163506_1: Arabic programming languages.

7/29/2019 163506_1: Arabic programming languages.

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Arabic Programming

Languages

Sami SarhanUniversity of Jordan


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Abstract

A survey about Non-English programming

languages with concentration on Arabic programming

Language is conducted. In this paper we propose a

simple Arabic programming language which is

dedicated for educational purposes. The language is

characterized by simplicity and needs no previous

experience of programming. The syntax directed

translation scheme is used to develop a translator for the

proposed language.Keywords:

Non-English programming languages, Arabic

programming language, Syntax directed translation,

Abstract stack machine, Context free grammar,

Simulation.

1. Introduction

Computer Programming Languages are symbolic

systems that computers understand. They help your

program serve your needs. Compilers are programs thathelp to make this understanding happen. While the

first generation of high-level programming languages,

such as FORTRAN is still in wide use and evolving,

many new languages with higher level abstraction

capability are emerging.

As the programming languages are the most

important interface between computers and scientists,

programming language designs are still a very active

pursuit in the computer science community as languagesare born, age, and eventually die. Programming

language designs and implementation methods have

evolved continuously since the earliest high-levellanguages appeared in the 1950s.


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When the USA Department of Defense did a survey

as part of its background efforts in developing ADA in

the 1970s, it found that over 500 languages were being

used on various defense projects. Programming

languages can be classified into numerically based

languages, Business languages, Artificial Intelligence

languages, and Systems languages.

Development of a programming language does not

proceed in a vacuum. The hardware that supports a

language has a great impact on language design. Theexternal environment supporting the execution of a

program is termed its operating environment. In

addition to other factors such as the networking

environment, the development status at a particular

phase, and the intended audience[7].

Another significant issue to be thought about is

what are the requirements for building our own

programming language? Many factors have to be takeninto consideration such as the human resources that are

needed to get such a huge project well done, financial

capabilities that will supply the project, and which

operating system to rely on. Unix Operating System is

an open source operating environment; it can support

new programming languages with more free capabilities

[43].

The solution language which stands for (

) is a programming language with Arabicsyntax. It is designed for Arab people, especially for

beginners, because of the lack of such languages. The

main goal of this language is to provide a programming

language, which syntax is in Arabic language. This


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language is dedicated for beginners and requires no

previous experience of programming.

The proposed language can be considered as the

basis of a more powerful language. Many problems can

be solved using this language such as simple

mathematical and scientific problems. It provides also

the capability to build simple software packages.

2. Previous Work

Hundreds of different programming languages have

been designed and implemented. Even in 1969, Sammet

[27,25] listed 120 that were fairly widely used, andmany others have been developed since then. Most

programmers, however, never venture to use more than

a few languages. The appropriate language to use oftendepends on the application domain for the problem to be

solved. The appropriate language to use for various

application domains has evolved over the past 30 years.

Initially, languages were designed to execute

programs efficiently. By the middle of 1960s, the task of

a high-level language was to make it easier to develop

correct programs and solve problems for some given

application area. Compiler technology matured in the

1960s, and 1970s, and language technology centered on

solving domain-specific problems. Just like natural

languages, programming languages evolve aneventually pass out of use. The older languages still in

use have undergone periodic revisions to reflect

changing influences from other areas of computing.

Newer languages like C++, Java, and ML reflect a

composite of experience gained in the design and use of


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these and the hundreds of other older languages. Some

of these influences are: computer capabilities,

applications, programming methods, implementation

methods, theoretical studies and standardization. Many

reasons explain why programmers prefer one language

over another. Some of them are: clarity and simplicity,

orthogonality, naturalness for application, support for

abstraction, ease of program verification, programming

environment, portability of programs, and cost of use.

Usually programming languages use English alphabet.

Very few of them were developed using other alphabets.

Inter-p is a programming language in Spanish [26].

Another programming language for Spanish speakers is

called Mayor [27]. It has a 16-bit version (1.12) and a

32-bit version (2.01) and it can help you get great

programming skills.

In the context of computing with Indian languages,

people have often asked Can you not allow computerprograms to be in Indian language? Supposedly the

idea is to allow the development of applications in

Indian languages. Nearly a decade ago, it was reported

that Sanskrit is the most appropriate language for

writing computer software. Systems development

laboratory, IIT Madras which has contributed to

significant development in Multilingual computing (and

hence a meaningful IT solution for India), did think of

applications which one could write in regional language,along the lines of programming with an interpreted

language such as Basic. In fact, as far back as 1989, an

equivalent of Basic was shown to be viable Tamil andTelugu. Subsequent to the development of a system for

efficient string processing with Indian language text, the


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lab had proposed the idea of scripting with Indian

languages rather than a programming language itself.

Perl, is a remarkably good choice for writing

applications which would interpret scripts written in

Indian languages. Very little is required by way of

enhancements to standard Perl which handles regular

expressions with great ease and simplicity. The

enhancement is a simple module which can present IIf

characters as equivalent ASCII strings. Such a modulehas been developed in the lab and is known as IIperl.

The idea behind this approach is to permit Perl

programs to be written using the IITM editor where text

strings in Indian languages could be present

A special Indian language based command shell has

been used under Linux. This shell allows interaction

with the user in different languages and can display text

in all the scripts. Using the command shell, one caninvoke other Iperl programs such as a sorting program

or email client and retain on the screen a totally regional

language based interaction [39,40].

A lot of research in developing programming languages

was done in Germany. MIKRONIA is a German

programming language [28]. Mikronia- mikro- compiler

(version q13) can convert programs written in Mikronia

language into equivalent Turbo-Pascal (7.0). A Germanversion of the LOGO programming language was

developed [29]. Also there is a French version of the

LOGO programming language [30]. Some languageswere developed using Russian language such as Actor

Prolog [31], Euphoria programming language [32], and

Javascripts.ru [33,41].


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The shortage of Information Processing Engineer is

sever in Japan and the importance of teaching

programming as a part of information processing is

increasing. But because of the technical advance of

programming language, it is hard to study existing

programming languages. So Chubachi Yoshihide and

Ohiwa Hajime have developed an Object oriented

Japanese programming language on Java Virtual

Machine [33]. It has high educational effect and also hasa capability to develop any practical software. It has a

structure that can use Java library, and that can cover

from educating beginner to a full-scale software

development.

There is a lot of research associated with Arabic

language. This research includes many aspects of

Arabic work in computer field starting with Arabic fonts

and reaching syntax and semantic analyzers. It includesthe work related to the language understanding, based

on artificial intelligence techniques such as:

morphology, syntax, semantic, character recognition,

speech synthesis/recognition, and translation. Other

work related to the user interface either for hardware or

software applications [11-24, 34-35, 44].

Some research was focused on Arabic

programming languages [36-38]. But still there is nowell-established Arabic programming languages that

can satisfy the requirements of the new computer

applications - the following section will illustrate someof them -. So in this paper we are trying to propose a

simple programming language using Arabic alphabet

and Arabic syntax.


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3. Existing Arabic Programming Languages

There are some Arabic programming languages. Al-

Khawarizmi is the first Arabic programming language

that is developed by Al-Sakher Company before ten

years. This language is similar to Pascal language.

ArLogo which stands for Arabic logo, it is a translation

for logo language which is designed for children to learn

the logic of programming by letting them draw andwrite simple commands in an interesting interface. This

language is only a translation, so it can not be used for

writing computer programs so this is a limitation on it is

use [46, 55]. Jeem is another well known Arabic

programming tool that gives the basic features of high

level programming language as C. Jeem consists of

Arabic alphabet and digits ( -,- ). The mainadvantages of it are its simplicity, clarity, obey the

Arabic grammar, and its helpfulness for the student towrite programs in their native language [47]. Al-Risalh

is an Arabic pure object-oriented programming

language that has the basic mechanisms of object-

orientation: objects, classes, and messages. This

language has also the full support of object-orientation

concepts, it supports application programming as well

as systems programming which is similar to smalltalk.

[44] WinoScript which is built on the accidental using

of Arabic variables in Java Script. It is the first Arabicweb programming language (scripting languages). It is

like the java script. [48-51] Perso Perso-Arabic

languages like Urdu, Persian, Sindhi, and Kashmiri [54].

For more details about the mentioned Arabic

programming languages see Appendix A.


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4. The proposed language.

In this section, the characteristics, the syntax, and tools

of the proposed language are discussed.

4.1 Characteristics of the proposed language.

The aim is to develop an interactive Arabic

programming language dedicated for education

purposes and provides the capability to build simple

software packages using multimedia and windows

environment. The language is characterized bysimplicity and does not need a previous experience of

programming so it can be used for beginners. The

language should be portable and compatible with other

systems.

The syntax of the language must be clear and well

understood. Such syntax when properly used will allow

the program structure to reflect the underlying logical

structure of the algorithm. For example the proposed

language should support special commands (primitives)which are essential for mathematical applications like

addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, square

root, power, log, etc. The language must support an easy

way for input and output, for example dialog boxes can

be provided for input and output. Also the language

should include special commands that support

graphics.

Two approaches can be used to achieve the aimmentioned above. The first is to develop a programming

language starting from scratch. This approach requires

the developing of editing and translation tools andproviding the appropriate environment. The editor must

provide the ability to write programs and to debug them

easily.


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The second approach requires to develop an Arabic

programming shell for a programming language like

Visual Basic or C++. The components of such a

programming shell is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 : The structure of a programming shell

The debugger is used to control the notations used in the

program and to invocate the prewritten functions from

the functions database. The intermediate translator

converts the source program into another programming

language like C++ and prepares it for linking and

execution. The programming shell includes arithmetic

and logic operations, control-flow operations, and the

rules for writing functions and procedures.

In this paper only a subset of the proposed language is

introduced.

4.2 Syntax of the language

The general structure of the program is as the

following (any thing written in braces is optional):

}


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:....................{

}...........{

.

The following rules govern the syntax of the proposed

language:

Each statement must end with semicolon ( ), unless it is

the end of the program, where a dot ( . ) should be used.Or the statement which precedes the false part of the

conditional statement ( ), where a space should beused.

There are two types of identifiers: integer () andreal (). The following rules should be considered inchoosing the name of an identifier:

Must begin with a letter and followed by letters or

digits.

The length of the identifier name must not exceed 30characters.

The identifier name must not be a reserved word.

There are two forms of constant numbers (integer and

real ) which are used directly in the program, and literal

strings which may include any characters (except the

quotation mark itself) between two quotation marks.

The operators used in expressions are:

Relational operators (==, > ,< , =< , => , ).

Logical operators and ( ) , or ( ) .Mathematical operators (*, /, +, -, mod ( )).The negative sign operator ( ) which must beincluded with its expression between parenthesis e.g. (

) .Operator precedence:

Parenthesis.


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* , / , mod ( ), and ( ) .+ , - ,or ( ) .

== , ,=> , =< , > , < .

Assignment ( = ) .

4.3 Statements.

The proposed language includes a set of statements.

Some of them are:

Assignment statement which has the following syntax:

Identifier = expression Simple conditional statement which has the followingsyntax:

) expression (compoundstmtWhere compoundstmt is a single statement or

zero or more statements between begin ( ) andend ( ) .

Complex conditional statement which has the following

syntax:

) expression(compoundstmt compoundstmt- While statement which has the following syntax

) expression (compoundstmtFor statement which has the following syntax:

identifier lower bound upper boundcompoundstmt

Print statement which has the following syntax:

") Text "identifier expression (........ Where line ( ) means new line .

Read statement which has the following syntax:) identifier1 identifier2 (................... Clear statement which has the following Syntax:

it is used to clear the screen.

Comment line which has the following syntax: # Text

#


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A comment can be written anywhere in the

program, and can be written on one or more lines.

4.4 Reserved words.

The proposed language uses a set of reserved words

like:

.

5. Implementation.

The introduced subset of the proposed language was

implemented using the syntax directed translationscheme. C programming language was used to

accomplish the implementation [1-6].5.1 Translation phases.

The architectural diagram of the Translation phases of

the proposed language is shown in figure 2 [8-10].

The syntax directed translation scheme used her

consists of the following phases:

Lexical analyzer: reads the source program (stream of

characters) from right to left and groups them intotokens (sequences of characters having collective

meaning).

Syntax analyzer: groups recognized tokens

hierarchically into nested collections with collective

meaning.

Intermediate code generator: generates a code for an

abstract stack machine.

Simulator: in the simulation part, the machine has

separate instructions and data memories and alloperations are performed on values on a stack.

Expressions are converted into postfix notations before

the instructions are evaluated to generate the result.Symbol table : it is used to record the keywords initially

and the identifiers (while the program is scanned) used

in the source program. The information about various


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attributes of each identifier such type, value are also

recorded in the symbol table.

Error handler : detects errors and reporting them with

allowing further detection of errors in the source

program with some errors recovered when detected.

Figure 2: Translation phases.

4.2 Illustration example.

The following example shows the translation process of

a statement.

Assume the following statement:


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= +*

Figure 3 shows the translation steps of the given

statement.


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4.3 Functions.

The functions were developed during the

implementation using C language. The main functions

are listed below:

int isarabic(int c):Tests whether an input symbol belongs to Arabic

alphabet or not.

int isarabicnumeric(int c):Tests whether an input symbol belongs to Arabicalphabet and digits or not.

int lexan():Recognizes tokens and eliminates white spaces and

comments and reports any errors if any.

void parse():Obtains a string of tokens from the lexan and verifies

that the string can be generated by the grammar of the

language and reports any errors if any.

void program():Verifies the general form of the program.

void declarations():Verifies the general format of declaration.

void decl():Verifies the format of declaration for one type.

void identifierlist():Decides whether one or more identifiers declared for

one type. If there are many identifiers, they must be

separated by commas.void type():Decides the type (real or integer).

void compoundstmt():Decides whether there is a set of statements or empty

can be replaced, by empty.

void statmentlist():


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Decides whether there is one or more statements which

can be replaced. Each statement must be followed by

semicolon ( ).

void optionalstmt():Verifies the form of the block. Where the block is one

statement or compoundstmt between begin and end.

void stmt():Implements the statements of the proposed language:

1) Assignment statement.

2) If statement with or without else.3) While statement.

4) For loop statement.

5) Input statement.

6) Output statement.

7) Clear screen statement.

void outputstmt():Verifies the format of the arguments of the output

statement that should be produced.

void output():Describes the output that should be produced:

It may be an expression or text or a new line.

void input():Decides whether one or more identifiers should be

entered.

void factor():Represents identifier or number or expression between

parenthesis.

void term():Implements multiplicative operations (*, /, mod, and)within a term and a factor or recognizes a factor.

void simpleexpression():Implements additive operations (+, -, or) within a simple

expression and a term.

void exp():


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Implements the relational operations (==,,,=)

between two simple expressions.

void match(int t):Advances to the next input token if its argument t

matches the lookahead symbol. Thus match changes the

value of the lookahead variable.

void emit(int t,int tval):Inserts the intermediate code into an array of records

int lookup(char s[]):

Returns the index of an entry for string s, or 0 if s is notfound.

int insert(char s[],int tok,double tokval,char type):Returns the index of a new entry for string s, token t.

void init():Preloads symtable with keywords.

void write_error(char *m):Prints the message of the error.

void error(int errorno):

Chooses the type of the error.int newlabel():Returns a fresh label when ever it is called.

void addinst(int ins,double val,char typ):Inserts the instruction, its value and type in the

instruction table of the intermediate code.

int lookupins(int ins,double val):Returns the value of the label for instruction ins in the

instruction table.

void simulation():Uses the stack data structure to simulate theintermediate code into output (results) using postfix

notation.int insertlit(char s[]):

Inserts a literal string into text table.


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5. Test examples.

Here we introduce a set of examples that illustrates

how the developed compiler works correctly and

properly.

Example 1. In this example the introduced program

contains many features of the solution language. The

program reads an integer number. and finds the

summation from 1 up to that number. It also decides

whether the number is odd or even. This process isrepeated while the range of the numbers is (5


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))=((

)(

=+)( " + "

)" =")+(()) == ((

)" "(

)" "()" ( " :

)(. =)" ( " :

) (

)) (>=()" " : (

)" " : () " " .(

)-((" * " )

)( .

Sample of output for example 1.


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:

+++++= :

++++++=

:

:- -

* * * * * * * * * * *

* * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * *

* * * * * * * ** * * * * * *

* * * * * ** * * * *

* * * * * * ** *

*

Example 2. Here the introduced program reads three

integers numbers and finds the maximum number, and

then calculates the factorial for this maximum number.

Source file of example 2.#

#

:


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)" ( " .

) " ( " :)(

)" ( " :)(

)" ( " :)(

=)


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=Example 3.

The program introduced in this example reads an

integer positive number and decides whether the number

is prime or not and finds the factors of this number.

Source file of example 3.

# #

:: =

)" )/ (

"()" :-("

)()) =+(()" "(


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)==()" "(

)" "(=

)(

) ==()== "


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What seems to be very clear from the conducted

survey is that there are many Non-English Programming

Languages which are used in their countries. Arabic

Programming Languages are also exist but not widely

used; some of them have been built but not utilized in a

useful way due to some weak points that degraded such

a specific tool. However; the others were halted in the

mid way of its development process.

The proposed programming language uses an

Arabic alphabet and syntax. Because of its simplicity,the proposed language can be used by beginners to

develop programs in a simple and easy way. The

proposed language provides the capability to develop

simple software packages. It can be expanded easily so

as to include more powerful options.

Future Work

The present Arabic syntax programming languages

can be used as a core for other more powerful languagesusing Arabic alphabet. Other features can be added such

as: rich interface, other data structures such as arrays

and records, other Constructs such as: functions, other

procedures and networking services.

A creative software engineer should aim to add new

unavailable features to the Arabic programming tools.

Such features should not exist in present and used in

wide programming languages, a way to distinguish

Arabic tools from others. The new programming toolsthat will be created should satisfy the needs of the

marketplace locally and internationally.

References


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Appendix A

I) Al-Khawarizmi programming language:

1. Alphabet:

- Arabic Letters: ),,,(......... - Arabic Numbers: ),,(.....- Special Symbols: )} {* ( )-+ /&(......

2. Words:Variables, Functions, Reserved words.

3. Rules for writing Variable and Function names:

- The name must begin with a letter or "_" andfollowed by any combination of letters and digits.

- The name must not contain any special symbol.- Finally, the name must not be any reserved word.

4. Types of Variables:4.1. Numeric variables: memory locations to save

numbers.

4.2. Boolean variables: memory locations to save

Boolean values )==( 4.3. Symbolic variables: memory locations to save

symbols.

Examples of variables and their types:

,//float //double,//integer

//long,//char

//Boolean=//const


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5. Reserved words:

6. Syntax of functions:

)(

}

{

) (

}

.....

.....

{

7. Numbers:7.1. Integer numbers:

The number consists of one or more digits must not

contain any decimal point and is possible to contain '+'

or '-'.

7.2. Real numbers:The number consists of one or more digits, contain

decimal point and is possible to contain '+' or '-'.

8. Constants:


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8.1. Numeric constants: numeric variables but there

values must not be changed during program execution.8.2. Symbolic constants: symbolic variables but there

values must not be changed during program execution.

9. Literals:Any combination of letters and digits enclosed between

double quotations.

11. Operators:

Arithmetic operators

-

+*/

%


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: - Relational and logical operators:

11. Statements:11.a) Conditional Statements:

-First type:)(

-Second type:)(

-Third type:

)(}

{}

{

11.b) Switch Statements:

=

==

=!

&

|

!


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)(}

: : :

:{

11.c) Conditional Statements:

-first type:

) ()=


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12. Arrays:

First type:-- -][

][-Second type:

- -]][[]][[

II) Arlogo:

It is the Arabic language logo project; it is based onLogo language and tries to create the first open source

Arabic programming language. The idea of creating a

programming language like this for children come from

the realization that most existing computer languages

were designed to do computation and lacked the ability

to handle non-numeric symbols, and most languages

had complex syntax rules, so Elementary grade students

can use it for simple tasks with very little preparation

and its structure exemplify mathematically-importantconcepts with minimal intrusion from programming

conventions.

The "turtle" is a triangular object that appears on

the computer screen and moves in response to the

simple commands typed on the keyboard, Users learn to

create programs that draw simple geometric figures,

such as squares or triangles, which can be combined

into bigger programs that draw more complex figures,

such as houses.Arlogo makes it possible for beginners to learn to

program fairly quickly because it starts out with The

"turtle" is a triangular object that appears on thecomputer screen and moves in response to the simple

commands typed on the keyboard, Users learn to create

programs that draw simple geometric figures, such as


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squares or triangles, a set of words called primitives that

are easy to understand. For example, " " would makethe turtle go forward, and "" would make it turn tothe right," " would make it turn to the left, while

"" would hide it from view. Using those primitives,a user can write a set of instructions, known as a

procedure " ", name it, and use it to build otherprocedures. A procedure is executed by typing its name.

An example of a procedure that draws a square is:

Example : draw a squire

Example : draw a squire

This draws a square with sides 100 units long (in the

image the turtle has yet to turn LT 90 to be back in its

starting position).

These procedures use a constant of 30 for the sides of

the square and the triangle, which means that if we

wanted to draw squares and triangles of different sizes

we would have to modify the procedures. Logo uses

variables in the title line of a procedure to allow the use

of different values every time the procedure is executed;

the variable name is separated from the procedure name

by a space and a colon (:). To execute procedures using

variables, the name of the procedure must be followed

by a space and a numerical value. For example, the


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command " " would draw a square of 60 units. Aprocedure can call other procedures, as shown and can

also call itself, making Logo a recursive language.

III) Jeem Programming Languages

Jeem consists of three parts:

1. Declarative statements:As any variable starts with letter and consists of

letter, digit or _2. Executable statements:3. Compilers statements:

These statements execute at compile time. Any

compiler statements start of one of

those

Graphics Example on Jeem language:

Draw Mathematical relation to draw Flower curve

)*

:.

*(

!! =)(

!!

""

=,

:

:

:


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:

=\

=\

)() (

) () (

" ":

=

=

>

}

=+,

=)(

=)(

=)+ (

=)+ (

=)+ (

=)+ (

)()(

=+,

{


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Execution

IV) Al-Risalh:

1) Tokens of the Language:

Tokens in Al-Risalh are represented by a sequence

of characters that can be treated as a single logicalentity. Each token is either an identifier, reserved word,

literal, relational operator, delimiter, blank space, or

plus-multioperator.

1.1. Identifiers.

Tokens that start with an Arabic letter are

considered to be identifiers. The syntax for an identifier

for Al-Risalh is as follows::

::=

::=

_ |


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1.2. Delimiters.

A computer program is a linear string of characters.

To represent the structural elements of this language it is

necessary to add delimiters to this string in some way to

mark out the blocks, sections, statements, expressions,

tokens, and other syntactic elements. Certain symbols

are set aside for this process. The delimiters that are

used in this language are: ( . _ " : (

1.3. Reserved Words of the Al-Risalh Language

Reserved words are special identifiers that are part

of the built-in vocabulary of the language and are used

exclusively by the language.

1.4. Literals

The digits are the Arabic numbers 0 through 9 or

the Hindi numbers. The syntax for literals is:

::=

::= .

::= E

::=

::=

::= 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|

1.5. Arithmetic OperationsIn the language, a mathematical expression must be part

of either an assignment statement or a logical statement.

There are four main arithmetic operators in thelanguage: addition, subtraction, division, and

multiplication.


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1.6. The Built-in Functions

There are six built-in functions in this language:

sqrt , abs , sin , cosin , sqr , andpower .

1.7. Relational Operators

The definition of the Al-Risalh language semantics

allows the programmer to assign variables of differentatomic types. This will not cause a type mismatch

semantic error message. Also the definition of the Al-

Risalh language semantics allows the programmer to

use the equal operator with class heritage, in which the

derived class is assigned to the base class as follows:

class circle derived from shape

begin

. . .end class

message run of myshape

begin

c : circle;

s : shape;

s = c

end message

The above assignment statement is legal since every

derived class (object) c will be in base class s (object)but not vice versa. In the case of assigning, for example,

an array of 10 indices to an array with 20 indices the

definition of the language semantics will allow that. Toillustrate this, suppose the student declares the follows:

list1 = array [1..10]

list2 = array [1..20]


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and later in the program he assigned list1 to list2:

list2 = list1;

the above statement is legal since the values in list1 will

override the values in list2. Therefore, the values of list2

will disappear and will be replaced by the values in

list1. Also the programmer can replace the value of

index 7 in list2 by the value of index 3 in list1 as

follows:

list2[7] = list1[3];

the above statement will make the value in index 7 of

list2 disappear and it will be replaced by the value in

index 3 of list1.

2) Class Declarations

A class can be a standalone class or derived from a

base class. However, this technique resolves the classes

and class libraries issue in object-oriented programming.The class syntax is as follows:

::= Class

begin

end class

< - ->< - > ::=

< - - >< - >

The above syntax allows us to have a class as an

abstract data type (ADT). And objects of this class are

available at run time. The syntax expresses thereusability (inheritance) feature; one can derive a class

from another class. Also this type of declaration will


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help the student when compiling Al-Risalh programs,

since Al-Risalh uses one pass compilation.

V) WinoScript:

Example 1:

= ;

= '';

= ""; = "";

= ;

= (){ =") ") =. ;

=. ; =/ ;

= "";=+ ;

)=;>+; ++){++;

=+.),+ );)


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= (){ =") ") =. ;

// ")",""," ")

= ++ ; =") ")

.= }

=

163506_1: Arabic programming languages.

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Transcript of 163506_1: Arabic programming languages.