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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
PowerPoint® Lecture Slidesprepared byMeg FlemmingAustin Community College
C H A P T E R
The Skeletal System
6
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6 Learning Outcomes
• 6-1
• Describe the primary functions of the skeletal system.
• 6-2
• Classify bones according to shape, and compare the structures and functions of compact and spongy bone.
• 6-3
• Compare the mechanisms of intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
• 6-4
• Describe the remodeling and homeostatic mechanisms of the skeletal system.
• 6-5
• Summarize the effects of the aging process on the skeletal system.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6 Learning Outcomes
• 6-6
• Name the components and functions of the axial and appendicular skeletons.
• 6-7
• Identify the bones of the skull, discuss the differences in structure and function of the various vertebrae, and describe the roles of the thoracic cage.
• 6-8
• Identify the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the upper and lower limbs, and describe their various functions.
• 6-9
• Contrast the major categories of joints, and link their structural features to joint functions.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6 Learning Outcomes
• 6-10
• Describe how the structural and functional properties of synovial joints permit the dynamic movements of the skeleton.
• 6-11
• Explain the relationship between joint structure and mobility of representative axial and appendicular articulations.
• 6-12
• Explain the functional relationships between the skeletal system and other body systems.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Five Functions of the Skeletal System (6-1)
1. Support
• Provided for the entire body by the entire skeletal system
• Bones provide attachments for soft tissues and organs
2. Storage
• Provided by the bones for calcium salts for body fluids
• Lipids are stored in yellow marrow for energy reserves
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Five Functions of the Skeletal System (6-1)
3. Blood cell production
• Occurs in the red marrow and results in increases in red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
4. Protection
• Provided to soft tissues and organs by surrounding them
with the skeleton
• Examples:
• The skull enclosing the brain
• The ribs protecting the heart and lungs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Five Functions of the Skeletal System (6-1)
5. Movement
• In part a function of the skeletal system because the bones
function as levers
• When the skeletal muscles pull on the bones, movement
occurs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-1)
1. Name the five primary functions of the skeletal
system.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Tissue Characteristics (6-2)
• Bones or osseous tissue
• Are a supporting connective tissue; cells are called
osteocytes
• Matrix made of extracellular protein fibers and a ground
substance
• Calcium phosphate
• Ca3(PO4)2
• A salt deposited into the matrix
• Giving 2/3 of the weight of the 206 bones in the body
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Four General Shapes of Bones (6-2)
1. Long bones
• Longer than they are wide
• For example, the humerus
2. Short bones
• About as wide as they are long
• For example, the carpal bones
3. Flat bones
• Are broad
• Like the scapula
4. Irregular bones
• Complex in shape
• Like a vertebra
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-1 Shapes of Bones.
Long Bones
Short Bones
Humerus
Carpalbones
Flat Bones
Parietal bone
Irregular Bones
Vertebra
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structure of a Long Bone (6-2)
• The diaphysis, or central shaft
• Has a marrow cavity in the center filled with bone marrow
• The epiphyses are the wider portions at each end
• Covered with articular cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structure of a Long Bone (6-2)
• Compact bone
• Is densely packed; forms the diaphysis
• Spongy bone, also called cancellous bone
• Has projections of bone separated by space
• Periosteum
• Is the outer covering of bone
• Endosteum
• Lines the marrow cavity and spongy bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-2 The Structure of a Long Bone.Articular cartilageSpongy bone
Blood vessels
Epiphyseal line
Marrow cavity
Endosteum
Compactbone
Periosteum
Proximalepiphysis
Diaphysis
Distalepiphysis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Histology of Bone (6-2)
• Periosteum has two layers
• A fibrous outer layer and a cellular inner layer
• Bone cells are called osteocytes
• Located in pockets called lacunae
• Found between sheets of matrix called lamellae
• Canaliculi are small channels
• That run through the matrix
• And connect the lacunae and blood vessels
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Histology of Compact Bone (6-2)
• Has a repeating functional unit called the osteon,
or Haversian system
• Osteon is made of concentric circles of lamella
• Surrounding a central canal that has blood vessels in it
• Perforating canals allow for blood vessels in the
central canals:
• To be linked to other vessels
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Characteristics of Compact Bone (6-2)
• Covers all bone surfaces except for the articular
surfaces
• Can tolerate a lot of stress applied to either end of
a long bone
• Cannot tolerate moderate stress applied to the side of the
shaft
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Histology of Spongy Bone (6-2)
• Has no osteons
• The lamellae form rods called trabeculae
• Found in the epiphyses
• Where the stress is handled by the joints
• Much lighter than compact bone
• Reducing the work of muscles to move bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-3 The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.
Cellular layerof periosteumFibrous layerof periosteum
Spongy bone
Marrow cavity
Compact bone
Small veinCapillaryLamellae
Lamellae Canaliculi
Osteons
Endosteum
Central canal
Osteon
Lacunae
Osteon LM x 343
In this thin section through compact bone, the intact matrix making up the lamellae appears white, and the central canal, luacunae, and canaliculi appear black due to the presence of bone dust.
Trabeculaeof spongy bone
Perforatingcanal
Centralcanal
VeinArtery
This diagrammatic view depicts the parallel osteons of compact bone and the trabecular network of spongy bone.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-3a The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.
Cellular layerof periosteumFibrous layerof periosteum
Spongy bone
Marrow cavity
Compact bone
Small veinCapillaryLamellae
Osteons
Endosteum
Trabeculaeof spongy bone
Perforatingcanal
Centralcanal
VeinArtery
This diagrammatic view depicts the parallel osteons of compact bone and the trabecular network of spongy bone.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-3b The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.
Lamellae Canaliculi
Central canal
Osteon
Lacunae
Osteon LM x 343
In this thin section through compact bone, the intact matrix making up the lamellae appears white, and the central canal, luacunae, and canaliculi appear black due to the presence of bone dust.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Bone Cells (6-2)
• Osteocytes
• Mature cells that maintain bone structure by recycling
calcium salts
• Osteoclasts
• Large cells that secrete acid and enzymes that break down
the matrix
• Releasing minerals through osteolysis
• Osteoblasts
• Produce new bone through a process called ossification
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-2)
2. Identify the four general shapes of bones.
3. How would the strength of a bone be affected if the ratio of collagen to calcium increased?
4. A sample of a long bone shows concentric layers surrounding a central canal. Is it from the shaft or the end of the bone?
5. Mature bone cells are known as ________, bone-building cells are called ________, and ________ are bone-resorbing cells.
6. If the activity of osteoclasts exceeds that of osteoblasts in a bone, how will the mass of the bone be affected?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Formation (6-3)
• Embryonic development of bone
• Begins at week 6 as a cartilaginous formation
• Replaced with bone, a process called ossification
• Two types
1. Intramembranous ossification
2. Endochondral ossification
• Calcification occurs during ossification
• Can also occur in other tissues besides bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Intramembranous Ossification (6-3)
• Occurs during fetal development
• Developing sheets of connective tissue
• Osteoblasts differentiate and develop calcified matrix
• Ossification begins around an ossification center
• New bone branches outward, develops blood supply
• Spongy bone structures remodel into compact flat bones
• Such as the skull bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-4 Bone Formation in a 16-Week-Old Fetus.
Endochondral bones
Intramembranousbones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Five Steps of Endochondral Ossification (6-3)
• Embryonic cartilaginous skeletal structures are
replaced by true bone in a series of five steps
1. Chondrocytes enlarge and matrix begins to calcify
• Closing off the chondrocytes from nutrients
• Causing them to die
2. Bone formation starts at the shaft surface
• Blood vessels invade the perichondrium
• New osteoblasts produce bone matrix
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Five Steps of Endochondral Ossification (6-3)
3. Blood vessels invade inner region of cartilage
• New osteoblasts form spongy bone at primary ossification center
• Bone develops toward each end
• Filling shaft with spongy bone
4. Osteoclasts begin to break down spongy bone in center
• To form marrow cavity
• Epiphyseal cartilages, or plates, on the ends of the bone continue to enlarge
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Five Steps of Endochondral Ossification (6-3)
5. Centers of the epiphyses begin to calcify
• Secondary ossification centers form
• Epiphyses fill with spongy bone
• Bone grows in length from the epiphyseal cartilages
• Joint surfaces are covered with articular cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endochondral Ossification (6-3)
• At puberty, bone growth accelerates
• Due to sex hormone production
• Osteoblasts produce bone faster than the
epiphyseal cartilage can expand
• Epiphyseal artilages eventually disappear or "close"
• Adult bones show evidence of the epiphyseal line
• Where the cartilage once was
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-5 Endochondral Ossification.
Enlargingchondrocytes
withincalcifying
matrix
Hyaline cartilagemodel
Epiphysis
Diaphysis
Boneformation
Bloodvessel
Marrowcavity
Primaryossificationcenter
Superficialbone
Spongybone
Marrowcavity
Epiphysealcartilage
Secondarycenter of
ossification
Epiphysealcartilage
Epiphysis
Articular cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Appositional Growth (6-3)
• Enlargement in the diameter of bones occurs as it
is growing in length
• Periosteum cells develop into osteoblasts
• Produce more matrix on the outer surface of the bone
• Osteoclasts erode the inner surface
• Enlarging the marrow cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-6 Appositional Bone Growth.
Bone resorbedby osteoclasts
Bone depositedby osteoblastsInfant Child Young adult Adult
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Closing of Epiphyseal Plates (6-3)
• Vary from bone to bone
• Digits close early
• Arm, leg, and pelvis bones close later
• Vary from person to person
• And between males and females
• Mostly due to differences in sex hormones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Requirements for Bone Growth (6-3)
• Mineral supply
• Especially calcium salts
• Vitamin D3
• Involved in calcium metabolism
• Rickets is due to vitamin D3 deficiency
• Vitamin A and vitamin C
• Provide support for osteoblasts
• Growth hormone, sex hormones, thyroid hormone, and the calcium-balancing hormones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-3)
7. During intramembranous ossification, which type of tissue is replaced by bone?
8. How could x-rays of the femur be used to determine whether a person had reached full height?
9. A child who enters puberty several years later than the average is generally taller than average as an adult. Why?
10.Why are pregnant women given calcium supplements and encouraged to drink milk even though their skeletons are fully formed?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Remodeling (6-4)
• In adults:
• Osteocytes in lacunae continuously remove and replace
surrounding calcium salts
• Osteoblasts and osteoclasts remain active
• Remodeling bone, especially spongy bone
• In young adults:
• Remodeling is so rapid that about one-fifth of the skeletal
mass is replaced each year
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Remodeling (6-4)
• Appropriate stress
• Causes thickening and strengthening of bone
• Little stress on bones causes them to be weak and thin
• Exercise
• Is key to maintaining normal bone structure and strength
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Calcium Reserve (6-4)
• Calcium balance in the body fluids
• Is essential for many physiological mechanisms
• Especially in nerves and muscles
• Calcium balance is regulated by:
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitriol to raise calcium
levels
• Calcitonin to lower calcium levels in body fluids
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Fractures (6-4)
• Named by external appearance
• Closed (simple) fractures
• Completely internal
• Open (compound) fractures
• Project through the skin
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Fractures (6-4)
• Named by location
• Example: Pott's fracture
• Occurs at the ankle and affects bones of the leg
• Example: Colles fracture
• Break in the distal portion of the radius
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Fractures (6-4)
• Named by the nature of the break
• Example: transverse fractures
• Break a shaft of bone across its long axis
• Example: spiral fractures
• Produced by twisting stresses along the length of a bone
• Example: comminuted fractures
• Shatter the area into many smaller fragments
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Four Steps to Repair Fractures (6-4)
1. Fractures result in broken blood vessels that
cause a blood clot, called a fracture hematoma,
to form
• This closes off the blood supply
• Killing osteocytes
• Resulting in dead bone on either side of the fracture
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Four Steps to Repair Fractures (6-4)
2. Cells of periosteum and endosteum collect at the
fracture
• And develop into an external callus (develops hyaline
cartilage) and internal callus, respectively
3. Osteoblasts replace cartilage with spongy bone
4. Spongy bone is replaced by compact bone
• Leaving a slightly thicker spot at the fracture site
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-7 Steps in the Repair of a Fracture.
Deadbone
Bonefragments
Spongybone ofinternalcallus
Periosteum Internalcallus
Externalcallus
Externalcallus
Cartilage ofexternal callus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-4)
11. Describe bone remodeling.
12. Why would you expect the arm bones of a
weight lifter to be thicker and heavier than those
of a jogger?
13. What general effects do the hormones PTH,
calcitriol, and calcitonin have on blood calcium
levels?
14. What is the difference between a closed fracture
and an open fracture?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteopenia and Aging (6-5)
• Osteopenia• Inadequate ossification that naturally occurs as part of the
aging process
• Starting between the ages of 30 and 40:
• Osteoblastic activity slows and osteoclastic activity increases
• Osteoporosis • Loss of bone mass that impairs normal function and can lead
to more fractures
• More common in women and accelerates after menopause
• Due to a decline in circulating estrogens
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-5)
15. Define osteopenia.
16. Why is osteoporosis more common in older
women than in older men?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface Bone Markings (6-6)
• Are landmark features on the surfaces of bones
• Include projections
• Where tendons and ligaments attach
• Where bones articulate
• Include depressions, grooves, and openings
• Where blood vessels and nerves pass through the bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 6-1 An Introduction to Bone Markings (1 of 2)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 6-1 An Introduction to Bone Markings (2 of 2)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Skeletal Divisions (6-6)
• Axial skeleton includes:
• The skull and associated bones
• The thoracic cage with the ribs and sternum
• The vertebral column
• Appendicular skeleton includes:
• The pectoral girdle and the upper limbs
• The pelvic girdle and the lower limbs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-8 The Skeleton.
Skull
Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Ribs
Vertebrae
Radius
Ulna
SacrumHip boneCarpalbones Coccyx
Metacarpalbones
Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsal bones Metatarsal bones Phalanges
Anterior view Posterior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-9 The Axial and Appendicular Divisions of the Skeleton.
AXIAL SKELETON
Skull
Skull andassociated
bones
Thoracic cage
Vertebralcolumn
Associated bones
Vertebrae
Sacrum
80
Cranium
Face
Auditoryossicles
Hyoid
Sternum
Ribs
Coccyx
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpal bones
Metacarpal bones
Phalanges(proximal,
middle, distal)
Hip bone(coxal bone)
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsal bones
Metatarsal bones
Phalanges
Lowerlimbs
Pelvicgirdle
Upperlimbs
Pectoralgirdle29
25
8
14
6
1
1
24
24
26 1
1
126
2
2 4
2
2
2
16
10
60
28
2
2
2
2
2
2
14
10
28
60
Hyoid 1
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-6)
17. Define bone markings (surface features).
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Axial Skeleton (6-7)
• Framework for support and protection of the
brain, spinal cord, and organs in the ventral body
cavity
• Provides surface area for attachment of muscles
that:
1. Move the head, neck, and trunk
2. Perform respiration
3. Stabilize elements of the appendicular skeleton
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Skull (6-7)
• Houses brain and sense organs for sight, smell,
taste, and balance
• Total of 22 bones
• 8 form the cranium
• Forming cranial cavity, which houses brain
• 14 are facial bones
• Also includes associated bones, 6 auditory ossicles, and
one hyoid bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Frontal Bone (6-7)
• Forms the forehead and the roof of the orbits, or
eye sockets
• Supra-orbital foramen
• Forms a passageway above each orbit for blood vessels and
nerves
• Frontal sinuses
• Are air-filled cavities above the orbit
• Lined with mucus membrane
• Connect with the nasal cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Parietal Bones (6-7)
• Are posterior to frontal bones and form the roof of
the cranium
• Coronal suture
• Where the parietal and frontal bones interlock
• Sagittal suture
• Where the parietal bones interlock at the midline of the
cranium
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The Occipital Bone (6-7)
• Forms the posterior, inferior part of the cranium
• Lambdoid suture
• Where the occipital and parietal bones interlock
• Foramen magnum
• Surrounds the connection between the brain and the spinal
cord
• Occipital condyles
• The articular surfaces that sit on the first vertebra
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Temporal Bones (6-7)
• On either side of the cranium and zygomatic
arches, housing the ossicles in middle ear
• Squamous sutures
• Where the temporal and parietal bones interlock
• Key bone markings
• External auditory meatus
• Mandibular fossa
• Mastoid process
• Styloid process
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Sphenoid Bone (6-7)
• Forms part of the floor of the cranium
• The bridge between the cranial bones and the facial bones
• Contains a pair of sinuses, the sphenoidal
sinuses
• "Wings" of the bone extend laterally from a central
depression, the sella turcica
• Which houses and protects the pituitary gland
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Ethmoid Bone (6-7)
• Anterior to the sphenoid, forms part of the cranial
floor
• Forms the medial surfaces of the orbits and is the roof and
sides of the nasal cavity
• Crista galli projects upward toward the brain and
the inferior cribriform plate
• Has holes in it allowing for olfactory nerves to pass into the
nasal cavity
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The Ethmoid Bone (6-7)
• Contains ethmoidal sinuses
• Projections into the nasal cavity toward the nasal
septum
• Called the superior and middle nasal conchae
• Perpendicular plate extends down from the crista
galli between the conchae
• To form part of the nasal septum
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-10 The Adult Skull, Part I.
Coronalsuture
PARIETALBONE
FRONTALBONE
SPHENOID
Supra-orbitalforamen
NASAL BONE
LACRIMALBONE
ETHMOIDInfra-orbitalforamenMAXILLAZYGOMATICBONE
Squamoussuture
Lambdoidsuture
Externalacousticmeatus
Mastoidprocess
TEMPORALBONE
MANDIBLE
Zygomaticarch
Styloid processZygomatic process
of temporal bone
Temporal processof zygomatic bone
Coronoid process
OCCIPITALBONE
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The Maxillae (6-7)
• Also called the maxillary bones
• Articulate with all other facial bones except for the mandible
• Forms the floor and medial sides of the rim of the orbits, the walls of the nasal cavity, and the anterior roof of the mouth (bony palate)
• Maxillary sinuses
• Drain into nasal cavity
• Lighten the weight of the bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Palatine and Vomer Bones (6-7)
• Palatine bones form the posterior surface of the
bony palate, or roof of the mouth
• Superior surfaces form the floor of the nasal cavity
• Superior tips form part of orbital floor
• Vomer articulates with paired palatine bones and
forms part of the nasal septum
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Zygomatic Bones (6-7)
• Articulate with the frontal bone and the maxillae,
forming the lateral wall of the orbit
• Temporal process of the zygomatic
• Curves laterally and posteriorly to articulate with the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone
• Forming the zygomatic arch
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Nasal and Lacrimal Bones (6-7)
• Nasal bones form the bridge of the nose between
the orbits
• Articulating with the frontal and maxillary bones
• Lacrimal bones are found within the orbit on the
medial surfaces
• Articulating with the frontal, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Inferior Nasal Conchae and Nasal Complex (6-7)
• Inferior nasal conchae project from lateral walls of
nasal cavity
• Changing airflow to improve sense of smell
• The nasal complex is made of all the bones that
form the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses
that drain into it
• Nasal septum divides the cavity into right and left
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-13 The Paranasal Sinuses.
Frontal sinus
Ethmoidalsinuses
Sphenoidal sinus
Maxillary sinus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Mandible (6-7)
• The lower jaw
• Vertical process on either side
• The ramus extends up toward the temporal bone
• Posterior process of the ramus, the condylar
process
• Articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone
• Anterior coronoid process is the attachment
point:
• For the temporalis muscle that closes the jaw
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-11a The Adult Skull, Part II.
PARIETAL BONE
SPHENOID
TEMPORAL BONE
ETHMOIDPALATINE BONE
LACRIMAL BONE
ZYGOMATIC BONE
NASAL BONE
MAXILLA
INFERIOR NASALCONCHA
MANDIBLE
Coronal suture
Supra-orbital foramenOptic canal
Superior orbital fissure
Temporal process ofzygomatic boneMastoid process oftemporal boneInfra-orbital foramenMiddle nasal concha(part of ethmoid)Perpendicular plateof ethmoidVOMER
Nasal septum(bony portion)
Anterior view
FRONTAL BONE
Sagittal suture
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-11b The Adult Skull, Part II.
FRONTAL BONE
ZYGOMATIC BONE
VOMER
SPHENOID
Styloid processMandibular fossa
Externalacoustic meatus
Lambdoid suture
OCCIPITAL BONEExternal occipital
protuberance
MAXILLA
PALATINE BONEZygomatic arch
TEMPORAL BONEMastoid process
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Inferior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-12a Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.
Crista galliCribriform plate
Sella turcica
FRONTAL BONE
ETHMOID
SPHENOID
TEMPORAL BONE
PARIETAL BONE
OCCIPITAL BONE
Superior view of a horizontal sectionthrough the skull, showing the floorof the cranial cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-12b Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.
FRONTAL BONESPHENOIDSphenoidal
sinus (right)Frontal sinus
Crista galli
NASAL BONEETHMOID
PALATINEBONE
MAXILLAMANDIBLE
PARIETAL BONESella turcica
TEMPORAL BONE
Lambdoid suture
OCCIPITAL BONEStyloid process
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-12c Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.
FRONTALBONE
Frontalsinuses
ETHMOIDSphenoidalsinuses
SPHENOIDNASAL BONE
PALATINE BONE(bony palate)
MAXILLA(bony palate)
SuperiorMiddle
Nasalconchaeof ethmoidINFERIOR
NASALCONCHA
A sagittal section through the skull, with the nasal septum removed to show major features of the wallof the right nasal cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Hyoid Bone (6-7)
• Small and U-shaped
• The only bone in the body not directly articulated
with another bone
• Is suspended from the styloid processes of the
temporal bones
• Serves as attachment for muscles of the larynx,
the tongue, and the pharynx
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Greater horn
Lesser horn
Body
Figure 6-14 The Hyoid Bone.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Skulls of Infants and Children (6-7)
• Fetal development of skull bones occurs around
the developing brain
• At birth:
• The cranial bones are connected with connective tissue
called fontanelles
• Flexible soft spots that allow for easier delivery of the
head
• By age 4:
• The fontanelles disappear and skull growth is finished
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-15 The Skull of a Newborn.
Coronalsuture
FRONTALBONE
PARIETALBONE
Sphenoidalfontanelle
Squamous suture
Lambdoid suture
OCCIPITAL BONE
NASAL BONE
MAXILLA
SPHENOID
MANDIBLE TEMPORALBONE
Mastoidfontanelle
Lateral viewFRONTAL
BONE
PARIETALBONE
Coronalsuture
Frontal suture Anteriorfontanelle
Sagittal suture
PARIETALBONE
Lambdoidsuture
OCCIPITALBONE
Occipitalfontanelle
FRONTALBONE
Superior view
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The Vertebral Column (6-7)
• Also called the spine
• Has 24 vertebrae
• A fused sacrum
• A fused coccyx
• Provides weight-bearing column of support and
protection of spinal cord
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The Vertebral Column (6-7)
• Cervical region (neck) has 7 cervical vertebrae
• Thoracic region has 12 thoracic vertebrae
• Lumbar region has 5 lumbar vertebrae
• Sacral region has 5 fused vertebrae in the
sacrum
• Coccygeal region also made of 3–5 fused
vertebrae in the coccyx
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Spinal Curvature (6-7)
• Primary curves
• Project posteriorly and include the thoracic and sacral
curves
• Are present at birth
• Secondary curves
• Project anteriorly and include the cervical and lumbar
curves
• Develop several months after birth
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Spinal Curvatures (6-7)
• Abnormal curves
• Kyphosis (exaggerated thoracic curve)
• Lordosis (exaggerated lumbar curve)
• Scoliosis (abnormal lateral curve)
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Figure 6-16 The Vertebral Column.
VERTEBRAL REGIONSSPINAL CURVES
CervicalCervical
ThoracicThoracic
LumbarLumbar
SacralSacral
Coccygeal
C1C2C3C4C5C6C7T1
T2T3T4T5
T6T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
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General Vertebral Anatomy (6-7)
• Vertebral bodies
• Bear weight and are separated from each other by
intervertebral discs
• Vertebral arches
• Form posterior margin of vertebral foramina, which form the
vertebral canal
• Have walls called pedicles and roofs called laminae
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General Vertebral Anatomy (6-7)
• Transverse processes project laterally or
dorsolaterally from the pedicles
• Spinous process projects posteriorly from the laminae
• The inferior and superior articular processes
arise at junction of pedicles and laminae on both
sides of the vertebrae
• Contact one another at the articular facets
• Forming the intervertebral foramina
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The Cervical Vertebrae (6-7)
• C1–C7
• Body relatively small, and is oval and concave in
shape
• Vertebral foramina gradually decrease in diameter,
but are relatively large
• Spinous process is stumpy, with notched tip
• Transverse processes have transverse foramina
• That protect blood vessels to and from the brain
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The Cervical Vertebrae (6-7)
• C1 is the atlas
• Holds up the head
• Articulates with the occipital condyles
• Allows for a specific "nodding yes" movement
• C2 is the axis
• Has a projection up toward the atlas, called the dens, or
odontoid process
• Allows for rotational "shaking the head no" movement
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Figure 6-18 The Atlas and Axis.
Dens(odontoid process)
Transverseligament
The atlas/axis complex
Atlas (C1)
Axis (C2)
Articulateswithoccipital
condyles
Articulateswith atlas
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The Thoracic Vertebrae (6-7)
• T1–T12
• Has heart-shaped body
• Has a long, slender spinous process that points
inferiorly
• Has costal facets that articulate with the ribs
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The Lumbar Vertebrae (7-6)
• L1–L5
• Vertebral body is significantly larger, thicker, and
more oval
• Has a massive, stumpy spinous process
• Has a bladelike transverse process
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Figure 6-17 Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinous process
LaminaSuperior articularprocess
Superior articularfacet
Transverse foramen
Vertebralforamen
Vertebralarch
Pedicle
Transverseprocess Vertebral
body
Cervical vertebra, superior view
Spinousprocess
Transverseprocess
Transverse costal facetfor inferior rib
Lamina
Superior articular
facetVertebralforamen
Pedicle
Vertebralbody
Superior costal facetfor superior rib
Thoracic vertebra, superior view
Spinous process Superior articular facet
LaminaSuperior articularprocess
Transverseprocess
Transverse process
Pedicle
Vertebralforamen
Vertebralbody
Lumbar vertebra, superior view
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Figure 6-17a Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinousprocess
Lamina
Superiorarticularprocess
Superiorarticularfacet
Transverseforamen
Vertebralforamen
Vertebralarch
Pedicle
Transverseprocess Vertebral
body
Cervical vertebra, superior view
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Figure 6-17b Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinousprocess
Transverseprocess
Transversecostal facetfor inferior rib
Lamina
Superiorarticular
facet Vertebralforamen
Pedicle
Vertebralbody
Superiorcostal facetfor superior rib
Thoracic vertebra, superior view
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Figure 6-17c Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinous process Superior articular facet
LaminaSuperiorarticularprocessTransverse
process Transverseprocess
Pedicle
Vertebralforamen
Vertebralbody
Lumbar vertebra, superior view
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The Sacrum (6-7)
• Has five fused vertebrae
• Protects organs in pelvic cavity
• Has lateral articulations with pelvic girdle
• Narrow caudal area is the apex; superior surface is the
base
• Which has the sacral promontory
• Sacral canal runs down posterior surface
• Sacral foramina on either side of median sacral crest
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The Coccyx (6-7)
• Three to five fused vertebrae
• Provides attachment for muscles of the anal
opening
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Figure 6-19 The Sacrum and Coccyx.
Entrance tosacral canal
Articularprocess
Sacralpromontory
Mediansacral crest
Sacralforamina
Base
Sacral hiatus
Coccyx
Posterior view Anterior view
Apex
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The Thoracic Cage (6-7)
• Made of thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the sternum
• Forming the walls of the thoracic cavity
• Seven pairs of true ribs, called vertebrosternal ribs
• Connect to sternum with costal cartilages
• Five pairs of false ribs, pairs 8–10, are vertebrochondral ribs
• Last two pairs are floating ribs, or vertebral ribs
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Three Parts of the Sternum (6-7)
• Also called the breastbone
1. The superior broad part is the manubrium; articulates with
the clavicle of the appendicular skeleton
2. The long body
3. The inferior tip, the xiphoid process
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Figure 6-20 The Thoracic Cage.Jugular notch
Clavicular articulation
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoidprocess
Costalcartilages
Vertebrochondralribs
(ribs 8–10)
Floating ribs(ribs 11–12)
Anterior view, showing the ribs,costal cartilages, and the sternum
False ribs(ribs 8–12)
True ribs(ribs 1–7)
T
Sternum
Sternum
Jugular notch
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoidprocess
Costalcartilages
Floatingribs
False ribs(8–12)
True ribs(1–7)
Anterior view of the ribs, sternum, andcostal cartilages, shown diagrammatically
T11
T1212
11
10 6
7
89
5
4
3
2
1
1
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Checkpoint (6-7)
18. The mastoid and styloid processes are found on which skull bone?
19. What bone contains the depression called the sella turcica? What is located in the depression?
20. Which bone of the cranium articulates directly with the vertebral column?
21. During baseball practice, a ball hits Casey in the eye, fracturing bones directly above and below the orbit. Which bones were broken?
22. What are the functions of the paranasal sinuses?
23. Why would a fracture of the coronoid process of the mandible make it difficult to close the mouth?
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Checkpoint (6-7)
24. What signs would you expect to see in a person suffering from a fractured hyoid bone?
25. Joe suffered a hairline fracture at the base of the dens. Which bone is fractured, and where would you find it?
26. In adults, five large vertebrae fuse to form what single structure?
27. Why are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae so large?
28. What are the differences between true ribs and false ribs?
29. Improper administration of CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) could result in a fracture of which bone(s)?
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The Pectoral Girdle (6-8)
• Connects the upper limbs to the trunk
• Includes the clavicle and the scapula
• Clavicle
• S-shaped bone articulates with manubrium at sternal end
and with the acromion process of the scapula
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The Scapula (6-8)
• A broad triangular bone with superior, medial,
and lateral borders
• The three tips are the superior, inferior, and lateral
angles
• Lateral angle, or head of the scapula, has the glenoid cavity
• Which articulates with the humerus to form the shoulder
joint
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The Scapula (6-8)
• Subscapular fossa• A depression in the anterior surface where the subscapularis
muscle is attached
• Coracoid process • The smaller process
• Posterior and larger is the acromion process • Which articulates with the distal end of the clavicle
• Scapular spine • Divides the scapula into the supraspinous fossa and the
infraspinous fossa
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Figure 6-21 The Clavicle.
LATERAL
Acromial end
Facet forarticulationwith acromion
Sternalend
MEDIAL
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Figure 6-22 The Scapula.
Acromion
Coracoidprocess
Superiorborder
Subscapularfossa
Lateral border
Body Scapularspine
Medialborder
Lateralborder
Medialborder
Inferiorangle
Glenoidcavity
CoracoidprocessAcromion
Supraspinousfossa
Superiorborder
Coracoidprocess
Acromion
Neck
Scapularspine
Infraspinousfossa
Lateralborder
Posterior viewLateral viewAnterior view
Body
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The Upper Limb (6-8)
• Contains the bones of the arm
• The humerus
• Proximal area of the limb from the scapula to the elbow
• Contains the bones of the forearm
• The radius and ulna
• Contains the bones of the wrist and hand
• The carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges
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The Humerus (6-8)
• Proximally, the round head articulates with the
scapula
• Greater tubercle is a rounded projection on
lateral surface of head
• Lesser tubercle lies anteriorly
• Is separated from the greater tubercle by the intertubercular
groove
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The Humerus (6-8)
• The proximal shaft is rounded with deltoid
tuberosity along lateral border
• Distally, the medial and lateral epicondyles
project to either side
• Smooth condyle articulates with radius and ulna
• Medial trochlea extends from coronoid fossa to
olecranon fossa
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The Humerus (6-8)
• The capitulum forms the lateral region of the
condyle
• The shallow radial fossa is proximal to the
capitulum
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Figure 6-23 The Right Humerus.
GreatertubercleIntertuberculargroove
Lesser tubercle
Greater tubercle
Head
Anatomicalneck
Surgicalneck
Deltoidtuberosity
Groove forradial nerve
Shaft
LateralepicondyleOlecranon
fossaCoronoid
fossaMedial
epicondyle
Radialfossa
TrochleaCapitulum Trochlea
Condyle
Anterior surface Posterior surface
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The Ulna and Radius (6-8)
• Olecranon process of the ulna is the point of the
elbow
• The trochlear notch articulates with the trochlea
of the humerus
• The coronoid process forms the inferior lip of the
notch
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The Ulna and Radius (6-8)
• The ulnar shaft ends distally in the short styloid
process
• Which sits on the distal end of the radius
• The neck of the radius is between the head and
the radial tuberosity
• Radial head articulates with capitulum of humerus
and radial notch of ulna
• Styloid process of radius articulates with wrist
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Figure 6-24 The Right Radius and Ulna.Olecranon
Trochlear notchCoronoid process
Radial notch
Ulnar tuberosity
Head of radius
Neck ofradiusRadial tuberosity
RADIUS ULNA
Interosseousmembrane
ULNA
Lateral view of ulna,showing trochlearnotch
Distal radio-ulnar joint
Ulnar headStyloid processof ulna
Styloid processof radius
Anterior view
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The Bones of the Wrists and Hands (6-8)
• Carpal bones
• The proximal row includes:
• The scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform bones
• The distal row includes:
• The trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate bones
• Five metacarpal bones
• Form the palm of the hand and articulate with the phalanges
• The pollex is the thumb
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-25 Bones of the Right Wrist and Hand.
ULNA
Styloidprocess
of ulna
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Hamate
Metacarpalbones
RADIUS
Styloidprocessof radius
Scaphoid
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Proximal
Middle
Distal
Phalanges
I
IIIIIIVV
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The Pelvic Girdle (6-8)
• Articulates with the thigh bones
• More massive than the pectoral girdle
• Firmly attached to the axial skeleton
• Consists of two large hip bones or coxal bones
• Each a fusion of three bones
• The ilium, the ischium, and the pubis
• Hips articulate with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints, with
the femur at the acetabulum
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The Hip Bone (6-8)
• The ilium is superior and the largest component
• Superior margin forms the iliac crest
• The ischium has a rough projection
• Called the ischial tuberosity or seat bone
• The ischium branches over to the pubis
• Creating the circle of the obturator foramen
• Pubic bones articulate at the pubic symphysis
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The Pelvis (6-8)
• Consists of the hip bones, the sacrum, and the
coccyx
• Stabilized by a network of ligaments
• Differences in the characteristics of the male
versus female pelvis
• In females, the pelvis is better suited for pregnancy and
delivery
• Females have a broader lower pelvis, a larger pelvic outlet,
and a broader pubic angle
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-26 The Pelvis.
L
SacrumIlium
Hipbone
IschiumPubis
Coccyx
Sacroiliacjoint
5
Iliac crest
Pelvis, anterior view Acetabulum
Pubictubercle
Obturatorforamen
SACRUMILIUM
PUBIS
Pubicsymphysis
ISCHIUM
Adult male pelvis, anterior view
Ilium
Hipbone
Pubis
Ischium
Ischial tuberosity
Right hip bone of the pelvis, lateral view
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Figure 6-27 Differences in the Anatomy of the Pelvis in Males and Females.
Pelvic outlet,relatively narrow
or lessMale
or more
Pelvic outlet,relatively broad
Female
90˚ 100˚
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The Lower Limb (6-8)
• Contains the bones of the thigh
• The femur is the longest bone in the body
• Contains the patella or kneecap
• Contains the bones of the leg
• The tibia and fibula
• Contains the bones of the ankle and foot
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The Femur and Patella (6-8)
• Greater and lesser trochanters
• Extend laterally from neck and shaft
• Linea aspera
• Attachment for adductor muscles
• Large epicondyles on distal end
• Inferior surfaces form lateral and medial condyles
• The patella is the kneecap, sliding over the
anterior surface of the knee joint
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Figure 6-28 The Right Femur.Articularsurfaceof head
Greatertrochanter
Greatertrochanter Neck
Lessertrochanter
Lineaaspera
Patellarsurface
Lateralepicondyle
Medialepicondyle
Lateralepicondyle
Lateralcondyle
Medialcondyle
Lateralcondyle
Anterior surface Posterior surface
Shaft offemur
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The Tibia (6-8)
• Larger, medial shin bone with own lateral and
medial condyles
• That articulate with condyles of femur
• Anterior margin
• Extends down the anterior tibial surface
• Medial malleolus
• A large distal process that articulates with the ankle
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The Fibula (6-8)
• Runs parallel and lateral to tibia
• Articulates with tibia inferior to the lateral tibial
condyle
• Does not articulate with the ankle
• Lateral malleolus is distal end of fibula
• Interosseus membrane connects tibia and fibula
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Figure 6-29 The Right Tibia and Fibula.
Lateral tibial condyle
Head of fibulaMedial tibialcondyle
Tibial tuberosity
Interosseous membrane
Anterior margin
TIBIA
FIBULA
Lateral malleolus(fibula)
Medial malleolus (tibia)
Inferior articular surface
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The Bones of the Ankle and Foot (6-8)
• Seven ankle or tarsal bones include:
• The talus, calcaneus, navicular, and cuboid, and the medial,
intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms
• Only the talus articulates with the tibia and fibula
• The largest is the calcaneus, or heel bone
• The metatarsals and phalanges are in the same
pattern as in the hand
• Big toe is hallux
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Figure 6-30a The Bones of the Ankle and Foot.
Calcaneus
Trochleaof talus
Cuboid
Talus
Navicular
Cuneiform bonesLateralIntermediateMedial
Metatarsal bones
HalluxProximalphalanx
Distal phalanx
Phalanges
Proximal
Middle
Distal
Superior view, right foot
IVV
III II I
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Figure 6-30b The Bones of the Ankle and Foot.
Medialcuneiform
bone
Navicular Talus
MetatarsalbonesPhalanges
Medial view, right foot
Calcaneus
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Checkpoint (6-8)
30. In what way would a broken clavicle affect the mobility of the scapula?
31. The rounded projections on either side of the elbow are parts of which bone?
32. Which of the two bones of the forearm is lateral in the anatomical position?
33. Which three bones make up a hip bone?
34. The fibula neither participates in the knee joint nor bears weight. When it is fractured, however, walking becomes difficult. Why?
35. While jumping off the back steps of his house, 10-year-old Cesar lands on his right heel and breaks his foot. Which bone is most likely broken?
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Categories of Joints (6-9)
• Classified by structure
• Based on anatomy of joints
• Includes fibrous, cartilaginous (both with limited
movement), and synovial (freely movable)
• Classified by function
• Based on range of motion
• Includes synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly
movable), and diarthrosis (freely movable)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 6-2 A Functional and Structural Classifi cation of Articulations
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Immovable Joints or Synarthroses (6-9)
• Can be fibrous or cartilaginous
• Sutures of the skull connected with dense
connective tissue
• Gomphosis
• A ligament binding each tooth in the socket
• Synchondrosis
• A rigid cartilaginous connection
• For example, between the first pair of ribs and the sternum
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Freely Movable Joints or Diarthroses (6-9)
• Synovial joints with a wide range of motion
• Usually found at the ends of long bones
• Ends of bones covered with articular cartilages
• Surrounded with a fibrous joint capsule
• Inner surfaces are lined with the synovial membrane
• Synovial fluid in the joint reduces friction
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Freely Movable Joints or Diarthroses (6-9)
• Some synovial joints have additional padding
• In the form of menisci
• For example, in the knee
• Fat pads can also act as cushions
• Ligaments join bone to bone
• May be found inside and/or outside the joint capsule
• Bursae are packets of connective tissue containing synovial fluid
• They reduce friction and absorb shock
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Figure 6-31 The Structure of Synovial Joints.
Marrow cavity
Spongy bone
Periosteum
Fibrous joint capsule
Synovial membraneArticular cartilages
Joint cavity(containingsynovial fluid)
Compact bone
Bursa
Joint capsuleSynovial
membrane
Meniscus
Intracapsularligament
Patella
Quadriceps tendon
Articular cartilage
Fat padPatellar ligamentJoint cavity
Meniscus
Femur
Tibia
Synovial joint, sagittal section Knee joint, sagittal section
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-9)
36. Name and describe the three types of joints as
classified by the amount of movement possible.
37. In a newborn, the large bones of the skull are
joined by fibrous connective tissue. Which type
of joint are these? These skull bones later grow,
interlock, and form immovable joints. Which type
of joint are these?
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Types of Synovial Joint Movement (6-10)
• Gliding
• When two opposing surfaces slide past each other
• For example, the carpal bones
• Angular movement includes:
• Flexion which decreases the angle of two long bones
• Extension increases the angle
• Hip and shoulder flex by moving anteriorly
• Extend by moving posteriorly
• Hyperextension is extension beyond anatomical position
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Angular Movement (6-10)
• Abduction
• Moves a limb away from the midline
• For example, separating the fingers
• Adduction
• Moves a limb toward the midline
• For example, bringing the fingers together
• Circumduction
• Moves the limbs in a loop
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-32 Angular Movements.
Extension
Flexion Hyperextension
Flexion
Extension
Flexion
Hyperextension
Extension
Hyper-extension
Flexion
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Extension
Abduction
Adduction
Adduction
Adduction Abduction
Flexion/extension Abduction/adduction
Adduction/abduction Circumduction
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Figure 6-32a Angular Movements.
Extension
Flexion Hyperextension
Flexion
Extension
Flexion
Hyperextension
Extension
Hyper-extension
Flexion
ExtensionFlexion/extension
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-32b Angular Movements.
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Abduction
Adduction
Adduction
Abduction/adduction
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Figure 6-32c Angular Movements.
Adduction Abduction
Adduction/abduction
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Figure 6-32d Angular Movements.
Circumduction
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Rotational Joint Movements (6-10)
• Involves turning around the longitudinal axis of the
body or limb
• For example, turning the head
• Rotation of the distal end of the radius across the
ulna is a form of rotation
• Pronation
• The palm is facing the front and is then rotated to the back
• Supination
• Is the opposite, turning the palm forward
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Figure 6-33 Rotational Movements.
Pronation
Supination Pronation
Supination
Medial(internal)rotation
Lateral(external)rotation
Rightrotation
Leftrotation
Head rotation
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Special Joint Movements (6-10)
• Inversion twists the sole of the foot inward
• Eversion twists it outward
• Dorsiflexion elevates the sole at the ankle,
putting the heel down
• Plantar flexion is to point the toes
• Opposition is moving the thumb toward the palm
to grasp
• Reposition returns it from opposition
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Special Joint Movements (6-10)
• Elevation and depression
• Occurs when a structure moves superiorly and inferiorly
• For example, closing and opening your mandible
• Lateral flexion
• Is a bending of the vertebral column to the side
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-34 Special Movements.
Eversion Inversion Opposition
Retraction Protraction Depression Elevation Lateral flexion
Dorsiflexion(flexion at ankle)
Plantarflexion
(extension at ankle)
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Types of Synovial Joints (6-10)
• Gliding joints
• Have flat or slightly curved faces
• Movement is slight
• Hinge joints
• Permit angular movement in one plane
• Like opening and closing a door
• Pivot joints
• Permit rotation only
• Like turning the head or supinating and pronating the palm
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Synovial Joints (6-10)
• Condylar joints
• Occur where an oval surface nests with a depression on the
other bone
• Allowing for angular motion in two planes, along or across
the length of the oval
• Saddle joints
• Have two bones that each have a concave face on one axis
and convex on the other
• Allowing for circumduction, but not rotation
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Synovial Joints (6-10)
• Ball-and-socket joints
• Occur where the end of one bone is a round head that nests
within the cup-shaped depression in the other bone
• Allow for a wide range of motion
• For example, the hip and shoulder joints
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-35 Synovial Joints
Movement: multidirectional in a single plane
Movement: angular in a single plane
Movement: rotational in a single plane
Movement: angular in two planes
Movement: angular in two planes, and circumduction
Movement: angular, rotational, and circumduction
Gliding joint
Hinge joint
Pivot joint
Condylar joint
Saddle joint
Ball-and-socket joint
Manubrium
Clavicle
Humerus
Ulna
Atlas
Axis
Scaphoidbone
UlnaRadius
Metacarpalbone of thumb
Scapula
Humerus
SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 6-35Synovial Joints
Trapezium
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-10)
38. Give the proper term for each of the following
types of motion:
(a) moving the humerus away from the longitudinal axis of
the body,
(b) turning the palms so that they face forward, and
(c) bending the elbow.
39. Which movements are associated with hinge
joints?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Intervertebral Articulations (6-11)
• From the axis to the sacrum
• Include gliding joints between the superior and
inferior articular processes
• And symphyseal joints between the vertebral bodies
• Separated and padded by intervertebral discs
• Made of a tough outer fibrocartilage surrounding a gelatinous
core
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-36 Intervertebral Articulations.Intervertebral
foramen
Superiorarticular
facet
Posteriorligaments
Superiorarticularprocess
Inferiorarticularprocess
IntervertebralDisc
Inner gelantinouslayer
Outerfibrocartilage layer
Spinal cord
Spinal nerve
Anteriorlongitudinalligament
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Shoulder Joint (6-11)
• Most range of motion of any joint
• Therefore, more likely to dislocate
• Ball-and-socket structure with many bursae
• Muscles that surround and move the shoulder joint
form the rotator cuff
PLAYPLAY ANIMATION Humerus Circumduction
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-37 The Shoulder Joint.
Ligaments interconnectingclavicle and scapula
Tendon ofsupraspinatus
muscle
Acromion
Jointcapsule
Subdeltoidbursa
Synovialmembrane
Humerus
Jointcapsule
Jointcavity
Articularcartilages
CoracoidprocessScapula
Clavicle
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Elbow Joint (6-11)
• Hinge joint is found between the humerus and
ulna
• A weak joint is between the humerus and radius
• Very stable due to interlocking of humerus and
ulna
• Very thick joint capsule and very strong ligaments
PLAYPLAY ANIMATION Elbow Flexion/Extension
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-38 The Elbow Joint.
Coronoid fossa
Joint capsule
Coronoidprocess
Synovial membrane
Tendon ofbiceps brachii
Ulna Radius Articular cartilage
Bursa
Olecranon
Trochlea
Tricepstendon
Joint capsule
Olecranon fossa
Humerus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Hip Joint (6-11)
• Ball-and-socket joint between the head of the
femur and the acetabulum of the coxal bone
• Is very dense and strong
• Due to extensive joint capsule, supporting ligaments, and
strong surrounding muscles
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-39 The Hip Joint.
Greatertrochanter
Reinforcingligaments
Jointcapsule
The hip joint is extremely strong and stable, in part because of the massive joint capsule and surrounding ligaments.
Acetabulum
Articular cartilage
Synovial membrane
Joint capsule
Fat pad
Ligament of thefemoral head
Joint capsuleFemur
This sectional view of the right hip shows the structure of the joint and the position of the ligament of the fermoral head.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Knee Joint (6-11)
• Complex joint between distal femoral and proximal tibial condyles• And between the patella and femur
• Has multiple joint capsules • And condyles are cushioned by the medial and lateral
menisci
• Multiple ligaments from different angles support the knee • Patella is within quadriceps tendon
• Patellar ligament links to tibial anterior surface
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-40 The Knee Joint.
Quadricepstendon
Patella
Fibularcollateralligament
Patellarligament
Tibia
Jointcapsule
Tibialcollateralligament
Anterior view of the right knee joint, superficial layer
Patellarsurface Posterior
cruciateligamentFibular
collateralligament
Lateralmeniscus
Cuttendon
Fibula
Medial condyle
Tibial collateralligament
Medial meniscus
Anterior cruciateligament
Lateralcondyle
Tibia
Deep anterior view of the right knee when flexed
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-11)
40. Would a tennis player or a jogger be more likely to
develop inflammation of the subdeltoid bursa? Why?
41. Daphne falls on her hands with her elbows slightly
flexed. After the fall, she can't move her left arm at the
elbow. If a fracture exists, which bone is most likely
broken?
42. Why is a complete dislocation of the knee joint an
infrequent event?
43. What signs would you expect to see in an individual who
has damaged the menisci of the knee joint?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Skeletal Support of Other Body Systems (6-12)
• Balance between bone formation and recycling
creates dynamic interactions with other systems
• For example, bones:
• Provide attachments for muscles
• Interact with cardiovascular and lymphatic systems
• Are under the control of the endocrine system
• Digestive and urinary systems play a role in calcium and
phosphate balance
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6-41
The skeletal systemprovides structuralsupport and protection forthe body. The skeletonalso stores calcium,phosphate, and otherminerals necessary formany functions in otherorgan systems. Inaddition, the lipids in theyellow marrow serve asan energy reserve andblood cell productionoccurs in the red marrow.
Synthesizes vitamin D3, essential for calcium and phosphorus absorption (bone maintenance and growth)
Provides structural support
Body SystemSkeletal SystemSYSTEM INTEGRATOR
Skeletal SystemBody System
Inte
gu
m-
enta
ry
The SKELETAL System
Inte
gu
men
tary
(Pag
e 13
8)M
usc
ula
r(P
age
241)
Ner
vou
s(P
age
302)
En
do
crin
e
(Pag
e 37
6)C
ard
iova
scu
lar
(Pag
e 46
7)L
ymp
hat
ic(P
age
500)
Res
pir
ato
ry(P
age
532)
Dig
esti
ve(P
age
572)
Uri
nar
y(P
age
637)
Rep
rod
uct
ive
(Pag
e 67
1)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Checkpoint (6-12)
44. Describe the functional relationship between the
skeletal system and the integumentary system.