a r e t h e nn o q u es t io n s l e f t , an d th is i t s e l f i s t h e an sw er .T h e s o l u t io n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l i fe is se e n i n t h e v a n i s h i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m .

( I s n o t t h i s t h e r e a s o n w h y t h o s e w h o h a v e f o u n d a f t e r a l o n g p e r i o d o fd o u b t t h a t t h e s e n s e o f l if e b e c a m e c l e a r t o t h e m h a v e t h e n b e e n u n a b l e t o sa yw h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t s e n se ? )

,4 "I f this work has any va lue, it consists in two things: the first is that thoug hts are ex-pressed in it , and on this score the better the thoughts a re expre ssed --the mo re the nail hasbeen hit on the h ea d-- the grea ter will be its value. Here I am conscious of having fallen a longway short of what is possible" ( T r a c t a t v . r , autho r's preface, p . 3).

~ 5 2 : 1 6 1 .,s For ex amp le, hum an consciousness is in this respect contrasted with that of animals,which is described as "'mere consciousness of the present without that of the past and future;consequently without that of death" (World as Will and Representation, 2:571 )


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WITTGENSTEIN 4 8 9S i n c e W i t t g e n s t e i n s p e a k s o f t h o s e t o w h o m t h e s e n s e o f l i fe h a s b e c o m ec l e a r, h e c a n n o t m e r e l y b e d i s m i s s i n g " t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f li f e " a ss i m p l y a n o t i o n v o i d o f c o n t e n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h es o l u t i o n t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s c o n s i s t s i n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e n o q u e s -t i o n s e x c e p t " s c i e n ti f ic q u e s t i o n s . " " T h e s o l u t i o n o f th e p r o b l e m o f l i fe , "t h e n , c o n s i s t s s i m p l y i n o u r c e a s i n g t o l o o k f o r a s o l u t i o n . T h e r e a s o n w h yq u e s t i o n s a b o u t " t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f li f e" ( u n l i k e s c i en t i fi c q u e s -t i o n s) a r e n o t r e a l q u e s t i o n s is p r e s u m a b l y f o u n d i n 6 . 5 , o n w h i c h 6 . 5 2 is ag l o s s : " I f a q u e s t i o n c a n b e f r a m e d a t a l l , i t i s a l s o pos s ib l e t o a n s w e r i t ." I t w i l lb e i m p o s s i b l e t o a n s w e r s u c h q u e s t i o n s f o r r e a s o n s t h a t a r e n o w f a m i l i a r :a n y a t t e m p t e d a n s w e r w i l l p u r p o r t t o a t t a c h g r e a t e r s i g n i fi c a n c e t o o n e f a c tt h a n t o a n o t h e r . L i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t , h o w e v e r , w h i c h c o n si s ts in a t t r i b u t i n gn o g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e to o n e f a c t t h a n t o a n o t h e r , w ill m a k e i t i m p o s s i b l e tor a is e s u c h q u e s t i o n s a n d w i ll i t s e lf t h e r e f o r e b r i n g a b o u t t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h ep r o b l e m o f l if e .

I n i t ia l l y , I s e t o u t t o s h o w t h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n h o l d s a p o s i t i o n a c c o r d i n g t ow h i c h m e t a p h y s i c a l a n x i e t y i s t h e i n e v i t a b le c o n c o m i t a n t o f m e t a p h y s i c a lr e f l e c ti o n , w h i c h is t h e r e f o r e t o b e a v o i d e d . S o f a r a s " t h e p r o b l e m s o f l if e "a r e c o n c e r n e d , t h i s cl a i m h a s b e e n s u b s t a n t i a t e d , l h a v e s h o w n t h a t n op u r p o r t e d a n s w e r t o q u e s t io n s e x p r e s s i n g t h e p r o b l em s o f li fe c a n b e as a t i s fa c t o r y a n s w e r . A n y a n s w e r c a n o n l y s ta t e a f ac t , a n d n o f a c t c a n p r o v i d e" t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l i fe . " S o l o n g a s w e r a is e t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w em u s t r e m a i n a t a l o ss f o r a n a n s w e r . T h e o n l y s o l u ti o n is t o s t o p a s k i n g s u c hq u e s t i o n s , a n d t h i s w i ll b e p o s s i b l e i f w e " l i v e i n t h e p r e s e n t . "

N o t h i n g , h o w e v e r , h a s s o fa r b e e n d o n e t o e x t e n d t h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t oo t h e r a r e a s o f m e t a p h y s i c s . I t r e m a i n s t o s h o w t h a t th e a s s o ci a t io n b e t w e e nm e t a p h y s i c a l r e f l e c ti o n a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l an x i e t y n o t o n l y ex p l a i n s t h e n o n -s e n s ic a l i ty o f p r o p o s i t i o n s e x p r e s s i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f li fe b u t h a s a l so b e e na n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e r e j e c ti o n o f a l l m e t a p h y s i c s a s n o n s e n s i c a l . T h i st a sk w i ll b e t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e n e x t s e c ti o n .

B" THE GENERAL NONSENSICALITY OF METAPHYSICSO n e w o u l d c e r t a in l y e x p e c t t h e r e t o b e s o m e s u c h i nf l u en c e . I t w o u l d b es u r p r i s in g i f W i t t g e n s t e i n h a d d e c l a r e d d i f f e r e n t a r ea s o f m e t a p h y s ic s t o b ei n e x p r e s s i b l e o n q u i t e u n r e l a t e d g r o u n d s . S o m e s i m i l ar i ty i n W i t t g e n s t e i n ' st r e a t m e n t o f d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f m e t a p h y s i c s i s e a s il y f o u n d . F o r e x a m p l e , h i st r e a t m e n t o f s o l i p s i sm r u n s p a r a l l e l t o h is t r e a t m e n t o f " t h e p r o b l e m o f l if e ."A t 6 . 5 1 W i t t g e n s t e i n t e l l s u s t h a t s k e p t i c is m is " n o t i r r e f u t a b l e , b u t o b v i o u s l yn o n s e n s i c a l " a n d a t 5 . 6 ~ t h a t " w h a t t h e s o l i p s i s t m e a n s " c a n n o t b e s a i d . N e -v e r t h e l e s s, e x p r e s s i o n s o f s o li p s i sm a r e n o t m e r e v e r b a l e f f u s i o n , s in c e w ea l s o r e a d t h a t " w h a t t h e s o l i p s i s t m e a n s i s q u i t e c o r r e c t , " a n d t h a t , a l t h o u g h


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49 ~ H IS T O R Y O F P H IL O S O P H Y

t h e u n d e r l y i n g t r u t h o f s o li p s is m c a n n o t b e s a i d, i t " m a k e s i t se l f m a n i f e s t" .F i n a l l y , w h e n p h i l o s o p h i c a l c l a r i f i c a t i o n h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d t h e p r o b l e m o fthe so l i p s i s t , l i ke t he p rob l ems o f l i f e , wi l l s imp ly van i sh : " so l i p s i sm, when i t si m p l i c a t i o n s a r e f o l l o w e d o u t s t r i c t l y , c o i n c i d e s w i t h p u r e r e a l i s m " ( 5 . 6 4 ) .T h e p r o b l e m o f t h e s o li p si st , th e n , r e s e m b l e s t h e p r o b l e m s o f l if e i n th a t t h es o l u t io n o f th e p r o b l e m is s e e n i n t h e v a n i s h in g o f t h e p r o b l e m .

I f , m o r e o v e r , w e s u p p o s e t h a t W i tt g e n s te i n 's r e j e c t io n o f m e t a p h y s i c s w asi n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f m e t a p h y s i c a l r e f l e c t i o n w i t h m e t a p h y s i c a la n x i e t y , t h e n t h i s w il l e n a b l e u s t o e x p l a i n a n o d d i t y i n th e t e x t . T h e i m p o s s i -b i li ty o f e x p r e s s i n g " t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l if e " is t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e6 . 4 s . A f t e r t h i s , w e h a v e :6 . 5 W hen the answe r cannot be put in to words, nei ther can the quest ion be

put in to words.The r/dd/e does not exist.I f a qu est ion can be f ra me d at al l , i t is also possible to answer i t .I n t h e r e m a r k s n u m b e r e d a s c o m m e n t s o n 6 . 5 W i t tg e n s t e in a s s e rt s t h e n o n -s e n s i c a l it y o f " s k e p t i c i s m " ( 6 .5 1 ) , o f v e r b a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e m y s t i c a l (6 . 5 2 2) ,o f t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l if e (6 . 5 2) , o f m e t a p h y s i c s ( 6 .5 3 ) , a n d o f t h eTrac ta tu s ( 6 .5 4 ) . I t i s s u r e l y s i g n i fi c a n t t h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n p r e s e n t s e a c h o ft h e s e d o c t r i n e s a s a g lo s s o n t h e n o n s e n s i c a li ty o f " t h e q u e s t i o n " a n d o f " t h er i d d l e . " T h e i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e s a r e 6 . 5 3 a n d 6 . 5 4 , w h i c h d e a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,w i t h t h e n o n s e n s i c a l i t y o f m e t a p h y s i c s i n g e n e r a l a n d w i t h t h e n o n s e n s i c a l i t yo f t h e Trac ta tu s . W h y s h o u l d t h e n o n s e n s i c a li ty o f t h e Trac ta tu s , w h i c h a s k sn o q u e s t i o n s , b e p r e s e n t e d a s a c o m m e n t o n t h e n o n s e n s i c a l i t y o f " t h e q u e s -t i on " ? T h i s o d d i t y c a n b e e x p l a i n e d i f w e s u p p o s e t h a t i n e a c h c a s e t h er e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e n o n s e n s i c a l i t y o f m e t a p h y s i c s w ill n o t m e r e l y e l im i n a t en o n s e n s i c a l a s s e r t i o n s b u t w il l p r o v i d e r e l i e f f r o m p e r p l e x i n g q u e s t i o n s .

W h a t i s m o r e , t h e 6 . 5 s f o l l o w t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f e t h ic s i n t h e 6 . 4 s a n di m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m y s t ic a l a tt i tu d e o f " f e e l in g t h ew o r l d a s a l i m i t e d w h o l e , " w h i c h , a s t h e 6 . 5 2 s s u g g e s t , p r o v i d e s o r a t l e a s ta c c o m p a n i e s " t h e s o l u ti o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l if e ." A t 6 .5 2 W i tt g e n s te i nd i s c u s se s t h e n o n s e n s i c a li t y o f q u e s t i o n s e x p r e s s i n g t h e p r o b l e m s o f l if e. H ed o e s n o t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e g r o u n d o f t h e i r n o n s e n s i c a l i t y is t o b e d is t in -g u i s h e d f r o m t h a t o f t h e n o n s e n s i c a li ty o f th e o t h e r m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t io n s .T h e r e is t h e r e f o r e s o m e r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t t h e r e je c t io n o f m e t a p h y s ic sg e n e r a l l y i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f li fe . I w il l a r g u et h a t t h i s is i n d e e d s o a n d t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e o f m i n d i n v o l v e d in m e t a p h y s i c a lr e f l e c t i o n i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h a t o f " f e e l i n g t h e w o r l d a s a l im i t e d w h o l e "a n d s o w i t h t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l if e . F ir s t, i t w il l b e n e c e s s a r y t od i s c u s s t h e m y s t i c a l a t t i t u d e i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .


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W I T T G E N S T E I N 4 9 ~T h e w o r d " m y s t i ca l " a p p e a r s i n t h r e e r e m a r k s : 6 . 4 4 , 6 . 4 5 a n d 6 . 5 2 2 . T h e

s e c o n d a n d t h i r d o f th e s ~ a r e q u o t e d a b o v e ; t h e f ir s t r u n s :6.44 I t i s no t how things are in the wor ld that i s myst ical, but tha t it exists.I t is n o t a t e r m f o r w h i c h W i t t g e n s t e i n s p e ci fi e s a n y p r e c i se m e a n i n g , b u tt w o t h i n g s a b o u t i t a r e c l e a r . F i r s t, t h e m y s t ic a l is i n e x p r e s s i b l e . T h i s i se v i d e n t f r o m 6 . 5 2 2 : " T h e r e a r e , i n d e e d , t h in g s t h a t c a n n o t b e p u t i nt ow o r d s . T h e y m a k e t h e m s e l v e s m a n i f e s t . T h e y a r e w h a t i s m y s t i c a l. " S e c o n d l y ,w h a t is m y s t i ca l in s o m e w a y c o n d u c e s t o " t h e s o l u t io n o f t h e p r o b l e m o fl if e ." T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f 6 .5 2 ' , as a c o m m e n t o n :6 .5~ W e f ee l t ha t even whe n all possible scient i f ic quest ion have been answered,t h e p r o b l e m s o f l i fe r e m a i n c o m p l e t e l y u n t o u c h e d . O f c o u r s e t h e r e a r e t h e n

no quest ions lef t , and this i t se l f i s the answer .I t i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d b y t h e N o t e b o o k s v e r s i o n o f 6 . 5 2 :T h e u rge t owards t he my s t i cal come s o f the non- sa t is f ac t ion o f ou r w i shes by sc ience .W e f e e l t ha t even i f a l l possible scient i f ic quest ions are answered our problem is s t i l l nottouched at a ll . Of cour se i n t ha t case t he r e a r e no ques t i ons any more ; and t ha t i s t heanswer . [25.5-15] '7

I t is c l e a r f r o m 6 . 4 4 a n d 6 . 4 5 t h a t t h e m y s t ic a l e x p e r i e n c e i n v o lv e ss o m e s p e c ia l a w a r e n e s s o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f th e w o r l d a s a w h o l e d e s c r i b e di n 6 . 4 5 a s " f e e l i n g t h e w o r l d a s a l i m i t e d w h o l e . " ( T h e w o r d " l i m i t e d , "w h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e w o r l d , a t o n c e r e c a l l s 5 . 6 : " T h e l im i t s o f m y l a n g u a g em e a n t h e l i m it s o f m y w o r l d . " T h e l im i ts o f la n g u a g e a r e t h e l im i ts o fw h a t c a n b e s a i d , t h e t o t a l it y o f e l e m e n t a r y p r o p o s i t i o n s . I t is l ik e l y , t h e n ,t h a t " t h e w o r l d a s a li m i t e d w h o l e " m e a n s t h e w h o l e o f l o g i c a l s p a c e , t h et o t a l i t y o f f a c t s a n d p o s s i b l e f a c t s . ) I n 6 . 4 5 W i t t g e n s t e i n i d e n t i f i e s t h i sa w a r e n e s s w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e o f v ie w i n g t h e w o r ld s u b s p e c i e a e t e r n i , a n d o n em a y s u r m i s e f r o m t h is t h a t it w i ll b e a n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f " l if e i n th ep r e s e n t . " L i v i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t m e a n s , f i rs t a n d f o r e m o s t , a tt a c h i n g n om o r e i m p o r t a n c e t o o n e p o s s ib l e f a c t t h a n t o a n o t h e r , t h a t i s, a t t a c h i n gi m p o r t a n c e a n d d i r e c t i n g o u r a t t e n t i o n t o a ll p o s s ib l e s ta t es o f a f fa i r se q u a l l y . I t is e a s y t o s e e h o w a s e n s e o f " t h e w o r l d a s a w h o l e " c o u l d a r i s ef r o m t h i s a t t i t u d e .

H e r e , a g a i n , W i t t g e n s t e i n 's d o c t r i n e s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h o s e o f S c h o p e n -h a u e r . T h e p h r a s e s u b s p e c i e a e t e r n i m i g h t s u g g es t th e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f aS p i n o z is t ic r a t h e r t h a n S c h o p e n h a u e r i a n i n f lu e n c e , b u t it s h o u l d b e n o t i c e dt h a t a n a l m o s t i d e n ti c a l p h r a s e f r o m S p i n o z a C M e n s a e t e r n a e st q u a t e n u s

,7 Notebooks, p. 51 .


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res sub aeternitatis specie concipit") is quoted by Schopenhauer in his de-scription of the liberation of knowledge from the will. 8Since it has alrea dy been established that the solution of the problem oflife consists simply in "the vanishing of the problem," we can assume thatthese experiences merely accompany "the solution." There is certainly nodoubt either that Wittgenstein does regard this experience as unspoken or,more importantly, that he does not regard it as consisting in the acquisitionof knowledge. For example, awareness of the existence of the world is alsomen tio ned at 5.552 , which begins: "T he 'experi ence' that we need in orderto u nde rst and logic is not that something or other is the state of things, butthat something /s: that, however, is n o t an experience." By saying that this"experience" is " n o t an experience" Wittgenstein apparently means that itdoes not consist in the acquisition of knowledge. This point can also be seenin his assertion that the experience in question is not an experience "thatsomething or other is the state of things".

"Feeling the world as a limited whole," I conclude, involves an awarenessof the world itself (the world as a complete whole, one might say), not anawareness of something outside the world and distinct from the world. Simi-larly, when Wittgenste in says, in 6. 4 l, t hat the sense of the world an d "wha tmakes it non-accidental" must lie outside the world, or in 6.4312 that "thesolution of the riddle of life in space and time lies o u t s i d e space and time,"this is likely to be an allusion to the mystical awareness of the world as awhole mentioned in 6.44 and 6.45.

Th e natur e of this mystical experience may explain why the metaphysicalattitude should be incompatible with "the solution of the problem of life." Ifwe describe the world as a limited whole in language, then we are treatingthe existence o f th e world as itself a factual matter. But it is of the essence ofthe mystical attitude of "feeling the world as a limited whole" that is shouldbe an awareness of th e totality of possibilities, not of one suppo sed preemi-nent fact. Metaphysics, therefore, since it attempts to describe the world as awhole in language, will be incompatible with "feeling the world as a limitedwhole" and so with "the solution of the problem of life." Its mistake isprecisely that o f trying to place "the sense of the world" amon g the "sphereof what happens and is the case."

The se ideas have affinities in Schopen haue r. I suggested in the firstsection that the mystical attitude of "feeling the world as a limited whole" isderived from Schopenhauer's notion of knowledge liberated from the willand of the denial of the will. For Scho penhau er the liberation of knowledgefrom the will leads to "knowledge of the Ideas." This knowledge is con-

, s Wo r ld as Wi l l and Represen ta t ion , 1 179.


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W I T T G E N S T E I N 4 9 3t r a s t e d w i t h " s c i e n c e , " a n d t h e I d e a s a r e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h " t h e c o n c e p t , t h eo b j e c t o f r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t a n d o f s c i en c e . ''9A f u r t h e r a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e r e j ec t i o n o f m e t a p h y s ic s is a c o n s e q u e n c e o fi ts i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h " t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f l i f e " i s t h a t i n n oo t h e r w a y d o e s i t s e e m p o s si b le t o m a k e s e n se o f t h e v e x e d p r o b l e m o f th en o n s e n s i c a l i t y o f t h e T r a c t a t u s . I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o s e e w h y t h e T r a c t a t u s h a so f t e n b e e n t h o u g h t s e l f -d e f e a t in g . A t 6 . 5 4 W i t t g e n s te i n w r it e s: " M y p r op o s i -t i on s s e r v e a s e l u c i d a t io n s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : a n y o n e w h o u n d e r s t a n d s m ee v e n t u a l l y r e c o g n i z e s t h e m a s n o n s e n s i c a l . . . . H e m u s t , so to s p e a k , t h r o wa w a y t h e l a d d e r a f t e r h e h a s c l i m b e d u p i t. " W i t t g e n s t e in c a n h a r d l y m e a nt h a t t h e T r a c t a t u s f a i l s t o c o n v e y i d e a s , b e c a u s e o b v i o u s l y i t s u c c e e d s . E v e r yc o m m e n t a t o r s i n c e R u s s e ll h a s a g r e e d w i t h h i s o b s e r v a t i o n : " A f t e r a ll , M rW i t t g e n s t e i n m a n a g e s t o s a y a g o o d d e a l a b o u t w h a t c a n n o t b e s a id . ' ... ( In -d e e d , W i t t g e n s t e i n h i m s e l f s a ys t h a t h i s r e m a r k s " e l u c i d a t e " ( e r l i i u t e r n ) .S i n c e , h o w e v e r , t h e T r a c t a t u s d o e s s u c c e d i n c o n v e y i n g id e a s , i t s e e m s w r o n gt o d e s c r i b e i t a s n o n s e n s i c a l . W h y t h r o w a w a y a p e r f e c t l y g o o d l a d d e r ?

I n o n e r e s p e c t t h i s is e a s il y u n d e r s t o o d . T h e T r a c t a t u s p r o p o s e s a m o d e lo f l a n g u a g e t o w h i c h i t d o e s n o t i t s e lf c o n f o r m . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e T r a c t a t u sa p r o p o s i t i o n a c q u i r e s m e a n i n g b y m i r r o r i n g a p o ss ib l e fa c t. T h e t r a n sc e n -d e n t a l m a t t e r s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e T r a c t a t u s a r e n o t , h o w e v e r , o n e s e t o f p o s -s ib il ii es a m o n g o t h e r s ; t h e y a r e t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e c o n d i t i o n s o f a l l p o s si b il i-t i e s . T h e T r a c t a t u s i s , t h e r e f o r e , b y i t s o w n s t a n d a r d s , n o n s e n s i c a l . O n t h eo t h e r h a n d , s i n c e t h e T r a c t a t u s d o e s s u c c e e d i n t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c u s s io n o ft h e s e m a t t e r s, i t m i g h t s e e m b e t t e r t o a b a n d o n t h e t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e t h eT r a c t a t u s p r o p o s e s .I t is t r u e t h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n d i s t in g u i s h e s b e t w e e n p r o p o s i t i o n s ( o r p s e u -d o p r o p o s i t o n s ) t h a t a re s i n n l o s ( w i t h o u t s e n s e ) a n d t h o s e t h a t a r e u n s i n n i g( n o n s e n s ic a l ) . T h e f i rs t t e r m i s a p p l i e d t o , f o r e x m p l e , t a u t o l o g i e s a n d c o n -t r a d i c t io n s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e t h a t th e p r o p o s i t i o n s ( o r p s e u d o -p r o p o s i t i o n s ) d e s c r i b e d a s s i n n l o s a r e w i t h o u t s e n s e o n l y i n t h e t e c h n i c a ls e n s e th a t t h e y d o n o t m i r r o r f ac t s a n d t h a t t h e y n e e d n o t t h e r e f o r e b ed i s m i s s e d a s ( u t t e r l y ) " n o n s e n s i c a l . " T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t h i n gt o e a s e t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e n o n s e n s i ca l i ty o f t h e T r a c t a t u s , f o r t h e t e r m w h i c hW i t t g e n s t e i n a p p l i e s a t 6 .5 4 t o " m y p r o p o s i t i o n s " is n o t s i n n l o s , b u t u n s i n n i g( t h e s a m e t e r m w h i c h a t 6 . 5 1 i s a p p l i e d t o s k e p t i c i sm ) .

T h e m e a n s o f s o l v i n g t h i s d i f f ic u l t y is h i n t e d a t i n a s e n t e n c e o f P e a rs :" T h e o b j e c t o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e n q u i r y , i s a l so t h e o b j ec t o f re l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s ?

,9 W orld as Wil l and Representation, 1:233.9 Tractatus, introduction, p.xxi."' D. F. Pears, Wittgenstein (London : Co llins, 1971), p. 89.


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494 H ISTO RY O F PH ILO SO PH YThe Trac t a t u s is concerned with setting out the relation between any possiblepropo sitio n a nd any possible fact, but what is true o f any possible fact is trueof all possible facts, that is, of the world as a whole. At the same time, themystical atti tude of "feelin g the world as a limited w hole" is what will enableus to discover "the sense of the world" and "the solution of the problem oflife." We have already seen that it is important for Wittgenstein that thisshould be an unspoken attitude. Any attempt to speak about the world as alimited whole in l angu age will involve treat ing the existence of the world as acont ing ent fact. This in tur n will make the mystical attit ude of "feeling theworld as a limited whole" impossible, since it is an attitude not toward anysingle fact but toward the totality of possible facts. Since the Trac ta t us de-scribes the world as a whole in langua ge, the att itud e of min d involved inreading the Trac ta t us is incompatible with that of "feeling the world as alimited whole." This, then, does seem to be a sufficient explanation of Witt-genstein's willingness to accept the nonsensicality of the Trac ta t us . The lad-der is to be thrown away not because of any preposterous notion that it failsto convey ideas, but because throwing it away is a prerequisite of "the solu-tion of the problem of life."

Finally, I will come to th e ques tion o f how its incompatibility with "thesolution of the problem of life" can justify cond emnin g metaphysics specifi-cally as "nonsensical." It might seem that this description could only behyper bole, but it is in fact justified because precisely the same co nsiderationswhich make metaphysics incompatible with "the solution of the problem oflife" also make it nonsensical in a technical semantic sense. To treat thenoncontingent as a matter of contingent fact is not only inimical to themystical "feeling the world as a limited whole" but also systematically mis-leading and inherently paradoxical. The word "nonsensical" is thereforequite a ppro pria te. In this way it may be that the technical nonsensicality ofmetaphysics and its unacceptable role as a source of anxiety may not besharply distinguishable. It will be seen that this interpretation of the word"nonsensical" has the effect of bringing the Tractatua closer to the later workwhere conceptual confusion is conceived as akin to a neurotic disorder. Theimage of the fly in the fly-bottle is no less apposite to the Trac ta t us than tothe I nves t i ga t i ons .

4 - S E L F - R E F E R E N C E A N D S E L F - C O N S C I O U S N E S S

The semantic doctrines of the Trac ta t us and its doctrines concern ing "the solu-tion of the problem of life" reveal an impo rtant un derlying resemblance: bothconcern reflexivity or self-consciousness. By drawing out this resemblance Ihope to identif y an unus ual and ingenious thread in Wittgenstein's argument ,one which, I suggest, holds important promise of further development,


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W i T a ' G r N s - r t l r ~ 4 9 5F i r s t I w i ll d e a l w i t h t h e w i d e r q u e s t i o n s o f m e t a p h y s i c s , q u e s t i o n s c o n -

c e r n i n g " t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f li fe ," " t h e s e n s e o f t h e w o r l d , " t h en a t u r e o f a " v a l u e t h a t d o e s h a v e v a l u e. " A ll o f t h e s e q u e s t io n t h e g e n e r a lp r i n c i p le s o r a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g s p ec if ic a i m s o r a c ti o n s. T h e y d o n o ta d d t o t h e m y r i a d o f p r o b l e m s c o m p r i s in g o r d i n a r y l if e , b u t t h e y ra is eq u e s t i o n s i n v o l v in g a l l p o s s ib l e p r o b l e m s o f o r d i n a r y l if e. T h e y a r e n o t p r o b -l e m s a b o u t t h e w o r l d , b u t a b o u t t h e a s s u m p t i o n s , v a l u e s , a n d p u r p o s e sw h i c h u n d e r l i e o n e ' s w h o l e a p p r o a c h t o th e w o r l d . I n th i s s e n s e th e y a r eq u e s t i o n s a b o u t o n e s e l f o r i n s ta n c e s o f s e l f c o n s c io u s n e s s.

S i m i l a rl y , t h e s e m a n t i c d o c t r i n e s o f t h e T rac ta tus a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s e lf -r e f e r e n c e . T h e c e n t r a l i d e a o f t h e s e is t h a t l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e u s e d t od e s c r i b e i t s o w n s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e . T h i s i d e a i s e x p r e s s e d b y R u s s e l l i n t h ef o r m u l a " E v e r y t h i n g , t h e r e f o r e , w h i c h i s i n v o lv e d in t h e v e r y id e a o f th ee x p r e s s i v e n e s s o f l a n g u a g e m u s t r e m a i n i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g e x p r e s s e d i nl a n g u a g e . ' ' '' A n y t h i n g " i n v o l v e d i n t h e v e r y id e a o f t h e e x p r e s s i v e n e s s o fl a n g u a g e " w il l b e a f e a t u r e o f al l p o s s ib l e p r o p o s i t i o n s a n d a ll p o s s ib l e fa c t s,t h a t i s, o f t h e w o r l d a s a w h o l e . C o n v e r s e l y , s in c e t h e f u n c t i o n o f l a n g u a g e ist o m i r r o r f a c t s " i n " t h e w o r l d , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e w o r l d is it s e l f " i n v o l v e d i nt h e v e r y i d e a o f t h e e x p r e s s i v e n e s s o f l a n g u a g e . " I t f o ll o w s, t h e r e f o r e , t h a tt h e f o r m u l a l a st q u o t e d is e q u i v a l e n t t o a n o t h e r , w h i c h R u s s e ll d e s c r i b e s a s" W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s f u n d a m e n t a l t h e s is " ; n a m e l y , t h a t " it is i m p o s s i b l e to sa ya n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e w o r l d a s a w h o l e , a n d t h a t w h a t e v e r c a n b e s a id h a s t o b ea b o u t b o u n d e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d . ''3 T h e d o c t r i n e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e s ef o r m u l a e i s n o t e x p l i c i t l y s u m m a r i z e d i n t h e T rac ta tus , b u t i n s t a n c e s o f i to c c u r c o n s t a n t l y . I t i s t o b e f o u n d , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e a s s e r t i o n th a t " p r o p o -s i ti o n s c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t l o g i c a l f o r m : it is m i r r o r e d i n t h e m . W h a t f i n d s i tsr e f l e c t i o n i n l a n g u a g e , l a n g u a g e c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t " ( 4 .x 2 1 ) . I t i s a l s o t o b ef o u n d i n W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s a s s u r a n c e a t 5 . 5 5 2 t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w e n e e di n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d l o gi c , n a m e l y , " t h a t s o m e t h i n g / s ," is i t s e lf " no t a ne x p e r i e n c e " ; i t r e a p p e a r s i n t h e s t a t e m e n t a t 6 . 1 3 th a t l og i c i s " n o t a b o d y o fd o c t r i n e , b u t a m i r r o r - i m a g e o f t h e w o r l d " a n d i s " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ."

I t s e e m s n a t u r a l t o s u p p o s e t h a t t hi s d o c t r in e d e r i v e s f r o m R u s s el l' s c a v e a ta g a i n s t t h e s e l f - re f e r e n t i a l p r o p o s i t i o n . W h e t h e r o r n o t th i s a c c o u n t o f t h eo r i g i n o f t h e d o c t r i n e i s c o r r e c t , i t is q u i t e c l e a r t h a t a p r o p o s i t i o n w h i c hp u r p o r t s t o e x p r e s s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l m a t t e r s w il l b e a t l e a s t i n d i r e c t ly s e l f - r e f e r -e n t i a l s i n c e it w il l p u r p o r t t o s t a t e m a t t e r s p r e s u p p o s e d b y it s o w n s ig n if i-c a n c e . I t n o w a p p e a r s t h a t t h e T rac ta tus r e c o m m e n d s a n o n r e f t e c t i v e l a n g u a g e

"" Tractatus, introduction, p. xxi.93 Tractatus, introduction, p. xvii.


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4 9 6 H ISTO RY O F PH ILO SO PH Ya s o n e w h i c h w ill p e r m i t t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f li fe b y m a k i n g p o s s i bl et h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f m e t a p h y s i c a l r e f l e c t io n a n d o f s e l f- c o n s c io u s n e s s. T h u s , i tb e c o m e s t r u e t o s a y th a t t h e c e n t r a l s e m a n t i c d o c t r i n e o f t h e Trac ta tus , t h a tl a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e u s e d t o d e s c r i b e i ts o w n s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e , i s t h e o u t-c o m e o f q u a s i - e x is t e n ti a li s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s e l f c o n s c io u s n e s s.

I t is p e r h a p s t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e T r a c ta tu s w h i c h h o l d s t h e g r e a t e s t p r o m i s ef o r f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t . B y e x c l u d i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l r e fl e c ti o n W i t t g e n st e inl im i t s p h i l o s o p h y t o t h e t w o f ie l d s o f c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i fi c a t io n ( t h e " a p p l ic a -t i o n o f l o g i c " [5 . 5 5 7 ] ) a n d o f s h o w i n g t h e m e t a p h y s i c i a n t h a t h e h a s f a il e d tog i v e a s e n s e t o c e r t a i n s i g n s i n h i s p r o p o s i t i o n s ( 6 . 5 3 ) . T h e s e d o c t r i n e s c o n -c e r n i n g " t h e r i g h t w a y o f d o i n g p h i l o s o p h y " h a v e p r o b a b l y b e e n t h e m o s ti n f l u e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e T r a c ta tu s . T h e i r i n f lu e n c e c a n b e s e e n m o s t c le a r ly inw r i t e r s s u c h a s R y l e a n d A u s t i n a n d t h e s c h o o l o f " o r d i n a r y - la n g u a g e p h i-l o s o p h y . " T h e l a t te r w a s o f c o u r s e o n l y o n e o f t h e t w o m a i n s c h o o ls o fp h i l o s o p h y i n t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d , t h e o t h e r b e i n g e x is te n ti a li sm .B o t h s c h o o ls h a v e b e e n t h e o b j e c t s o f a tt a c k s w h i c h a r e a s m u c h c o n c e r n e dw i t h s t y le a n d t e c h n i q u e a s w i t h sp e c i f ic d o c t r i n e s . O r d i n a r y - l a n g u a g e p h i -l o s o p h y h a s b e e n a c c u s e d o f n a r r o w c o n c e r n w i t h li n qu is ti c m i n u t i a e, e x i s-t e n ti a li s t p h i l o s o p h y o f e m p t y b o m b a s t . M y cl a im is t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e s t h a tW i t tg e n s t e i n p u t f o r w a r d c o n c e r n i n g t h e l i m it s o f la n g u a g e a n d t h a t g a v er is e to o r d i n a r y l a n g u a g e p h i l o s o p h y w e r e t h e m s e l v e s a n a t t e m p t e d s o l u ti o nt o t h e p r o b l e m s o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t o c c u p i e d e x i s te n t i a li s t p h il o s o -p h e r s . W h i l e t h e t r a d i t i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s W i t t g e n s t e i n h a s l a r g e ly a v o i d e da n y f u r t h e r d i s c u s si o n o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s , m u c h a t t e n t io n h a s n e v e r t h e le s sb e e n p a i d , f o r e x a m p l e , b y T a r s k i a n d P r i o r, 24 t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f s e lf r e f e r-e n c e a n d o f h o w l a n g u a g e c a n b e u s e d t o d e s c r ib e its o w n s e m a n t ic s t ru c -t u r e . I f w e a b a n d o n W i t t g e n s t e in ' s p r o p o s e d s o l u t i o n to " t h e p r o b l e m o fl i fe " b u t r e t a i n h i s a s s o c i a t i o n o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f h o wl a n g u a g e c a n c o n t a i n i t s o w n s e m a n t i c s , t h e n i t i s p o s s i b l e - - i t i s n o t c e r t a i n ,b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e - - t h a t t h i s a s s o c i a ti o n m a y e n a b l e p h i l o s o p h e r s t o d i s c u s s t h ee x i s t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i th t h e r i g o r a n d p r e c i s i o n o fa n a l y t i c p h i l o s o p h y .U n i v e r si t y o f G e n o a

9 A. Tarski, "The Sem antic Conce ption of Truth and the F oundations of" Semantics,"Philosophy and Phenom enological Research 4 09 44):341-76; A. Prior, Objects of Thought, ed. P. T.C, ach and A .J. Ken ny (Oxford: Clarendon P ress, 1971), chap. 6.

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