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18INTERNET OF ThINgS (IOT)

ANd INTERNET ENAblEd PhySICAl dEvICES FOR

CONSTRUCTION 4.0Yu-Cheng Lin and Weng-Fong Cheung

18.1 aims

• To introduce IoT enabled physical technologies and relative applications inConstruction4.0.

• Toprovide related literature reviews forRFID,UAV,WSN, andBIM technologies inConstruction4.0.

• TosurveydifferentadvancedIoTapplicationsinConstruction4.0.(suchassafetyman-agement,structuralhealthmonitoring,andsmartbuilding).

• Todemonstrateacasestudyregarding thedevelopmentofacyberphysicalsystemofapplyingtunnelconstructionsafetymanagementinConstruction4.0.

18.2 Introduction

Industry 4.0 (I4.0), also known as the Fourth Industrial Revolution,was proposed by theGermanFederalGovernmentin2011andincorporatedintothe“High-TechStrategy2020”project.I4.0focusesonenhancingautomation,digitalization,andintelligentization.Thecon-struction industry4.0 (C4.0) refers to the spirit of I4.0 and integrates existingengineeringtechnologies,processes,andrequirementsandthenbuildsamoreadaptive,resource-efficient,intelligentconstructionprocess.Thebest solutionsarealsoproposed tomeetquality,cost,andsafetyrequirementsbyanalyzingbigdata.Relevanttechnologies,suchasCyber-PhysicalSystems(CPS),InternetofThings(IoT),andCloudComputing(CC)promote“smartmanu-facturing”throughthereal-timeintegrationofvirtualandphysicalstatesandtheanalysisofbigdata,thusenablingtheenhancementorinnovationofproductionandservices.ToenableCPStohaveanawarenessofthephysicalindustrialstatusandtofacilitateanobject’scom-municationability,environmentalperceptionandnetworkingcapabilitiesareessential.TheWirelessSensorNetwork(WSN),oneofthekeytechnologiesusedtosupportIoTandCPS,comprisesalargenumberofsensornodes;eachnodeisequippedwithsensorstodetectphysi-calphenomenaintherealworldsuchastemperature,light,andpressure.BuildingInformation

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Modeling(BIM)promptsanevolutionalchangeindigitalizationandinformatizationintheconstruction industry, integratingadifferentkindofbuilding information intoa3Dmodeland enhancing themanagement andproductivity in a constructionproject.The integrationofWSNandBIMcanbeusedtodevelopCPSconformingtoConstruction4.0(C4.0)foraconstructionproject.TheuseofWSNalsosupportsbigdatacollectionforapplicationsinbigdataanalyticsandCC.

ThischapterintroducesIoTenabledphysicaltechnologiesandtheirapplicationsinCon-struction 4.0. Section 18.3 introduces the relevant development and reviews of IoT, I4.0,andC4.0.Section18.4introducestheIoTandrelatedtechnologiesconcerningconstruction,whichincluderadio-frequencyidentification(RFID),WSN,andBIM,anddescribeshowtheyachievethefunctionsofCPS.Section18.5surveysIoTapplicationsinvariousdomainsoftheconstructionindustry.Section18.6providesacasestudyofinfrastructuresafetymanagementanddetailstheprocessfordevelopingtheCPSsystem,andthefinalsectionpresentsthecon-clusionanddiscussion.

18.3 Background

Industrial 4.0 (I4.0) is described as theFourth IndustrialRevolution; the concept of I4.0wasfirstintroducedattheHannoverFairinGermanyin2011.Then,theGermanAcademyofScienceandEngineeringfoundedaworkinggroup to researchrelatedknowledge,andthe relevant resultswere referred to as principles of governance.Other countries formu-latedrelatedconceptpolicies;forexample,theUnitedStates(US)developedthe“AdvancedManufacturingPartnership”(AMP)andChinaimplemented“MadeinChina2025.”Digital-izationandintelligentizationofindustrycanenhancetheproductivityandcompetitivenessofChina.

Many scholars have defined I4.0 fromdifferent research categories.TheConsortium IIFactSheet(ConsortiumII2013)definesI4.0as“theintegrationofcomplexphysicalmachin-eryanddeviceswithnetworkedsensorsandsoftware,usedtopredict,controlandplanforbetterbusinessandsocietaloutcomes.”Henningetal.(2013)expoundedI4.0as“anewlevelofvaluechainorganizationandmanagementacrossthelifecycleofproducts.”Hermannetal. (2015) defined I4.0 as “a collective term for technologies and concepts of value chainorganization.”During themodular structured smart factoriesof I4.0,CPScreatesavirtualcopyofthephysicalproductionsystemandmakesdecentralizeddecisions.Thekeyfunda-mentalprinciplesofI4.0includeserviceorientation,intelligentproduction,interoperability,Cyber-PhysicalProductionSystems(CPPS)providingcloud/bigdataalgorithmsandanalysis,andcommunicationsecurity(Vogel-Heuseretal.2016).I4.0facilitatesinterconnectionandcomputerizationintraditionalindustries,whichmakesanautomaticandflexibleadaptationoftheproductionchainandprovidesnewtypesofservicesandbusinessmodelsofinteractioninthevaluechain(Lu2017).

TheintegralresultindicatesthattheI4.0canbesummarizedasadigitalized,smart,opti-mized,service-oriented,andinteroperableproduction,whichcorrelateswithcomputerization,CPS,IoT,bigdata,andhightechnologies.

I4.0promotesimplementingtheemergingconceptsofCPSandIoTintothemanufacturingsystem,whichenablesthedesignandcreationofsmartfactoriesandproductionprocesses.ACPSisdefinedas“amechanismthatiscontrolledormonitoredbycomputer-basedalgorithms,tightlyintegratedwiththeInternetanditsusers”(Monostorietal.2016).Therefore,aCPSisasystemforcollaborationbetweencomputationalentitiesthatareinintensiveconnectionwith

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thesurroundingphysicalworldanditsongoingprocesses,providingandusing,atthesametime,data-accessinganddataprocessingservicesavailableontheinternet(Monostorietal.2016).InCPS,physicalandsoftwarecomponentsaredeeplyintertwined,eachoperatingondifferentspatialandtemporalscales,exhibitingmultipleanddistinctbehavioralmodalities,andinteractingwitheachotherinmanywaysthatchangewithcontext(NSF2010).Addition-ally,thetechnicaldesignandimplementationofCPScanrefertothe“5C”architecture,whichincludes thefollowingfive levelsofcontentandconstructionmodes: thesmartconnectionlevel, thedata-to-informationconversionlevel, thecyberlevel, thecognitionlevel,andtheconfigurationlevel(Leeetal.2015).

Integration and interoperability are two key factors in I4.0 (Chen et al. 2008; RomeroandVernadat2016).Interoperabilityis“theabilityoftwosystemstounderstandeachotherandtousefunctionalityofoneanother,”whichrepresents thecapabilityof twosystemstoexchangedataandshareinformationandknowledge(IDABC2005).ThefourlevelsofthearchitectureofI4.0interoperabilityincludeoperational(organizational),systematical(appli-cable), technical, and semantic interoperability. Interoperabilitymakes I4.0 andCPSmoreproductiveandprovidescostsavings.Specifically,theoperationalinteroperabilityillustratesthegeneral structures of concepts, standards, languages, and relationshipswithinCPSandI4.0.Withtheintegrationofcomputerandnetworksystems,I4.0achievesseamlesscoopera-tionacrossorganizationsandindustries.

18.4 The Iot technologies

18.4.1 IoT introduction

KevinAshton devised the term “IoT” in 1999,with IoT adopting theRFID on supplychainmonitoringunder theElectronicProductCode (EPC)globalarchitecture (Ashton2009). In 2005, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) published a reportnamed “ITU InternetReports 2005:The Internet ofThings” (ITU2005).According tothe latest definitionprovidedby the ITU (2012), “IoT is aglobal infrastructure for theinformationsocietyenablingadvancedservicesbyinterconnecting(physicalandvirtual)things based on, existing and evolving, interoperable information and communicationtechnologies.”The InternationalOrganization forStandardization (ISO2018) providedthefollowing,similar,definition:“aninfrastructureofinterconnectedobjects,people,sys-temsandinformationresourcestogetherwithintelligentservicestoallowthemtohandleinformationofthephysicalandthevirtualworldandreact.”AccordingtoIERC(2012),IoTis“adynamicglobalnetworkinfrastructurewithself-configuringcapabilitiesbasedonstandardandinteroperablecommunicationprotocolswherephysicalandvirtualthingshaveidentities,physicalattributes,andvirtualpersonalityanduseintelligentinterfaces,andareseamlesslyintegratedintotheinformation.”

Therefore,IoTcanbeacombinationofphysicalandvirtualstates,whichcomprisemanyactivephysicalthingssuchassensors,actuators,cloudservices,communicationandproto-cols,andtheenterpriseanduserwithmanyspecificarchitectures,thusprovidingaframeworkand relatedsolutions for IoTsystems. In recentyears,a rapid increase insensorandcom-municationtechnologieshaspromotedthegrowthofIoT,withmoreandmoredevicesandsensors beingdeployed in the construction and industrial sectors, including transportation,safety,health,smartbuilding,andautomotivesectors.Thenumberofsensorapplicationsisincreasingatanexponentialrate,anditisestimatedthattherewillbeover50billionconnecteddevicesby2020(Gubbietal.2013).

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18.4.2 Enabling technologies for IoT

TheessenceoftheIoTistofacilitatethesmartnessandtheconnectionofthings;therefore,variouskindsoftechnologiesareusedtohelptoimprovethemanagementperformanceinthevirtualandphysicalworld.FortheuseofbionicsintheIoT,themaintechnologiescontainperceptionandcommunication.Inrecentyears,manyadvancedsensorapplicationshavebeendevelopedtogiveobjectsacapabilitytoperceivelight,temperature,andmovementsensorsandRFID.Thesesensorsgivetheobjectasensingabilitysothatitcanunderstanditsphysicalcondition,or itcan recognizeorbe recognized, just like thevisionandhearingperceptionof a human.Moreover, as network and communication technologies achieve a connectionbetweenthings,bigdatacanbecollectedautomaticallyandanalyzed,thusenablingthethingstoexchange informationwitheachother,evenmaking judgementsand reacting.Themainrepresentativetechnologiesareintroducedinthefollowingsection.

18.4.2.1 RFID

RFIDistheearliesttechnologyoftheIoT,whichisusedtoprovideuniqueidentificationofobjects (Ashton2009). In1999, theMITAuto IDcenterdefined theoriginal shapeof the“InternetofThings”asbeingbasedonthecomputerinternet,usingRFIDandwirelessdatatechnologiesforcommunication,andconstructinganIoTthatcoverseverythingintheworldtoenableautomaticidentificationofitemsandsharingofinformation(Sarmaetal.2000).

RFID uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached toobjects.The tagscontainelectronicallystored information (Roberts2006).A typicalRFIDsystemcomprisesthreecomponents:anantennaorcoil,atransceiver(withadecoder),andatransponder(RFtag)electronicallyprogrammedwithuniqueinformation(Domdouzisetal.2007).Duringoperation,theradiosignalsareemittedtothetagbythetransceiverthroughtheantenna;thetagisthenactivatedandthedataoninternalchipcanberead(orwritten)sothattheobjectcanberecognized.

Ingeneral,thereadingdistanceofRFIDreachesabout100feetdependingonthepoweroutputandtheradiofrequency.Manytagscanbereadsimultaneouslyamongtheradiocov-erageandprocessedbythecomputersystem.RFIDtagscanbeclassifiedintotwocategoriesdependingonthedatastoragecapability:Read-OnlyandRead/WriteTags.MostRead-Onlytagsdonothaveadatastoragefunctionandonlyhaveauniquepre-writtenIDforidentifyingtheattachedobject.

Basedonthefrequencyband,RFIDsystemsincludeLowFrequency(LF)systems,HighFrequency(HF)systems,andUltraHighFrequency(UHF)systems(Fernández-Caramésetal.2017),LFRFIDoperatesat125kHzandreadingrangeisabout10cm,whichisappliedinindustrialidentificationandautomation;HFRFIDoperatesat13.56kHzandisabout1mreadingrange,andisusedintickingandpayment;UHFoperatesat860–960MHzand2.45GHz,andisabout10mreadingrange,mostlyappliedonlogisticsandinventorymanagement(Fernández-Caramésetal.2017).RFIDtagscanalsobeclassifiedas“Active”and“Passive.”PassivetagsrelyontheelectromagneticfieldgeneratedbytheRFIDreaderforelectricalpowerandtobeactivated.Activetagsareequippedwithbuilt-inbatteries,whichincreasetheread-ingrange(Domdouzisetal.2007).TheEPCofRFIDprovidesauniqueidentificationoftheobject,whichalsosatisfiestherecognizingrequirementofbigdataintheIoTworld.RFIDhasbeensuccessfullyappliedinmanyIoTapplications,suchassmartfactoriesandmanufacturing,supplychainsandlogistics,vehicleandtrafficmetrosystems,aviationandtransportation,andpaymenttransactions,andtheapplicationsareconstantlybeingextendedanddeveloped.

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18.4.2.2 WSN

TheWSNisoneofthekeyIoTapplicationtechnologies,whichenablesthethingstohavecapabilitiesinperceptionandinteraction.AWSNsystemtypicallycompriseswirelessfunc-tionalsensordevicesthatcansmartlycollectandcommunicateenvironmentalinformationandevenjudgeandtakeaction.

TheapplicationofWSNcontainssensorandnetworktechnologies.ThegeneralapplicationwirelessnetworkspecificationincludesWi-Fi,Bluetooth,andZigBee,whicheachhavetheirfeaturesandapplications, suchasWi-Fibasedon the2.4GHzfrequencybandandspeedsreaching11Mbps.Bluetoothisanother2.4GHzwirelessapplicationforpersonalelectronicdeviceservice,whileZigBeefeatureslowspeed,cost,andlowpowerconsumption.Table18.1comparesthewirelessstandardsforWSNs.

AtypicalWSNnodeismainlycomposedoffourcomponents:asensingunit,aprocess-ingunit, a transceiver unit, and a power unit. (1)The sensingunit includes twoparts: asensorandAnalog-to-DigitalConverters(ADC).Theformercollectssensedenvironmentalinformationandconvertsthisinformationintoananalogsignal,andthelatterconvertsthesignalintoadigitalsignalforprocessing.(2)Theprocessingunitincludesthestorageandprocessorcomponents.Theprocessorwithdrawsdatafromstorage,interpretsthepacketofwirelesssignal,coordinateswiththeneighborhoodnodes,andthenhandlesthedatatrans-ferringtask.(3)Thetransceiverunittransmitsdatathrougharadiosignalandsendsittothehost.(4)Thepowersupplyunitprovidesregularpowerfortheoperationofthesensornode(Akyildizetal.2002).

AsmanyIOTdevicesareusuallysetonapersonormovingobjectandtheyoperateindi-vidually,itisimportanttoknowhowtosavepowerandmaintainsustainableoperationintheWSNsystemdesign.Another important issue in the IoTsystemdesign is the transmissionabilitybecausethedistancebetweenthenodesandtheconfigurationofnetworkinfluencesthedatacommunicationefficiencyandtherequiredoperatingpower.Concerningthetransmissiondistanceandenergysavings,whenthesensornodeistoofarawayfromthehost,theWSNneedstoestablishanetworkroutingprotocolbyamultiple-hoprelayofnodes.Thetransmis-siondistancecanbeextendedbyusingrelaysofthenodes.

In termsofnetworkarchitecture, theWSNnetwork typicallycomprises three roles: thecoordinator, router,andenddevice.Thecoordinatoractsas thehostand is responsible for

Table 18.1 ComparisonbetweenWi-Fi,Bluetooth,andZigBee

Wi-Fi Bluetooth ZigBee

Standard IEEE802.11b IEEE802.15.1 IEEE802.15.4Frequency 2.4G 2.4G 2.4G/868/915MHzRange(m) 100 10 50Datarate 11–54Mbps 3–10Mbps 250kbpsNodespermaster 32 7 65,535Topologies Star Star Star,Mesh,TreeBatterylife Hours 1week >1yearFeatures Speed Convenience Reliability,Lowcost&

LowpowerApplication Video,audio,pictures,

filesAudio,graphics,pictures,files

Lowdatacommunication

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networklaunching,coordinating,anddatacollection.Therouterrelaystheradiosignalandtransfersit tothenextnode,whichextendstheWSNcoverageanddetectiondistance.Theenddeviceisequippedwithvariousfunctionalsensorsandisresponsibleformeasuringthesurroundingconditionsandreturningthesensedinformation(Farahani2011).

AstheWSNisaffectedbyfactorsofcircumstances,designfunction,andhardware,thefol-lowingitemsshouldbeconsideredinproposedWSNsystems(Akyildizetal.2002):(1)faulttoleranceofthenetwork,(2)networkscalability,(3)hardwareprice,(4)hardwareconstraintsofthesensor,(5)networktopology,(6)operatingenvironment,(7)transmissionmedia,and(8)powerconsumption.

Withinthedevelopingtechnologiesofsensors,networks,andsemiconductors,theappli-cationofWSNwillbecomedeeperandmorediversified,thusfacilitatingmorecompleteIoTsystems.Additionally,whenWSNcombinesbigdataandcloudcomputing,theapplications,andtheinfluencesofIoTarealmostinfinite.

18.4.2.3 BIM

BIM brings the revolution of digitalization and informatization to the entire constructionindustry,digitalizingandparameterizingdifferentbuildinginformationandvisuallyintegrat-ingthisinformationintoa3Dmodel.BIMintegratesmodels,databases,assets,andmaterialandspatial relation information,providingcapabilities inconstructionsimulation,progressmanagement,costestimation,andenergyanalysis.BIMiswidelyutilizedintheArchitecture,Engineering&Construction(AEC)domain(Cerovsek2011),anditenhancesnotonlyplan-ning,design,construction,operation,andmaintenance(O&M)processes,butalsotheentirebuildingprojectlifecycle(Eastmanetal.2011).BIMisdefinedbytheUSNationalInstituteofBuildingSciences(NIBS)as“adigitalrepresentationofphysicalandfunctionalcharacter-isticsofafacility”(NIBS,2019).TheISO(2016)definesBIMasa“shareddigitalrepresenta-tionofphysicalandfunctionalcharacteristicsofanybuiltobject(includingbuildings,bridges,roads,etc.),whichformsareliablebasisfordecisions.”

Duringtheoperationphase,manyoperatingfacilities,laboractivities,andconditionsneedtobecontrolledandmanaged.Thetraditionalmonitoringmethodofusingahumanishighlylaborious,anditishardtomeetthereal-timemonitoringrequirement.Inrecentyears,asIoTtechnologieshavematured,manyofthesensorapplicationsenabletheinfrastructuretohaveabilitiesinperceptionandcommunication(Haines2016),whichpromotesBIMasapotentialdevelopmentinO&M.Inpractice,IoTdevicesprovidethestatusinformationofthings,andtheirpositional informationcanbe linkedwith theBIMmodelso that thespatial relationsandreal-timestatusescanbedisplayedsimultaneously.BIMprovidesa frameworkfor theIoT information tobe integratedandanalyzed inaway that ismeaningful to theO&Mofbuildingmanagement.Moreover, the integration of IoT information andBIMmodels canfacilitatetheCPSforthemanagementoftheconstructionproject.Thecollectedhugeamountofdataalsoformsabigdataenvironmentthatprovidessufficientinformationforanalyticsandimprovement.

TheintegrationofBIMandtheIoTestablishesavirtualreproductionofbuildingprojectsinwhichIoTprovidesthedynamicinformationofpeople,facilities,assets,andstatusofthebuilding, andBIMprovides the framework for IoT information that canbe systematicallyintegratedandspatiallydemonstrated.ThecombinationofIoTandBIMprovidesanactivebuildingmodelandcreatesaCPSapplicationof thebuildingproject; thiscombinationnotonly achieves theoptimal operation andmanagementbut also enhances the applicationofsmartbuildings.

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18.5 applications of Iot in construction

Inconstruction,asmanyof theworkers,equipment,andmaterialsarefrequentlymovedinandoutofthesite,varioussituations,suchasconditionsofthemachines,thenumberofworkers,andtheriskyenvironmentalhazards,needtobemasteredandcontrolled.Thedifferentmonitoringtaskswillincuraheavylabordutyifexecutedbyahuman.However,if theIoTapplicationscanbeintroduced, theycanbeadvantageouslyusedforobtainingvarioussiteinformation,tomonitorthestatusesoftheworkers,andtojudgeandexecuteemergency actions automatically in the event of an emergency. These applications willgreatlyincreasemanagementefficiencyandeffectiveness,whileimprovingthesiteenvi-ronmentandhumansafety.ManyoftheIoTapplicationsinconstructionareintroducedinthefollowingsection.

18.5.1 Surveying, mapping, and security

In recent years, the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been used and appliedwidelyduetopricedeclinesandadvancesinflightcontrolsoftware.Photoandreal-timedatacap-turetechnologyfromtheskycanbeappliedtomanyconstructiondomainsformanagementimprovement.CommonUAVorUAVS(UAVsystems)designscanbeclassifiedbytheirflightmechanismaseitherfixed-wing(aircraft),rotor(helicopter),ormulti-rotoraircraft,andtheyareusuallyequippedwithahigh-resolutioncameraandGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS).Themeasuringprecisioncanreachafewcentimetersandbecontrolledbycellphone.Atpresent,manyUAVapplicationsarequitematureandhavebeenappliedinagricultural,mining,con-struction,ecological,andenvironmentaldomains.Severalrelevantapplicationsaredescribedasfollows:(1)Progresscontrolofconstructionprojects:inspectionandmonitoringofcon-structionisessentialforassessingsiteconditions.Thelargeareaandprecisionimagesenabletheadministratortounderstandtheprogressoftheprojectandidentifydisparitiesbetweentheas-builtandas-plannedprogresses.(2)Investigationandrescues:therapidscanningcapabil-ityofUAVscanquicklyperforminvestigationtasksafternaturaldisasters,suchastyphoonsandearthquakes,insteadofhavinghumansenterthedangerousareas,andtheycanquicklycollectdisasterinformationandprovidereferenceinformation,thussignificantlyimprovingtheefficiencyandsafetyofrescuetasks.(3)Surveyingandmeasuring:UAVequippedwithhigh-resolutionlensescancapturehighlydetailedimagesandperformaccuratedistancemeas-urementsoflargeareasinashortamountoftime.Additionally,theinformationcanbecon-vertedintospatialsurfacemodelsfortopographicmapping,volumecalculations,andevenasa3DdigitalBIMmodel.(4)Safetymanagement:UAVisadvantageousinmonitoringthefieldandpersonnelactivitiesinconstructionareas,controllingthevariousunsafeconditionsandprovidingearlywarnings.Inemergencyaccidents,UAVscanquicklydeterminetheaccidentlocationandtheinjuredperson,thusenablinganimmediaterescueactionandimprovingthesafetymanagementoftheconstructionsite.

In recent years, many scholars have researched the innovative applications of UAV.Moonetal.(2019)proposedamethodforgeneratingandmerginghybridpointclouddataacquired from laser scanning andUAV based imaging. Inzerillo et al. (2018) proposedaUAVbasedStructure fromMotion (SfM) technique,which theyapplied to roadpave-mentdetection,assessingthepotentialforimprovingtheautomationandreliabilityofdis-tress detection.Morgenthal et al. (2019) presented a coherent framework for automatedunmanned aircraft system-based inspections of large bridges to facilitate an automatedconditionassessment.

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18.5.2 Safety management

Owingtothereducedsizeandlong-termoperationabilities,IoTdevicesareincreasinglybeing devoted to safetymanagement.Many of theWSN devices can be set at differentconstruction site locations, where they can be used tomonitor risk factors such as fire,smog,vibration,andhighnoise.Inanemergencyevent,thesafetydevicecanbeactivatedimmediately,alertingthesiteworkerstoevacuate,andcaneliminateanyhazardsautomat-ically,thuspreventingaseriousdisaster.Moreover,thesensororRFIDcanbeembeddedintopersonalwearingdevicessuchashelmets,vests,orotheritems,toidentifyandlocatetheworkerandtodeterminetheiractionandvitalstatus.Whendetectinganabnormalcon-dition,theIoTdeviceswillalert,providefeedback,andrequesthelpimmediately.TheIoTenablesthesafetyadministrationtoestablishthestatusofthewholesiteandreacttorisksinrealtime.

As applications of the IoT in safetymanagement are becoming increasingly extensive,manyscholarshavealreadyconductedspecificresearchstudies.Dingetal.(2013)presentedareal-timesafetyearlywarningsystemtopreventaccidentsandimprovesafetymanagementin underground construction based on IoT technology.The systemhas been validated andverifiedthroughareal-worldapplicationatthecrosspassageconstructionsiteintheYangtzeRiverbedMetroTunnelproject inChina.Valeroetal.(2017)proposedanovelsystemanddataprocessingframeworktodeliverintuitiveandunderstandablemotion-relatedinformationaboutworkersusingWSN.

18.5.3 Supply chain and facilities management

The practice of C4.0 delivers construction projects faster andmore flexibly and provideshigherqualityandreducedcosts,inaccordancewiththeleanconstructionapproach,whichattemptstoimproveconstructionprocessesataminimumcostandmaximumvalue.Inaddi-tion,supplychainmanagement(SCM)isanimportant issuefor leanconstructionmanage-ment.The traditionalSCMandlogisticsrelymainlyonmanualmanagement, inwhich theefficiencyislowanditishardtotrackandmanageassetsinreal-time,andthuscannotmeettherequirementforSCM.

Inthemanagementofthematerialsandequipmentinconstruction,thesensorsandRFIDtagscanhelptoidentifyitemstatusandstockquantity.Furthermore,employeescanquicklycollect information about thewarehousing and consummation status or check the deliveryscheduleofthematerialbyscanningtheRFIDtags.Thesystemcanalsoautomaticallycal-culate the stockand issuenotifications forpurchasingwhen inventory is low,whichmuchimprovestheefficiencyofSCM.Additionally,thesensorscanmonitortheoperatingcondi-tionsofequipment,controlabnormalsituations,andissuealertsfortimelyrepairormainte-nance inadvance.The relevant IoTapplication reducesworkflowdelaysandenhances theefficiencyof siteoperations.Many researchershaveproven the effectivenessofusing IoTapplications in lean construction and SCM.Hinkka andTätilä (2013) presented an RFIDtrackingimplementationmodelfortechnicaltradeandconstructionindustries.Theirapproachforbuildingafeasiblemodelwasbuiltbasedonasurveyof16manufacturingandwholesalercompany interviews.Xuet al. (2018)proposedan integratedcloud-based IoTplatformbyexploiting theconceptofcloudasset,whichenabledenterprises toadopt IoT technologieseconomicallyandflexibly.Koetal.(2016)proposedacost-effectivematerialsmanagementandtrackingsystembasedonacloud-computingserviceintegratedwithRFIDforautomatedtrackingwithubiquitousaccess.

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18.5.4 Structural health monitoring (SHM)

Thehealthofbuildingsandinfrastructureisrelevanttothesafetyoftheoccupantsandthepopulation;theagingofmaterialsandstructuresmayleadtocrasheventsanddisasters.SHMhasbecomean important issue inbuildingoperationandmaintenance.Manyphysicalandenvironmentalconditionsofstructures,suchasvibrationanddeformation,tensileandcom-pressivestresses,andtemperatureandwindspeed,canbemonitoredcontinuouslyusingIoTorWSNdevices.Thereal-timeandlong-termobservedconditionscouldbewirelesslytrans-ferredandcollectedforanalysis.Theinformationalsohelpstocheckthedamageofstructuresafterearthquakesor toestimate thestructurehealthand itsservice life, thus increasingthebuilding’ssafetyandreducingmaintenancecosts.

Many studies have investigated the use of IoT applications for building and structuremonitoring.Baeetal.(2013)reportedtheresultsofanexperimentalevaluationofWSNper-formanceintheobstructedenvironmentofabridgestructure.Parketal.(2018)presentedareal-timeSHM technique for a super tall buildingunder construction (LotteWorldTower,LWT) toproposeavisualmodal identificationmethod to identifymodeshapesanddamp-ingratiosbasedonmodalresponsesfromthemonitoringsystem.Toreducetherandomnessanduncertaintyunderlying the structural safety risk analysis inoperational tunnels,Liu etal. (2018) developed a novel hybrid approach to perform a global sensitivity analysis andanalyze the input-outputcausal relationshipsof thestructuralsafetyrisk, thusreducing theepistemicuncertaintyintunnelstructuralsafetymanagement.Hasnietal.(2018)presentedanovelapproachtodetectdamageinsteelframesusingahybridnetworkofpiezoelectricstrainandaccelerationsensors.

18.5.5 Smart building applications

ManyIoTapplicationshavebeenimplementedinintelligentbuildingsforairconditioning,electromechanicalcontrol, security,burglaryalarmsystems,andfireanddisasterpreven-tionsystems.Thesystemsareallconnectedbyanetwork,and theuserscanmonitor theoperationofdevicesfromanywhereintheworld.Inasmartbuilding,theoperatingstatusofvarioussystemsarecollectedandanalyzed.TheIoTenablesthesystemstonotonlybecontrolled but to also achieve a better balance between the systems,which bringsmorecomfort and safety for occupants and enhances theworking efficiency and productivity.Additionally, considering the impactofglobalwarmingandextremeweather conditions,buildingenergyefficiencyandgreenfunctionsisbecomingincreasinglyimportant.Insmartbuildings,theequipmentlinkedwithsensorsandcommunicationdevicesenablestheoper-ationconditionstobemonitoredinrealtimeandcollectedinthecloud.Thevariousoper-atinginformation,suchastheuseofelevators,conferencerooms,andairconditioners,isthenanalyzed.Throughtheanalysis,thesmartbuildingcandeterminetheoptimaloperationmode,suchascontrollingtheairconditioningtemperaturebasedontheambienttemperatureandthenumberofoccupants,whichreducestheenergyconsumptionoftheequipmentandachievesenergysavings.Inrecentyears,severalresearchershaveinvestigatedtheuseofIoTapplicationsforsmartbuildings.Rashidetal.(2019)presentedanintuitivepoint-and-clickframework to control electricalfixtures in a smart built environmentusing anultra-wideband (UWB)-based indoor positioning system. Jia et al. (2019) investigated the state-of-the-artprojectsandadoptionsofIoTfordevelopingsmartbuildingswithinacademicandindustrialcontexts.

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The applications of IoT are therefore widely applied in construction, architecture, andinfrastructure,andforenergysaving,andtheutilizationisnotonlywidebutalsodeep.Asanyobject,equipment,machine,andevenpersonnelcanbeconnected,IoTapplicationsgreatlyreducethelaborneededformonitoringandthusimprovemanagementandsafety.TheIoTbringsenormouspotentialandgreatencouragementforfutureapplicationsintheconstructionindustry,limitedonlybyourimagination.

18.6 Case study

18.6.1 Introduction

ThefollowingcasestudydemonstrateshowtodevelopaCPSinthesafetymanagementofaninfrastructurethatmonitorshazardousgasandenvironmentalconditionsusingIoTdevices.Asmanyconstructionsitesarelocatedundergroundorinconfinedspaces,theenvironmentusuallyhasahightemperatureandhumidity,andmayalsocontainhazardousgases,suchasflammablegases thatcouldcauseaseriousexplosionorcarbonmonoxide(CO), renderingindividualsunconscious.Long-termmonitoringworkusually requiresheavy labor,and thedifferentlocationsarehardtomonitorsimultaneously,thusresultinginaninabilitytoeffec-tivelymonitorworkersandpreventaccidents.

Inthisstudy,manyfunctionalWSNsensornodes(IoTdevices)wereplacedinanunder-groundtunnelsite,whichcollectedthehazardousgas,temperature,andhumidityinformationoftheworkingenvironment.ThecollecteddataweretransferredbacktothemonitoringcenterusingaWSNself-organizednetwork.Whendetectingtheabnormalgascondition,thenodewithacontrolfunctionwouldautomaticallystartupaventilatortodispersehazardousgases.ThecollectedinformationwasintegratedintoaBIMmodel,withthehazardousgas,temper-ature,andhumidityconditionsdisplayedbyanactivecolorchangingfrombluetoredinrealtimetoindicatetheriskdegreeofthelocationbeingmonitored.Intheeventofanemergency,theadministratorcould remotelyunderstand the riskat themonitoring locationsandmakeoptimaldecisionsfortherescuetask.

18.6.2 System analysis and design

Toestablish theCPSof theprojectand linkwith thephysicalconditions, twosub-systemswereintegratedincludetheWSNandthedigitalinformationmodel.ThemodelandrelatedcomponentswereestablishedusingBIMsoftware,whichvisuallypresentstheCPSandloca-tional conditions. For data collection, aWSN systemcomprisingvarious functional nodeswithsensingandcommunicationcapabilitieswasdevelopedtocollectthesiteenvironmentalinformation.TheCPScanbeestablishedbyintegratingthesub-systems,andtherealriskandenvironmentalconditionswerelinkedanddemonstratedinrealtime.

Experts and users were interviewed to understand the existing safety management ofhazardousgasesonconstructionsitesandthepracticalproblemsencountered.Thefindingsrevealedseveralrequirements,whichincludedenhancingtheworkers’safety;implementinglong-term,multi-pointdetectionand recording;enablingconvenient installationandpowersavings;andusinganexpandableandintelligentfunctiondesign.Sincemostofthecurrentgasdetectiontasksonconstructionsiteswereexecutedbypersonalhand-helddetectors,whichwasinefficientandhighlyriskyforstaff,thisstudyproposedusingtheWSNandaremoteCPStoimprovethecurrentsituation.

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Amulti-tierarchitectureanalysismethodwasadoptedtoanalyzetheproposedsystem,withdifferent entities classifiedby their attributes, thus clarifying the relationshipsbetween thesub-systemsandmodules.Theclassificationincludes(1)thepresentationlayer,(2)theappli-cationlayer,(3)thedatabaselayer,and(4)thesensorandcommunicationlayers.TheoverallCPS system, including the sensors, the digitalmodel, and data processing,was integratedusingMicrosoftC#applications.Figure18.1showsthemulti-tierarchitectureanddataflowofthesystem.Table18.2providesdescriptionsofeachlayer.

18.6.3 System development

18.6.3.1 WSN sub-system development

TheMicrosoftGadgeteerembeddedsystem(.NETMF)wasadoptedasthehardwareframe-workof theWSNnode,whichwasaSystem-on-Chip (SoC)designedsystemproposed tobeequippedwithgas, temperature,humiditysensingcomponents,andtheZigBeewirelessnetworkmodule.EachWSNnodewas designed for a specific role, and the different typeoffunctionalWSNnodescomprised theWSNsystemby interactiveradiocommunication.Thefollowingfourtypesofwirelessnodeswereproposed:sensornode,router,coordinator,andcontrolnode.Inthenetworkconfiguration,themeshtypewasdesignedasthenetwork

Figure 18.1 Multi-tierarchitectureanalysisofthesystem

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topology,whichenablestheWSNdetectionrangetobeexpandedandre-linksthenetworkautomaticallywhenanynodefails.Table18.3liststhedevelopedWSNnodesandtheirfunc-tions.Figure18.2showsthedevelopedsensornode.

TheWSNsystemcomprisesmanydesignedsmartfunctions.Inthemonitoringtask,whenthehazardousgasor abnormal conditions aredetected in the site, the sensor node imme-diatelytellsthecontrolnodetoswitchontheflashalarmandventilation,andremovesthehazardousgas automatically.The alarmgives the siteworkers early notice to retreat, andthusavoidsaseriousaccidentcausedbygasaccumulation.Meanwhile,innormalstatus,thesensornoderecordsdataatalowerfrequencyof3seconds/datapoint,whichenablespowersavingandlongeroperation.Oncethehazardousgasisdetected,thefrequencywillincreaseto0.3second/datapoint,whichkeepsdetailedrecordsandprovidesareferenceforfurtherinvestigations.

Table 18.2 Thedescriptionsofeachlayer

Layer Description Operation

PresentationLayer 1. Real-timedatacollectionanddisplay

2. TheActivemodelofCPSforsafetymanagement

3. CPSdevelopmentanduserinterfacedesign

1. Tohandleanddisplaythereal-timedatareturnedbyWSNnode(digitsandcurve).

2. ToestablishtheBIMmodelandthestatusindictingcomponentfordisplay.

3. TodeveloptheCPSandrelevantuserinterfacebyintegratingBIMmodelandWSNinformation.

Sensing&CommunicationLayer

1. AWSNnetworksystemconsistingwirelesssensornodes

2. Collectionoflocationalhazardousgasandenvironmentalconditions

3. TheWSNsmartfunctiondesign

1. TodeveloptheWSNwithvariousfunctionalnodesincluding(a)Sensornode.(b)Router.(c)Controlnode.(d)Coordinator.

2. ToproposeZigBee-basedWSNforgas,temperatureandhumiditydetectionwithin“mesh”typetopology.

3. Todesignthesmartfunctions(powersaving,emergencyjudgeandhazardsremoving).

ApplicationLayer 1. ConstructionWSNnodesandfunctiondesign

2. EstablishmentandcontroloftheBIMmodel

3. Systemintegration

1. TodesigntherelevantWSNfunctiononthesinglechipsystem(.NetMF).

2. Toestablish,modifythemodelanddynamiccolorcontrol(BIMsoftware).

3. Tointegrateoverallsystemandinformationprocessing(MicrosoftC#).

DataLayer 1. Thedatastandardizationandflowcontrol

2. BIMmodelforspatialandconditionalinformationintegration

3. Databaseforsensorandsystemdatastorage

1. Todesignandhandlethedataflowincludingcollection,transferandintegration.

2. Tobuildadigitalmodeltocorrespondwithstructure,assets,andmonitoringlocationofthesite.

3. Toestablishthedatabaseforstorageofmeasuringrecordsanddataprocessing.

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Figure 18.2 Thedevelopedsensornode(expanded)

Table 18.3 DevelopedWSNnodesanditsfunctions

Type of node Function

1 Coordinator (1) Responsibleforlaunchingthenetwork(2) TocoordinatetheaddressassignmentofallWSN

nodes(3) Tobeahostandcollectthedatafromallsensor

nodes2 Sensornode (1) Tomonitorthehazardousgas,temperatureand

humidityinformationineachlocationofconstructionsite

(2) Toaskthecontrolnodetostartsafetydeviceandremovehazardswhendetectstheabnormality

(3) Torecordthedetaildatainemergencysituation3 Router (1) Torelay&transferWSNtransmissionsignal,

extendscommunicationdistanceandnetworkcoveringrange.

4 Controlnode (1) Connectionwithsafetydevices(flash,alarm,andventilator),activatedinemergentsituation

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18.6.3.2 BIM integration

Thedigitalmodelprovidesthevisualdemonstrationofthephysicalconstructionsite,whichestablishesadimensionalframeworkforCPSsothatthemeasuringinformationcanbevis-uallydisplayed.TheBIMmodelwasbuiltbyAutodeskRevitandconvertedtoaNavisworksfile.Todisplaythestatusofmonitoringlocations,spatialcomponentswerecreatedtoindi-catethedifferentconditions;meanwhile,theoutsideshieldofthemodelshouldbeproperlyremovedtoenabletheinsideconditionalcomponenttobedisplayed.Thecolorofthecompo-nentwascontrolledtobechangeddynamicallybythedatareturnedfromtheWSN,includinggas,temperature,andhumidityconditions.Figure18.3showstheconstructionprogressoftheBIMmodel.

Duringtheoperation,thedatageneratedbytheWSNnodeswascollectedcontinuously.Thedata included thenode’s identificationnumber, signal strength, and thedetectedenvi-ronmental information (suchasgasconcentration, temperature,andhumidity).Thesystemanalyzedwherethedatacamefromandidentifiedthegas,temperature,andhumidityvalues.Thevalueswerethenreferredtodisplaytherelevantcolorfrombluetoredandindicatedtheriskdegreeofthemonitoredlocationusingspecificmodelcomponents.Bythismechanism,thesafetyandenvironmentalconditionsofthewholesitecanbedisplayedinrealtimeviatheinputdataflow.Figure18.4showstheintegratingmechanismoftheBIMcomponentandtheWSNdata.

18.6.4 Test and discussion

Totesttheperformanceoftheproposedsystem,anundergroundconstructiontunnelofMassRapidTransit(MRT)waschosenastheexperimentalsite.ThetestsimulatedthepresenceofahazardousgasandtestedtheperformanceoftheproposedCPS.Foracoverageof300meters,themonitoringpointswereplacedatevery100meters,wherethethreenodeswereset.Thesystemwasinstalledonanotebook,whichincludedtheCPSanddigitalmodelofthetunnel.The coordinator linkedwith thenotebookwas set at the station for receiving thedetecteddatafromthesensornode.Acontrolnodewasconnectedwithaflashalarmandventilator,whichwouldbeactivatedwhen theWSNdetected thehazardousgasamongthecoverage.Figure18.5showstheexperimentallayout.

Duringthetest, thecoordinatorlaunchedthenetwork,andthesensornodesandcontrolnode joinedthenetworksequentiallybypoweringon.Then, thesensornodesweremovedforwardintothetunnelbystaffandsetatpositionslocated100,200,and300metersfrom

Figure 18.3 TheBIMmodelconstructionsforthesystem

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the host.During this process, the signal strengthwas also recorded every 20meters, thusobservingtheattenuationofthesignal.Whenallthesensornodeshadbeensetinplace,thestaffsimulatedtheemergencyeventbyemittingcombustiblegasfromafirelighterineachmonitoringposition.Thestaffthenobservedthesystemperformancetodeterminewhetherthesafetydeviceswereactivated(Figure18.6).Figure18.7presentsthescreenshotofthesystemoperation.

Thetestresultsindicatedthateveninthe300meterposition,thesystemreactstothegasoccurrencewithin1–2secondsanddisplaystheabnormallocationontheBIMmodelbyaredcoloredwarning;meanwhile,thecontrolnodeimmediatelyactivatestheflashalarmandtheventilatortowarnnearbypersonneltoretreatandtoeliminatethehazardousgas.Theattenua-tiontestoftheradiosignalindicatesthatthetransmissiondistanceoftwonodesinthetunnelisabout250metersand0.2to0.3dBmattenuatedforeverymeter.Ifarouterissetbetweentwonodes,thedistancecanbeextendedupto450meters.

Thetestresultindicatesthatthesystemcanbeconvenientlysetuponaconstructionsiteanditcanperformwellatadetectingandmonitoringtask.Thedevelopedsystemcontinuouslycollectstheenvironmentalinformationandmonitorsthehazardsoftheconstructionsite.Oncetheemergencyeventoccurs,theworkerscanbewarnedinadvanceandretreatimmediately.Additionally, theadministrationandrescueunitcanremotelydeterminetheriskylocationsand thesituationof thesite throughCPS tomakeanoptimaldecisionand take immediaterescueaction.Thesystemcansmartlyimprovethesafetymanagementofconstructionsitesforhazardousgasprevention,significantlydecreasingthemonitoringlaborandenhancingtheworkers’safety.

Figure 18.5 Thedesignlayoutofthefieldtest

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Figure 18.6 Thefieldtestinthetunnel

Figure 18.7 ScreenshotoftheoperationalCPSfortunnelsafetymanagement(Location01detectedhazardousgasanddemonstratesthewarninginred)

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18.7 Conclusion

Thissectiondescribesthedefinitions,concepts,andframeworkforI4.0andC4.0,anddiscussestheapplicationsofIoTandrelatedtechnologiesintheconstructionindustry.Theconstructionindustryisslowerthanothermanufacturingindustriesatincorporatingdigitalizationbecauseof its complexity and unique characteristics.However, as the future trends of constructionprojectsaremovingtowardincreasedsizeandcomplexity,theconstructionsectorneedstopaymoreattentiontoIoTtechnologiesandtoenhancingitsefficiencyandcompetitivecapabilities.

ThisarticledescribestheuseofIoTapplicationsintheconstructionindustry,includingUAV,RFID,WSN,andBIMtechnologies.UAVtechnologyimprovesthemappingandinvestigationtasksinconstructionprojectsandenablesthequicksurveyoflargeareasafterdisasters,thusenhanc-ingnotonlytheefficiencybutalsotheaccuracyandsafetyofthetask.RFIDprovidestheremoteanduniqueidentificationofthingsforbigdataapplicationsandtheIoT,whichiswidelyappliedinpersonnelandequipmentcontrol,logisticsmanagement,andleanconstructionmanagement.WSNenablesfacilitiesandequipmenttoperceiveandcommunicate,andtoquicklyprovidetherequiredinformationforbigdataandcloudcomputinganalytics.Nowadays,WSNiswidelyappliedinthefieldssuchas trafficandlocalization,environmentandsecuritydetection,smartbuildings,andenergysavingapplications.BIMprovidesadigitalizationandvisualizationsolutionforconstruc-tionprojectsinIoTapplications,providingnotonlystaticinformation,includingassets,structures,andtheirspatialrelations,butalsopowerfulcomputingandsimulationcapabilities.BIMalsopro-videsadigitalframeworkforIoTinformationintegrationandCPSestablishment.TheintroductionofIoTtechnologiesenablesequipmentandfacilitiestohavetheabilitytosense,communicate,andmakedecisions.ByintegratingIoT,bigdata,andCPS,thedigitalvirtualworldislinkedwiththephysicalworld,providingbetterserviceandpredictions.IoTnotonlyenhancesthedigitalization,informationization,andcyberizationintheconstructiondomain,butitalsoprovidestherequiredtechnologyandsolutionsforsmartbuildings,construction,andmanufacturing.

ThischapteralsoprovidedanexampleofCPSdevelopmentasappliedtoon-sitesafetymanagement,includingadescriptionoftheIoTdevicedevelopment,networksystemdesign,digitalmodelestablishment,andhowtointegrateandmakethemwork.Thedevelopedpro-totypesystemwastestedonatunnelsite,anditseffectivenesswasdemonstrated.Theresultsindicatethatthedevelopedsystemcanperformthemonitoringtaskwellandisadvantageoustothesafetymanagementofthesite.Thesystemcanachievethelong-term,multi-locationalmonitoring in real time, andprovides aCPS for remotemanagement, timely rescue, earlywarning,andsmart security, thusnotonly reducing the laborcost formonitoring,butalsosignificantlyenhancingthesafetyofworkersonthesite.

During the IoT introduction process, the following issues still need to be explored andsolved:therequiredhumanresourceandtechnology,thesecurityofnetworksandcommuni-cation,theintegrationandinteroperabilitybetweenthedifferentsystems,andthespeedandthehugedemandsofthenetwork.Inthefuture,theseIoTtechnologieswillcontinuetoimpactandshapetheconstructionindustry,notonlybringingnewchallengesandopportunities,butalsopromotingtheindustrytowardsfacilitatingtheobjectiveofConstruction4.0.

18.8 Summary

• OverviewofIoTenabledphysicaltechnologiesinConstruction4.0.• LiteraturereviewsofRFID,UAV,WSN,andBIMtechnologiesinConstruction4.0.• ApplicationsofadvancedIoTinConstruction4.0.• Casestudyshowcasingdevelopmentofacyberphysicalsystemforapplicationintunnel

constructionsafetymanagementforConstruction4.0.

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