1560 the Ecology of School

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A D V A N C E S I N L E A R N I N G E N V I R O N M E N T S R E S E A R C H

The Ecology of

School

David Zandvliet (Ed.)


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The Ecology of School


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ADVANCES IN LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH

Volume 4

Series Editors

Barry J. Fraser Jeffrey P. Dorman

Curtin University of Technology Australian Catholic University

Editorial Board

Perry den Brok,Eindoven University of Technology, the Netherlands

Shwu-yong Huang,National Taiwan University, Taiwan

Bruce Johnson, University of Arizona, USA

Celia Johnson,Bradley University, USARosalyn AnstineTempleton, Marshall University, USA

Bruce Waldrip, University of Southern Queensland,Australia

Scope

The historical beginnings of the field of learning environments go back approximately

40 years. A milestone in the development of this field was the establishment in

1984 of the American Educational Research Association (AERA) Special Interest

Group (SIG) on Learning Environments, which continues to thrive today as one of

AERAs most international and successful SIGs. A second milestone in the learning

environments field was the birth in 1998 ofLearning Environments Research: An

International Journal (LER), which fills an important and unique niche.

The next logical step in the evolution of the field of learning environments is

the initiation of this book series,Advances in Learning Environments Research, to

complement the work of the AERA SIG and LER. This book series provides a forum

for the publication of book-length manuscripts that enable topics to be covered at a

depth and breadth not permitted within the scope of either a conference paper or a

journal article.

TheAdvances in Learning Environments Research series is intended to be broad,

covering either authored books or edited volumes, and either original research reportsor reviews of bodies of past research. A diversity of theoretical frameworks and

research methods, including use of multimethods, is encouraged. In addition to school

and university learning environments, the scope of this book series encompasses

lifelong learning environments, information technology learning environments, and

various out-of-school informal learning environments (museums, environmental

centres, etc.)


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The Ecology of School

Edited by

David Zandvliet

Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada


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A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-94-6209-219-8 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-94-6209-220-4 (hardback)

ISBN: 978-94-6209-221-1 (e-book)

Published by: Sense Publishers,

P.O. Box 21858,

3001 AW Rotterdam,

The Netherlands

https://www.sensepublishers.com/

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved 2013 Sense Publishers

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the

exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and

executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface vii

1. Environmental Learning 1

David B. Zandvliet

2. Place-based Education in Practice 19

Carlos G.A. Ormond

3. Development of the Learning Environment 29

Carlos G.A. Ormond, Susan Teed, Laura Piersol &David B. Zandvliet

4. How Many Colours of Green? An Unfolding of Place-based

Curriculum in an Island Community 43

Susan Teed

5. Local Wonders 63

Laura Piersol

6. The Moral Purpose of Schooling: An Administrators Perspective 73

Scott Slater

7. Built Environments: Green Spaces as a Silent Teacher 85

Indira Dutt

8. Developing Smiles: Evaluating Place-based Learning 105

David B. Zandvliet

Epilogue 121

Marlene Nelson

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PREFACE

The theme for this edited volume: The Ecology of School,highlights the efforts of

a group of educators and academics enquiring into the practices of environmental

learning as it has been enacted in the school curriculum. In particular, it describes a a

case study of the place-based implementation of this curriculum from the perspective

of the unique island community of Bowen Island. Environmental Learning and

Experience, a framework published by the British Columbia Ministry of Education

(2007) aims to assist British Columbia teachers of all subjects and grades to integrate

environmental concepts into teaching and learning. An important part of the

development work for this framework involved a dedicated team of environmentaleducators working at the Bowen Island Community School.

This framework: designed to guide teachers in their educational planning,

supports the implementation of provincially-mandated curriculum for environmental

learning in diverse subjects including science, social studies, and language arts. The

development and implementation of the framework also guided a community of

Bowen Island teachers in their interdisciplinary practice: using environment as an

organizing theme for teaching and learning. Environmental Learning, then, is the

conceptual backbone for the developments and reflections shared in this book. In

this sense, our work references various perspectives that learners and educators takeon their interaction with the natural, social and built environments of Bowen Island.

Our collaborative work also describes and extends visionary Rudolf Moos original

conception of a learning environment to include a consideration of psychosocial,

physical and organizational factors as they all may contribute to learning. For many,

this book may serve as an introduction to the study of learning environments. Studies

conducted by educators on classroom learning environments (otherwise known

as classroom climate or classroom ecology) have built on earlier work related to

organizational climate and its application to educational settings. Research on

learning environments can be described as both descriptive of classroom contexts andpredictive of student learning. Today, the study of learning environments has a valuable

role to play: in pre-service teacher training; professional development, evaluation of

new curricula or innovation and generally as an important field of inquiry in its own

right: the description of a valuable psychological and social component of educational

experience. This book describes this conception from various perspectives: a synthesis

of research that examines innovations in environmental learning and employs a

learning environments approach to its development and evaluation. What follows is a

brief road map for the reader as they navigate through the ecology of school:

Chapter one outlines a conception for Environmental Learning summarizing the

concepts imbedded in its conceptual framework and defining it as a pedagogy that is

centered on interdisciplinary and experiential forms of learning.

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viii

PREFACE

Chapter two further contextualizes this discussion within the practices of Place-

based Education and then describes why this particular conception of curriculum

and instruction is important for a place like Bowen Island.

Chapter three describes the schools investigation into how ecological literacy

became a core educational standard at the Bowen school describing place-based

programs, events, and activities that contributed to its unique learning environment.

Chapter four captures the stories of three teachers who stood out as leaders in our

project and, through their innovation, passion, and commitment, provided valuable

insight into the power of place-based education on Bowen Island.

Chapter five borrows from a philosophical tradition: prescribing a master plan of

how place based educationshouldfunction. The author focuses on Bowen Island as

one place filled with many stories of how it canfunction.

Chapter six describes the perspectives of three principals of the Bowen Island

Community School. The author examines their beliefs on the moral purposes of

schooling and their role in sustaining the learning environment at the school.

Chapter seven explores howschool design mediates students relationships with the

natural world, with a view to understand from students perspectives how school

architecture influences their ideas about the natural world and their learning.

Chapter eight relates the development of action research with teachers using a

specifically adapted survey that aided teachers in gauging and improving the learning

environment in their classrooms and throughout the school.

The efforts of educators, graduate students and pre-service teachers working on

Bowen Island also involved a critical analysis of various educational frameworks

and resources. Focus groups with Bowen teachers helped to inform a collaborativeprocess that involved educators, community members and academics. The resulting

volume of research offers both a conceptual view for introducing environmental

learning in all settings, while also providing principles of teaching and learning that

work to guide teachers in designing integrated activities for a variety of learning

contexts. The research also recounts the development and inception of a variety of

unique learning environments and richly describes the dynamic interactions between

people, places and curriculum. This book outlines this set of rich interactions, which

we collectively describe as: the Ecology of School.


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D. Zandvliet (Ed.), The Ecology of School, 118.

2013 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

DAVID B. ZANDVLIET

1. ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

Why do we learn about environmental issues? In part, because there continues

to be a concern about the state of the environment broadly defined yet we are

often confused by the complexities of the various economic, ethical, political, and

social issues related to this concept. Daily, there are references in the news media

to environmental issues, such as global climate change, ozone depletion, dwindling

resources, famine, disease, loss of biodiversity, pollution, and continuing job losses

in many communities (see Markey, Halseth & Manson, 2009). This is also true in

communities like Bowen Island with its proximity to a large and growing urban

centre (Vancouver) and its inherent development and conservation pressures.

The environmental issues we all face, both as individuals and within the broader

society, are so pervasive and ingrained within our cultural ways of being that we

can no longer look to technology alone to solve these problems (Bowers, 1998).

As a consequence, environmental learning should include a sustained critiqueon dominant societal and industrial practices that contribute to widespread and

localized environmental problems (Sammel & Zandvliet, 2003). We must also turn

to ourselves as individuals and as educators to make changes and develop a new

ethic: a responsible attitude toward caring for the Earth (Jickling, 2004).

In addition to these thoughts, there have also been many developments in the

practical field of environmental education (see Sauve, 2005). These developments

have been informed by International agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol (UN,

1997), Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002), and the

proclamation of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2003).This has also been accompanied by research on how people learn and on what

constitutes quality in educational experience (Hart, Jickling & Kool, 1999). As a

core value, all forms of environmental learning should attempt to integrate concepts

into students everyday lives and across a broad spectrum of curriculum.

Nevertheless in many jurisdictions, environmental topics still receive only

a cursory attention in mainstream curriculum (Smith & Williams, 1998). For

environmental learning to have any lasting effect, its concepts and approaches

need to take a central position in schools. Hutchison (1998) describes three general

approaches to conducting environmental learning: first, a supplemental approachin that teachers are provided with curricular materials they may use in addition to

regular teaching, second, an infusionist approach in which environmental themes


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are integrated into curricular topics (usually in Science or Social Studies programs),

and third, an intensive experienceapproach in which students participate in short,

outdoor immersive trips and experiences. In the supplementalapproach, curricularmaterials are self-contained and require limited knowledge or preparation on the part

of the teacher. In the infusionist approach, the environment becomes the organizer

for an interdisciplinary curriculum, the premise that potentially all education is

environmental education (Orr, 1994). In this work on Bowen Island, the environment

is used as an organizing theme in the infusionistsense. This stems from the belief that

sustainability education is not subject matter to be treated separately in curriculum

but is interconnected with everything we do as humans (BC Ministry of Education,

2007).

It is hoped that in adopting an interdisciplinary approach to teaching about theenvironment, we will support students in understanding how their actions impact

the environment at both local and global levels. Working to integrate environmental

learning within all subject areas promotes this change in attitude by providing

students with opportunities to experience and investigate the relationships linking

individuals, societies, and natural surroundings. Education about, in and for the

environment can provide students with opportunities to learn about the functioning

of natural systems, to identify their beliefs and opinions, consider a range of views,

and ultimately to make informed and responsible choices for themselves, their

families and communities.

EDUCATION, ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY

Developments among the broad fields of sustainability, environment and their

relationship to educational reform have continued apace and these have impacted

efforts at international, national and local levels. Our curriculum review effort also

involved referencing and cross-referencing frameworks used in North America

(NAAEE, 2004) and internationally (New Zealand Ministry of Education, 1999).

These frameworks provided for critical perspectives on our own curriculum work.

Education for Sustainable Development

Internationally, the term Sustainabilityand the related termEducation for Sustainable

Development (ESD) have become important ideas and catch phrases related to

human integration and interaction with the environment. Though the terms are also

contested in some academic circles (IUCN, UNEP & WWF, 1991; Sitarz, 1993; UN,

2009; WCED, 1987), the idea of making sustainable choices is an important one

and should force us to look at issues like the scale of present day economic activity

within a connected and increasingly global environment.The proclamation of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable

Development 20052014 (UNESCO, 2003) stated unequivocally that there should

be no universal model of education for sustainable development (ESD) but instead,


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ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING

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there should be nuanced differences according to local contexts, priorities and

approaches in how sustainability will be taken up. It further stated that the values

that education for sustainable development of any kind must promote or include thefollowing principles:

respect for human rights and a commitment to social and economic justice;

respect for the rights of future generations and for inter-generational responsibility;

respect and care for the greater community of life in all its diversity; and

respect for cultural diversity and a commitment to tolerance, non- violence and

peace.

As such, the UN (2003) proclamation purported to represent a new vision of

education, a vision that emphasized a holistic, interdisciplinary approach todeveloping the knowledge and skills needed for a sustainable future, as well as the

necessary changes in human values, behaviour, and lifestyles. In our earlier work in

BC, the idea of ESD was seen to explore relationships between social, economic and

environmental factors targeted on the well-being of the human species. Ultimately,

thinking about sustainability forces us to examine the ability of the environment to

continue to provide for all species, both today and in the future (British Columbia

Ministry of Education, 1995; 2007).

Environmental Learning

Education in the Canadian context remains a provincial jurisdiction however, in

2002 the Canadian federal government developed a broad vision for environmental

learning in Canada through the development of the document: A Framework for

Environmental Learning and a Sustainable Future in Canada (Government of

Canada, 2002). This vision stated that Canadians of all generations and from all

sectors of society should be given opportunities to engage in environmental learning

within and beyond the classroom walls, where critical questions can be asked and

a sustained and meaningful dialogue can take place. The term environmental

learning a referent for the eventual concept of ESD was retained in the titling ofthis document for complex socio-political reasons, still, the framework maintains

that with increased awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and motivation,

all Canadians can become more ecologically literate and act competently to build a

sustainable future for humans and ecosystems.

This framework also indicates that the vast majority of those consulted in the

Canadian context felt that environmental learning must be inextricably linked to

values and ethical ways of thinking (Government of Canada, 2002). The document

re-states the idea that all learning should have value and that citizens, as they are

engaged in the life of their communities, should be involved in the discussions,debates, and decisions that will shape their futures. This is especially true in small

rural communities such as the Bowen Island context. Educators can, and should, find

ways to present environmental and sustainability concepts that will allow learners to


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draw their own conclusions about important environmental and societal issues that

effect their immediate community.

As I stated earlier, environmental education in BC and in Canada aims to integrateconcepts and principles of the sciences and social sciences, such as ecology,

biogeography, sociology, environmental chemistry, environmental psychology,

politics, and economics under a single interdisciplinary framework. It aims to help

students learn about how they are connected to the natural environment through

their traditional subjects and through direct experience in both natural and human

designed systems like their school buildings. In the ecological view, students may

come to know and understand that all human environments, societies and cultures

are deeply embedded and dependent on natural systems, both for their development

and their continued survival. These ecological notions of environmental learningare also congruent with the developing discourse around place-based education.

Learning in the Context of Place-bound Communities

The notion of a place-based education has been described by Sobel (1993; 1999) and

related ideas have been expanded on by others including critical pedagogy and rural

education (Gruenewald, 2003), community contexts (Hutchinson, 2004), eco-literacy

(Orr, 1992; 1994), ecological identity (Thomashow, 1996); and experiential learning

(Woodhouse & Knapp, 2000). The idea of place-based learning connects theories of

experiential learning, contextual learning, problem-based learning, constructivism,

outdoor education, indigenous education and environmental education. As BC is a

large, diverse province our ideas about environmental learning would have to take

seriously the notion of communities and their importance for both the consultative

process, and for deep knowledge about local ecologies, teaching and learning

(Knapp, 2005).

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

For the work on Bowen Island, it is also recognized that teaching can be a messyand organic experience and so, ideas about teaching could be described as both

art and science. Environmental learning considers at once, multiple models for

teaching and learning, as well as teachers own pedagogical content knowledge to

form a unique blend of interdisciplinary knowledge about specific learning contexts

(Palmer, 1999). While guiding principles are helpful, they were only a starting point

in our methodology. In this collaborative effort, we attempted to honour the diverse

voices and methods that inform environmental learning on Bowen Island (and other

B.C. communities), while also tapping into the international and national academic

discourses. The model we decided most appropriate for our research purposes herewas a type of community-based inquiry that has been termed participatory action

research (Carasco, Clair & Kanyike, 2001; Gaventa, 1988; Kemmis & McTaggart,

1994; Selener, 1997).


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Participatory Action Research

Researchers have developed at least five approaches to participatory action research

(or PAR), including: (1) action research in organizations, (2) participatory research

in community development, (3) action research in schools, (4) farmer participatory

research, and (5) participatory evaluation (Selener, 1997). Conceptually, PAR

originates from critical and neo-Marxist perspectives and practices that have been

raised in the social sciences over the past three decades. Traditional scientific

approaches and educational practice can sometimes be seen as maintaining specific

hierarchical roles for researchers/subjects and teachers/students. PAR seeks to

question unequal power relationships inherent in more traditionally-run institutions

(eg education or science) and then, offers an approach to research that recognizes

inequalities in our modern society.

For the research conducted on Bowen Island, the form of knowledge described

here as participatory action research enables a form of inquiry that places research

capabilities into the hands of the subjects of the research, providing these

individuals (in this case, educators) with the research tools with which they can

generate knowledge for themselves. Knowledge created in this way is empowering,

as it can be transformed by the participants into actions that are directly beneficial

for their own community. Participants in this type of inquiry are viewed not only are

co-creators of the knowledge (along with the researcher and others), but have access

to and co-own the knowledge base generated by their research.Another vital element of this type of research approach lies in its attempt to remove

the distinction between researcher and subject, with scientists and community

members walking up the research path together, encouraging all participants to

share in the process of decision making and rewards of research (Gaventa, 1988).

However, the idea of PAR as a research paradigm has been contested with issues

such as: Is the inquiry defensible as research?; How crucial is participation and how

is it expressed?; Is the research about social improvement, or is it only about research

efficiency with basic values unquestioned?; finally, what are the appropriate roles

for researchers, research, and other social agents in the enhancement of the humancondition? (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1994). On Bowen Island, we attempted to

address these issues by including a broad range of stakeholders into our community

of inquiry with government bureaucrats, pre-service and inservice teachers, school

administrators community members and university academics working alongside

each other to develop the ideas described in this work.

Consultative Methods

The focus and working groups conducted as part of this research occurred onBowen Island (and in a variety of communities around BC), and included broad

representation from various stakeholder groups including the Ministry of Education,

schools, informal education organizations, university students and academics.


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The structure of these meetings were congruent with the PAR approach in that

they were co-lead and co-organized by community members and participants

with researchers acting as resources (alongside senior teachers, administrators andbureaucrats) for the working part of the meetings. Follow-up work and submissions

were also encouraged with further input and feedback solicited by email and

other forms of communication. These forms of submission continued for a further

10 months after each consultation as island teachers and community members

continued on work started in the face-to face consultations.

Working Meetings and Focus Groups

For each working meeting (or consultation), participants were provided with theoriginal government document:Environmental Concepts in the Classroom (British

Columbia Ministry of Education, 1995) as well as a variety of readings and

frameworks published in other jurisdictions. Participants were then organized into

small working groups each tasked with re-visioning or repurposing certain aspects

of the original document (acting as quasi-editors for example), while after each

working session these groups reported back on their work to the whole community

to have their ideas further scrutinized or enhanced. University researchers and

graduate students acted as resource persons and record keepers throughout what

turned out to be a very engaging communitybased process of data collection. As a

further enhancement to the process, community members made further presentations

to the community about their localized practices in environmental learning and were

also encouraged to comment on how our joint project should be communicated to

the wider teacher audience and as to what format the final work should take. These

communications continued for 6 months after the original face-to-face consultation

with educators on Bowen Island.

Political Context

As an important corollary to this process: our curriculum re-visioning process was notfunded or lead by the Ministry of Education but instead was a grassroots effort lead

by provincial educator and teacher groups in partnership with local university and

teacher-training institutions. As such the joint knowledge-creation process generated

in this project had aspects of a research development initiative and a curriculum

re-visioning process. This unique political aspect of our meetings probably

contributed greatly to the success of our participatory action research approach and

results.

RESULTS OF THE CONSULTATION

The consultative process described in the previous section had the outcome of

producing a revised framework for environmental learning that has been adopted


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by the BC Ministry of Education and has been guiding curriculum and resource

development in the interim period. In short, the revisions to the original framework

re-energized practices around environmental learning in the province and these ideashave are accessible to all teachers through a Ministry of Education website (www.

bced.gov.bc.ca/greenschools). This section gives a brief overview of the results of

our knowledge re-visioning process.

Environmental Learning on Bowen Island

In the framework, the following principles came together to integrate environmental

learning by attempting to connect diverse subject areas for students from kindergarten

to post-secondary levels. These principles were intended to assist all teachers bothin the design of instructional strategies, and in the critical use of learning resources.

At the Bowen Island Community School (BICS), facilitating environmental topics

in the learning of all subjects, rather than isolating it, models for students how

the environment is connected to their daily lives and relationships within their

communities.

As a direct result of our consultative efforts, the principles of environmental

learning (in the broader provincial framework) were re-organized into two

related areas: first, a more richly described principle of: experiential teaching and

learningthrough direct experience, critical reflection and negotiation; and second,

a restatement, description and summary of four organizing principles for learning

environmental concepts. This organization demonstrates the interdisciplinary nature

of environmental learning, while also showing a progression for the development of

ideas that can lead students towards a deeper engagement with environmental topics.

Teaching and Learning Principles

Educators from Bowen Island and across the province acknowledged that direct

experience with a concept or problem, followed by opportunities for observation,

reflection and negotiation leading to further inquiry, presents the richest form oflearning. Direct experience or experiential learning in the environment (see for

example Kolb, 1984; Luckman, 1996) individually, or in a group experience,

is an important and vital way to learn. These opportunities help provide students

with a deeper understanding of natural systems and the impact humans have on

those systems. Direct experience also allows students to challenge other cultural

perspectives regarding environmental problems and examine them critically.

A broad range of communities also acknowledged that for direct experience

to be relevant to students, the development of critical and reflective capacities is

important. When students are given adequate time to reflect on their learning, theyevaluate their own experiences against the experiences of others. Central in this

process is allowing students to negotiate among multiple perspectives or ideas about

environmental problems. Negotiation involves actively seeking out differences in


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opinions and looking for common ideas or themes around specific issues. A view

of teaching and learning that incorporates the direct experience, critical reflection

and negotiation as a foundation for learning processes is summarized in a modeldescribed as the experiential learning cycle.

Critical

reflectionNegotiation

Direct experience

Conceptualization

Figure 1. The experiential learning cycle.

The model is further supported by experiential and social-constructivist views about

teaching. Methodology typical to a learning cycle approach includes: choosing a

concept and appropriate experience to be taught, and having students explain their

experience and evaluate their ideas against others conclusions, as well as with their

direct experiences. In this model, environmental knowledge is not to be viewed

as stable, and often can be conditional as our developing knowledge grows from

exposure and experience. In the learning cycle model, teachers emphasize thinking,

understanding and self-managed learning for their students include accommodation

and assimilation (Shapiro, 1994).

Principles of Conceptualizing Environment

Another important outcome of the consultation was that a restatement, description

and summary of organizing principles for conceptualizing environmental learning.

These organizing principles essentially give teachers a number of conceptual lenses

with which to critically view their existing curriculum. Through a consideration

of these principles, teachers, first understand that experiential programs must

examine the complexity of natural systems and that human interaction with these

systems and that their effect on these systems must also be considered. Consulted

teachers also understood that holistic forms of environmental learning also help

students to develop a sense of respect and appreciation for the natural world and thatan aesthetic appreciation, along with a scientific understanding of nature, encourages

students to learn and act to protect and sustain the environment. Consultation also

developed the idea that: as educators, we need to facilitate students understandings


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of what constitutes responsible action toward the environment and help students

to act responsibly it in their personal lives. Finally, participants understood that

these actions can be influenced by belief systems and personal limitations (bothphysical and cultural) so ultimately, student actions can take many forms. Teachers

in principle should encourage students to make decisions based on an understanding

of the issues, as well as personal values, and with the sometimes conflicting values

of other community members.

Working groups eventually synthesized these ideas into four discrete themes. The

principles for organizing and conceptualizing environmental education as published

in the Ministry of Education framework now include:

a consideration of COMPLEXITY (or complex systems);

AESTHETICS (or aesthetic appreciation); RESPONSIBILITY (responsible action and consequences of action); and

the practice of environmental ETHICS.

The mnemonic and metaphor of C.A.R.E. (Complexity, Aesthetics, Responsibility

and Ethics) was developed and can be used to describe the various forms

environmental knowledge can take. To the working groups, C.A.R.E. demonstrated

the interdisciplinary nature of environmental concepts, while also showing a

progression of the development of ideas that can lead towards deeper engagement

with environmental learning in all of its forms. This chapter now continues with a

discussion of the emergent principles and a consideration of how each of these types

contribute to the conceptualization of environmental topics in government mandated

curriculums.

Figure 2. Mnemonic and metaphor of CARE (Complexity, Aesthetics, Responsibility, Ethics).

DISCUSSION CONCEPTUALIZING ENVIRONMENT IN CURRICULUM

Principle One: Complexity

(Life on Earth Depends on, and It Part of, Complex Systems)

The principle of complexity as an organizing theme for environmental topics was a

relatively uncontested idea in our work and is also well supported in the academic


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literature (see for example Capra, 1996; Delgrade Diaz, 2002; Gonzalez-Gaudiano,

2001). Participants in the consultations agreed that environmental learning should

address the study of complex systems in two ways. First, it examines the complexityand interrelatedness of natural systems, and how humans interact with and affect

those systems. Second, it looks at human-created systems, both those that are built

and those that are part of our social fabric. For example, when students investigate

the water cycle, a food web, or photosynthesis, they are studying a natural system.

When they investigate government and politics, economics and the evolution of

societies, or highway and sewage systems, they are studying human-created systems.

These investigations help students understand the complexity of systems and the

links between them.

Participants in the consultations on Bowen (and elsewhere) concurred thatknowledge from a broad range of scientific disciplines contributes to a well-rounded

understanding of environmental issues. However, they also stressed that there must

be awareness that knowledge is not static and that theories can change. Knowledge

from the sciences, economics, politics, law, and sociology were also viewed as

vital to the study of complex systems and human interactions. Through studying

cultural systems and global issues, students may begin to see the relationships

between the environment and human rights, justice, race and gender equity. Other

cultures in the world present diverse perspectives on ways of valuing and relating to

natural and human-created environments. In developing a thorough understanding

of systems, students can examine the origins and impact of their present

worldview and analyze the implications of new information and changing societal

values.

Focus groups and working groups at the consultations then brainstormed ideas

that would capture and describe the thematic notion of complexity. A partial

list of these concepts for student consideration and discussion are included

here:

an ecosystem, or a social system, is caused by the collective interactions of

individual parts that require holistic investigation; individual components serve unique functions in all complex systems. The loss

or degradation of any single component may cause a decline in the viability of

the system;

the planets resources are finite. Humans are dependent on materials and energy

supplied by the global ecosystem;

different cultures observe natural systems through various philosophical,

technological, and social points of view. Throughout time, cultures have interacted

with the environment in different ways;

the pace of technological change and the distribution of scarce resources can have

a profound impact on society and the environment; and

the organization of societies in the past and present, and the laws that govern them,

have implications for environmentally and socially sustainable development.


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Principle Two: Aesthetics

(Environmental Awareness Enables Students to Develop an Aesthetic Appreciation)

The principle of aesthetics as an organizing theme for environmental topics was

also a fairly widely held idea in the consultations on Bowen and many participants

believed this to be the most evocative principle with which to capture students

interest in environment. Aesthetic appreciation can span a number of areas of

practice including: art education (Blandy & Hoffman, 1993; Carpenter & Tavin,

2010); ecological art (Song, 2009); architecture (Upitis, 2007); and music (Turner &

Freedman, 2004). In short, aesthetics deals with beauty, artistic expression, and our

physiological responses to these. Participants concurred that environmental learning

helps students to develop an aesthetic sense of respect and appreciation for the

natural world through study, physical challenges, and other experiences in nature.

An aesthetic appreciation, along with other understandings of nature, can

encourage students to learn and act to protect and sustain the environment, and

can also contribute to self-awareness and personal fulfillment. Further, participants

acknowledged that outdoor studies and activities in physical or outdoor education

can help develop students aesthetic appreciation. Aesthetics also was regarded as

having an internalized component strongly related to what we personally value in

nature.

Participants concurred that aesthetic values may also explore explicit value shifts,

such as those found when examining a natural setting for the development of a parkor a residential development. The idea that nature has fundamental worth from an

aesthetic point of view is one example of a value shift. Different types of value shifts

are also possible in environmental aesthetics and environmental criticism in the arts;

however, these often concentrate on cultural expressions of our interaction with

nature. Finally, aesthetic experiences were seen as providing insight and enrichment

to human interactions with the environment by allowing students to: develop an

understanding of the aesthetic qualities that exist in the environment; develop skills

and sensitivity to the application of aesthetic criteria when considering environmental

matters; and develop the ability to formulate, apply, and communicate personalaesthetic criteria for assessing environmental issues.

Focus groups and working groups at the consultations brainstormed ideas that

would capture and describe the thematic notion of aesthetics. A partial list of these

concepts for student consideration and discussion are included here:

direct experiences in natural surroundings provide opportunities to develop

respect and appreciation for living and non-living things;

aesthetic appreciation encourages a sense of the uniqueness and beauty of the

planet;

appreciation of nature is an impetus for many forms of creative expression;

individuals and cultures vary in the degree to which they value nature for its own

sake and for its ability to serve human needs;


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lifestyles, arts, and religions can be indicators of their perception of, and

relationship with, their environment; and

respect for the land and all living things can encourage the maintenance of ahealthy environment, providing benefits for everyone.

Principle Three: Responsibility

(Human Decisions and Actions have Environmental Consequences)

The notion of responsibility is discussed extensively in environmental education

literature (see for example Lewis, Mansfield & Baudains, 2008; Palmberg & Kuru,

2000; Short, 2010). However, the principle of responsibility as an organizing theme

for environmental learning was somewhat contested during our consultations asgroups explored the relationship between two related principles explored in the

original framework: the consequences of action; and second, what constitutes

responsible action. A consensus eventually emerged in our work that determined

that the two concepts were closely related conceptually, but differed mainly in the

temporal dimension. As such the two concepts were eventually combined into the

larger principle of responsibility.

Participants on Bowen related that studies about environmental responsibility

provided opportunities for students to explore the environmental consequencesof

actionsor decisions made at personal, community, societal, and global levels. Studiesin geography, history, technology, and other arts and sciences can help students

develop awareness of diverse cultural perceptions and interpretations. Further,

participants concurred that through the study of human impacts on the environment,

students can explore and develop positive approaches to long-range environmental

concerns. Exploring and addressing global issues, such as militarism and war, the

inequitable distribution of wealth and resources, food production, and transportation

are essential to establishing a sustainable society. Also, a focus on decisions or

actions in other cultures was seen as contributing to questions about how to live

more sustainably in the Bowen Island or wider BC context. In the more immediatetemporal sense, responsible actionwas seen by participants as being integral to, and

a consequence of, environmental learning. Participants clarified that in light of what

we know about past decisions around environmental issues, it is vital for students to

decide what now constitutes responsible action, and then begin to practice it.

Focus groups at the consultations brainstormed ideas that would capture and

describe the thematic notion of responsibility. The concepts for consideration and

discussion include:

the preservation of viable ecosystems is a basic value for every society;

First Nations practice of Traditional Ecological Knowledge can illustratealternative views on how humans have interacted with their environments;

A consideration of all species for future generations is essential to preserve the

integrity of the ecosphere;


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the language used by a culture unconsciously reproduces its moral values;

some human actions have significant and cumulative impacts on the environment;

and growth in population and resource consumption is exponential. Mostsocieties produce wastes, consume resources, and add to their population at rates

that cannot be sustained.

there are consequences and responsibilities for any action or inaction;

actions are influenced by belief systems and personal limitations, physical and

cultural;

responsible action requires an understanding of factors influencing environment

and those that regulate or govern our interaction with it. This includes law,

government, politics, civics, decision makers, and those who influence them.

Principle Four: Ethics

(The Study of the Environment Enables Students to Develop an

Environmental Ethic)

The principle of ethics as an organizing theme for environmental learning was the

most widely held idea in the breadth of our consultations on Bowen Island (and

elsewhere) and many participants believed this to be the overarching principle for

the work of environmental educators (see Bowers, 2009; Jickling, 2004). Participants

also saw the principle of environmental ethics as one closely related to that ofresponsibility. Focus groups concurred that the practice of supporting students to

take responsible action would ultimately require an examination of values and that

environmental learning should also provide opportunities for students to question

the cultural assumptions that lead to social conflict and environmental crises.

Participants concurred that this questioning process can create new visions and

possibilities, but stressed that students need to examine how issues and crises are

often the result of our current value systems.

Participants also concurred that students should be encouraged to make decisions

based on an understanding of the issues, as well as their own values and the valuesof community members. Knowledge of philosophical and critical thinking tools,

such as perspective analysis, argument analysis, and message deconstruction,

would also provide a means to assist with the decision-making process and other

disciplines. Some issues for an analysis of values could include: economic growth

and sustainable development; land ownership; business ethics; consumption patterns

and lifestyles; technological change; pollution; violence in society; the role of the

media; and population control.

Focus groups at the consultations brainstormed ideas that would capture and

describe the thematic notion of environmental ethics. The ideas/concepts for

consideration include:

actions are generated by belief systems or sets of values;

value systems can change over time;


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the formation of values occurs in stages;

the choice of what action to take is a question of ethics and of cultural, religious,

and/or personal values; human quality of life is influenced by environmental quality;

humans must recognize their responsibility to future generations;

societal attitudes toward environment are influenced by media coverage

and perspectives; and

print and electronic media have commercial implications and contain ideological

and value messages that have social and political implications.

In our consultations on Bowen Island for example, it became evident that the

development of an environmental ethic in students is perhaps the culminating

goal for environmental learning in all of its forms and that this would require anunderstanding of all of the previous forms of environmental concepts described in

our work (complexity, aesthetics and responsibility). Understanding the complexity

of their daily interactions, while also recognizing the aesthetics of their environment,

will help students take active responsibility in moving toward change. When this

happens, an environmental ethic can become part of the moral fiber of their identities.

CONCLUSIONS

In this first chapter, I have attempted to honor the diverse voices and methods that

inform environmental learning across BC communities while also highlighting

the views of Bowen Island educators who were themselves a key part of a much

broader consultative process. Known as participatory action research (or PAR),

this inquiry enabled a study that placed research capabilities into the hands of our

educator-subjects and provided educators with research tools with which they

could generate knowledge for themselves. The focus and working groups conducted

on Bowen Island and throughout the province included broad representation from

various stakeholder groups including the British Columbia Ministry of Education,

schools, informal education organizations, university students and academics. Theknowledge we created in this way was empowering for the educators involved and

has influenced much of the other work that will be described in other chapters in

this book. The study results can, and are being transformed by these participants

into actions that directly benefit their communities and the practices of teaching and

learning in and around classrooms throughout BC.

This curriculum document that resulted from our extensive working group

consultations describes how environmental education is a way of understanding

environments, and how humans participate in and influence these environments.

In using the term environmental learning, the research refers to a range ofapproaches to environmental issues, including environmental education, ecological

education and education for sustainable development. All of these forms aim to

integrate concepts and principles of the sciences and social sciences under a single


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interdisciplinary framework. In the ecological view, students may come to know and

understand more deeply that all human environments, societies, or cultures are all

deeply dependent on natural systems, both for their development and, ultimately,their survival. In this framework, we present numerous principles for organizing

teaching practices related to environmental concepts.

Further, the results of our study communicate important principles for

environmental learning. These are organized into two areas: first, the widely

supported principles for the teaching and learning of direct experience, critical

reflection and negotiation are related and described in the form of an experiential

learning cycle; second, organizing principles for environmental concepts are

summarized and described. These principles demonstrate the interdisciplinary nature

of environmental concepts, while showing a progression in the development of ideasthat lead towards deeper engagement with learning in all of its forms. Students are

assisted by the organizers of complexity, aesthetics, responsibility and ethics (or

CARE) to guide their developing ideas about the environment as they appear in

mandated government curriculum.

The process described in this chapter produced a revised framework for

environmental learning adopted by the BC Ministry of Education and has guided

curriculum and resource development. This demonstrates clearly how educational

research when it is participatory and action oriented in nature, can usefully inform

educational policy. Our work has further re-energized teacher practices around

environmental learning and these ideas are widely accessible to all educators through

the BC Ministry of Educations website and associated green school initiatives.

Most importantly, environmental learning forms a solid foundation for the work

undertaken at the Bowen Island Community School.

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Delgado Diaz, C.J. (2002). Complexity and environmental education.Emergence, 4(1/2), 5362.

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Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

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Lewis, E., Mansfield, C., & Baudains, C. (2008). Getting down and dirty: Values in education for

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Smith, G.A., & Williams, D.R. (1998). Ecological education in action: On weaving education, culture and

the environment. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Sobel, D. (1993). Childrens special places. Tuscon, AZ: Zephyr Press.

Sobel, D. (1999). Beyond ecophobia: Reclaiming the heart in nature education. Great Barrington,MA: Orion Society.

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Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.

AFFILIATION

David B. Zandvliet

Simon Fraser University


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D. Zandvliet (Ed.), The Ecology of School, 1928.

2013 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

CARLOS G.A. ORMOND

2. PLACE-BASED EDUCATION IN PRACTICE

If you dont know where you are, you dont know who you are.

Wendell Berry

INTRODUCTION

The termplace-based education appears to have been coined in North America in

the late 1980s, although elements of its practice have been in existence for quite

some time (Smith, 2002; van Eijck, 2010). The basic premise, and one of the most

widely quoted definitions, of this educational approach is:

The process of using local community and environment as a starting point to

teach concepts in language arts, mathematics, social studies, science, and other

subjects across the curriculum. Emphasizing hands-on, real-world learning

experiences, this approach to education increases academic achievement, helpsstudents develop stronger ties to their community, enhances students appreciation

for the natural world, and creates a heightened commitment to serving as active

contributing citizens. Community vitality and environmental quality are improved

through the active engagement of local citizens, community organizations, and

environmental resources in the life of the school. (Sobel, 2004, p. 7)

Unlike other pedagogies, place-based education does not have its own theoretical

tradition. Rather it shares practices and purposes to experiential learning,

contextual learning, problem-based learning, constructivism, outdoor education,

indigenous education, environmental and ecological education, bioregional

education, democratic education, multicultural education, community-based

education, critical pedagogy as well as other approaches that are concerned with

context and the value of learning from and nurturing specific places, communities,

or regions (Gruenewald, 2003, p. 3).

While composed of elements belonging to the traditions noted here, place-based

education in practice can be traced to the work done in the late 1980s by community-

based projects led by, The Foxfire Fund, The Rural School and Community Trust,

the Orion Society and the Education for Sustainability movement (Smith 2002;

Powers, 2004). The work by David Sobel and the Orion Society (1990; 1993; 1996;2004) has done much to develop the concept of place-based education, especially in

North America.


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The focus of this chapter is on place-based education, and its apparent consolidation

of a variety of progressive pedagogies, in particular experiential learning, critical

pedagogy and constructivism. I begin by offering an introduction to experientiallearning through the work of John Dewey and David Kolb. I then explore the links

between experiential learning with critical pedagogy and constructivism. Next,

a discussion is had on the concept of sense of place and its argued influence in

human development, in addition to the development of stewardship in a community.

Following that, how place-based education looks like in practice is presented, ending

with an overview of what to expect in the chapters to come and how place-based

education takes form in thisplace.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

The contemporary theory of experiential learning owes its identity to a number of

revered twentieth century social scientists. Of those, the work of two especially has

given form to the current understanding of experiential learning, John Dewey and

David Kolb (Kraft, 1995). The first was John Dewey (1938/1997) and his theory of

experience. While unofficially spearheading the progressive education movement in

the early twentieth century, Dewey was also quite critical on the movement itself.

One of Deweys strongest criticisms of the progressive education movement was

that it argued for students to have complete freedom of their learning. While Deweywas in favour of re-visioning the teacher-student roles in the classroom, he believed

that [a] balance needed to be struck, between the freedom of individuals and the

educative structure of the learning environment (Neil, 2008, p. 21). The theory of

experiencecreated by Dewey aimed to create this balance between a student needing

both freedom and direction. Neil (2008) eloquently writes that according to Dewey,

experiences have the capacity to be educative, but only under certain conditions;

otherwise experiences can be mis-educative (p. 21). Dewey theorized that there

are two main sources for a students experiences: (a) a students accumulated past

experiences (continuity); and (b) the interaction between past experiences and the

present situation (interaction) (Neil, 2008, p. 21). An individuals past experiences

combine to uniquely affect the individuals current and future experiences.

The other individual who has arguably been one of experiential learnings most

contemporary influences is David Kolb (1984; Kolb & Kolb, 2005). In his book

Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Kolb

(1984) presented his design of the experiential learning cycle. In Kolbs eye, experiential

learning was a combination of Deweys philosophical pragmatism, Lewins social

psychology, and Piagets cognitive-developmental genetic epistemology (Kolb, 1984).

Within the field of experiential learning Kolb and Kolb (2005, p. 194) state that there

exists six common epistemologies:

1. Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes

2. All learning is relearning


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3. Learning requires resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of

adaption to the world.

4. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.5. Learning results from synergetic transactions between the person and the

environment.

6. Learning is the process of creating knowledge.

Essentially, these six propositions outline what many have termed the learn by doing

method. According to this orientation, knowledge becomes practical in a number of

ways.

Kolb (1984), building upon the ideas of those aforementioned pioneering scholars,

created the Experiential Learning Model which is composed of four elements:

direct experience, critical reflection, conceptualization and experimentation. Kolb

theorized that the learning process starts off with a) an individual performing an

action and then witnessing the effects of that action; b) then to understand the effects

of that action; c) next to understand the action itself; and d) the last step is to modify

the action when confronting a new situation. This model thus defines learning as the

process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience[;]

[k]nowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience

(Kolb, 1984, p. 41).

CRITICAL PEDAGOGY

In his article The Best of Both Worlds: A Critical Pedagogy of Place (2003),

Gruenewald argued that besides basing education in the local, it should also be asking

questions of it... With justice and equality in mind, critical pedagogy aims to transform

society and empower the powerless. While curricula similar to this philosophy have

been seen throughout human history, critical educational theory finds its true roots

in Europe prior to World War II at the Frankfurt School of critical theory (McLaren,

1998). Critical pedagogy is founded on the the idea that teachers need to understand

the role that schools have in addressing the link between knowledge and power, andhow that can give rise to an active and critical citizen. It argues that on an ethical

level, critical reasoning and self and social empowermentshould be a priority in

our schools.

Currently, critical pedagogy aims to confront and challenge what we take for

granted in education as well as in our dominant culture. Our subjective views of

the environment are not solely constructed from within ourselves but affected

by convincing social forces. What this means is that no one individual or group

is completely unaffected by outside social influences, and in order to understand

and uncover their interests we must critically analyze why they hold this position(Palmer and Birch, 2005). Bowers (2005) strongly suggests that the tool of critical

reflection, that which is so highly regarded in critical pedagogy, has enormous

wealth to environmental learning. Critical reflection can allow us to recognize which


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self-sufficient (i.e. sustainable) cultural practices need to remain and highlighted to

help us to evolve and adapt the globalized Western-influenced society to a sustainable

and self-preserving one.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

The instructive method of constructivism is the preferred approach with both

place-based education (Gruenewald, 2003) as well as with critical pedagogy

(Bowers, 2005). At its core, constructivism is based on the current psychological

understanding of the creation of cognitive schema in humans. Although slight

differences do exist, constructivism, encourages a learning environment where

the learner be allowed to work independently so that they may construct their ownworldview. Constructivism, and place-based education approaches insist that the

learner must take an active role in learning and building factual knowledge to

improve investigation and critical thinking skills (Klein & Merritt, 1994, p. 13).

and one that agrees with the Piagetian theory that knowledge is not transmitted by

the educator but constructed by the learner (Boudourides 2003). It is a belief that

the acquisition of knowledge comes from a change in a students understanding

rather than simply an increase in information taken to be fact (Ballantyne &

Packer, 1996).

SENSE OF PLACE

Much of Sobels (1990; 1993; 1996; 2004) research focused on bringing attention

to the important link between human developmental (eg. middle childhood) and a

connection to the natural world. Sobels work, and that of others (Evernden, 1978;

1992; Chawla, 1986), have referenced Edith Cobb and her book The Ecology of

Imagination in Childhood(1959) as an influential text in understanding childrens

connection to the natural world. While Cobbs (1959) research methods have come

into question, she is recognized for being one of the first to investigate thoroughlyan elusively intangible but perhaps profoundly formative aspect of childhood: our

early sense of the surrounding physical world (Chawla, 1986, p. 34). What Cobb

found was:

the study of the child in nature, culture, and society (evolution of social attitudes

toward childhood into present realization of its importance in everyones life

history) reveals that this is a special period, the little-understood, prepubertal,

halcyon, middle age of childhood, approximately from five or six to eleven or

twelve- between the strivings of animal infancy and the storms of adolescence-

when the natural world is experienced in some highly evocative way, producingin the child a sense of some profound continuity with natural processes and

presenting overt evidence of a biological basis of intuition (Cobb, 1959,

p. 538)


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Sobel (1990) credits his roots of place to Gussows (1972) definition: a piece of

the environment that has been claimed by feelings. Gussows (1972) book,A Sense

of Place: The artist and the American land,emphasized and argued his belief in theimportance of the environment and nature to art. An artist by training, Gussow in

the mid 1960s was a pioneer in bringing together art and conservation: establishing

the first everArtists in ResidenceParks Program with the U.S. National Park Service.

A few years before his passing, Gussow (1991) shared these comments onplace:

The physical landscape [i.e. place] is not simply a backdrop to human events,

but the stage on which we live. We are not in an audience watching a drama

unfold, we are on the stage as players. The events of life take place somewhere,

and that somewhere, where ever it is, affects the perception of the event. The

visual landscape gives shape to our character, the objects and the forms in thelandscape influence our actions, guide our choices, shape our values, restrict or

enhance our freedom, determine where and with what quality we will mix with

each other. The landscape in a sense molds our dreams. It locates our fantasies.

The landscape in my view is never neutral, it is shaping us even as we shape

it.(Stewart, 2003, p. 20)

Sobels (1990;1993) research on adult memories of childhood spaces goes on

to support this. Sobel (1990, p. 8) has found that special childhood spaces hold

meaning throughout some adults lives[;] special places become places of repose and

sure to return to- in actuality and in the minds eye.

PLACE-ATTACHMENT AND STEWARDSHIP

The human connection to place that Sobel and others speak of, was investigated by

Vaske and Kobrin (2001). Their research argues that environmental education or work

programs that take part in local natural settings promote environmental stewardship

in that said participants community. This comes about through the development of

place attachment. Place attachment is the interplay of place dependence and place

identity. Place identity is an emotional attachment or psychological investmentwith a setting that has resulted from numerous visits to that setting; while place

dependence is a functional attachment whereby a particular setting, over time, has

become an important resource for an individual to provide necessary amenities for

specific activities.


One of the popular appeals of place-based education is the ability it has to adapt to

unique characteristics in particular places (Smith, 2002, p. 584). This trait of place-based education makes it a strong tool to overcome the disjuncture between school

and childrens lives that is found in many classrooms (Smith, 2002, p. 585). Smith

(2002, p. 586) point out that this disjuncture was also noted in the late nineteenth


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century by Dewey (1900) in his book TheSchool and Societybased upon his work

at the University of Chicago Lab School:

From the standpoint of the child, the great waste in the school comes from his

inability to utilize the experiences he gets outside the school in any complete

and free way with the school itself; while, on the other hand, he is unable

to apply in daily life what he is learning at school. That is the isolation of

the school, its isolation of life. When the child gets into the schoolroom he

has to put out his mind a large part of the ideas, interests, and activities that

predominate in his home and neighbourhood. So the school, being able to

utilize this everyday experience, sets painfully to work, on another tack and by

a variety of means, to arouse in the child an interest in school studies.

Dewey believed the issue lay in the fact that children are not interested in ideas

about phenomena but rather drawn to the actual phenomena. Smith (2002) adds that

valuable knowledge for most children is knowledge that is directly related to their

own social reality, knowledge that will allow them to engage in activities that are of

service to and valued by those they love and respect (p. 585).

Smith (2002), along with Woodhouse and Knapp (2000) have both written on the

diversity found within place-based education. Woodhouse and Knapp (2000, p. 1) claim

that place-based education approaches have the following common characteristics:

1. The curriculum content is multidisciplinary;2. The curriculum goals are broader than just learn to earn; and

3. The curriculum integrates self, others, and place and includes ecological,

economic, multigenerational, and multicultural dimensions.

Smith (2002, p. 593) grouped the variety of place-based education forms into five

approaches:

1. Surrounding phenomena are the foundation for curriculum development,

2. An emphasis on students becoming the creators of knowledge rather than only

consumers of knowledge created by others,3. Students questions and concerns play central roles in determining what is studied,

4. Teachers act primarily as co-learners and brokers of community resources and

learning possibilities,

5. The walls between the community and school buildings are crossed frequently, and

6. Student work is assessed based on its contributions to community wellbeing and

sustainability.

Lastly, Smith (2002), while acknowledging place-education does take different

forms in each community, identifies five thematic patterns from his review of the

field:

1. Cultural studies:Where students use local cultural or historical phenomena as the

guiding focus. Collecting community oral histories and written stories are only


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two examples of this approach. (These activities also have been labelled cultural

journalism, experiential or outdoor education.)

2. Nature studies: Where students observe wildlife, conduct water-quality tests,or restore riparian areas. (These activities also have been labelled nature study,

conservation, outdoor, or environmental education.)

3. Real-world problem solving: Where students and teachers identify community

issues and problems, study them, and propose possible solutions. Sometimes

they even follow up their research by implementing the needed changes. (These

activities also have been called conservation or environmental education).

4. Internships and entrepreneurial opportunities: Where students explore local

career opportunities and partner with businesses to expand their knowledge of

economics and become more involved in community life. (These activities alsohave been labelled service-learning, experiential or outdoor education.)

5. Induction into community: A more complete immersion into community life

in which students were drawn into several decision-making activities. They

assumed active roles as participants at town meetings, chambers of commerce,

city councils, or environmental protection agencies. They might also conduct

community surveys and make public announcements based on those findings.

(These activities also have been labelled service learning, environmental, or

experiential education.).

(Knapp, 2005, p. 280)

Interestingly, Knapp (2005) makes the comment that all five patterns form a

conceptual umbrella commonly called experiential learning, because they are

situated in the context of community life and involve active student engagement

(p. 280).

PLACE-BASED EDUCATION ON BOWEN ISLAND

The remaining chapters in this book give a variety of different perspectives on the

learning environment at the Bowen Island Community School. They include theperspectives of academics, graduate students, teachers and administrators. Together,

these complete a more ecological view of the learning environment.

The next chapter in this volume (Chapter three) documents and describes the

schools investigation into how ecological literacy can become a core educational

standard in schools. The authors begin with a brief description of Bowen Islands

history and community then reviews the place-based programs, events, and activities

that contributed to the schools unique learning environment. They include with a

summary of the schools curriculum developments and acknowledge the importance

these have for the development of ecological literacy programming in other placesand schools.

Chapter four captures the stories of three teachers who stood out as leaders

in our place-based, research project and, through their innovation, passion, and


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commitment, provided valuable insight into the power of place-based education

on Bowen Island. The narrative is both phenomenological and ethnographic: by

weaving together each teachers personal account of the project and combining themwith the authors own recollection of events, the chapter captures the energy and

enthusiasm that these individuals shared during the research project.

Chapter five borrows from a philosophical tradition: prescribing a master plan of

how place based educationshouldfunction. The author focuses on Bowen Island as

one place filled with many stories of how it canfunction. The author explores how

she was invited by several teachers to learn and explore with their classes as they

pursued place-based education. She deduces that the concepts used would work well

in rural or urban spaces then reflects on two tools that the teachers use to track their

students intoplaceand wonder: journaling and questing.Chapter six describes the perspectives of three principals of the Bowen Island

Community School during the years 20042011. The author examines their beliefs

on the moral purposes of schooling and their role in setting and sustaining this

purpose, particularly in relation to what has been termed character education or

social responsibility and their synergy with the goals of environmental education.

This examination reveals some common beliefs about the moral purpose of education

and the leadership tactics that stem from these that promote environmental learning

at Bowen and presumably at other elementary schools.

Chapter seven describes another facet of the research project that explored how

school design mediates students relationships with the natural world, with a view

to understand from students perspectives how school architecture influences their

ideas about the world they live in, especially their ideas about the natural world. The

author used an arts-based inquiry to identify aspects of the immediate Bowen Island

Community School building and grounds that allowed students to interact with the

natural world and then analyzed why these places were (or were not) important to

students.

The final chapter (eight) relates that another important project outcome was

the development of action research with teachers using a specifically adapted

survey (code named SMILES) to aid teachers in gauging and improving thelearning environment in their classrooms. To access information about students

perceptions of the learning environment, an instrument for assessing place-based

educational settings was adapted and piloted in this study. The objective was first

to determine factors important to learning and to influence the unique type of

environments fostered in place-based education programs. And second, whether

these constructs could be reliably and validly measured in the unique Bowen Island

context.

REFERENCES

Ballantyne R.R., & Packer, J.M. (1996). Teaching and learning in environmental education: Developing

environmental conceptions.Journal of Environmental Education,27(2), 2533.


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Boudourides, M.A. (2003). Constructivism, education, science and technology. CanadianJournal of

Learning and Technology, 29(3). Retrieved from http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/83

Bowers, C.A. (2005). How Peter McLaren and Donna Houston, and other Green Marxists contribute to

the globalization of the Wests industrial culture.Educational Studies, 37(2), 185195.Chawla, L. (1986). The ecology of environmental memory. Childrens Environments Quarterly, 3(4),

3442.

Cobb, E. (1959). The ecology of imagination in childhood.Daedalus, 88, 537548.

Dewey, J. (1900). The School and Society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Dewey, J. (1938/1997).Experience and education. New York: Touchstone.

Evernden, N. (1978). Beyond ecology: Self, place, & the pathetic fallacy.

1560 the Ecology of School

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