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Reaction Mechanisms
Reaction mechanisms
Most chemical reactions occur by mechanisms that involve more than one step. As a result,
the rate law can not be directly deduced from the stoichiometry of a balanced chemical
equation. Only elementary reactions (those which occur in one step) can give the rate law.The rate law of an elementary process does follow from the coefficients of its balanced
equation.
Among the steps in a multi-step reaction, there is always one that acts like a bottleneck. There
is usually one step that is slowest compared to the rest. This slowest step limits the overall
reaction rate and is called the rate-determining step.
The rate-determining step determines the rate law for the overall reaction.
Example:
The reaction,
NO2(g) + CO(g) --> NO(g) + CO2(g)
is found to be second order with respect to [NO2] and zero order with respect to [CO]:
rate = k[NO2]2
The following mechanism has been proposed:
Step 1: NO2(g) + NO2(g) --> NO3(g) + NO(g) (slow)
Step 2: NO3(g) + CO(g) --> NO2(g) + CO2(g) (fast)
Overall: NO2(g) + CO(g) --> NO(g) + CO2(g)
Since Step1 is the slowest step, it determines the rate of the overall reaction. Thus, the above
mechanism agrees with the observed rate law.
Here is another example:
2NO(g) + O2(g) --> 2 NO2(g)
with the following observed rate law:
rate = kobs[NO]2[O2]
Of course, one possible mechanism is a one-step reaction between two molecules of nitrogen
oxide and a molecule of oxygen. This is a termolecular step, which is very unlikely since
three way collissions are highly improbable. An alternative mechanism is provided by the
following:
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Both steps are bimolecular, which are more likely to happen than a three-way collision. The
slow step determines the overall reaction rate:
which is sort of useless since it contains a term that does not correspond to either any of the
reactants or the product.
A rate law should only consist of concentrations of reactants and/or products, no
intermediates.
Since the intermediate, dinitrogen dioxide, reacts slowly with oxygen, the reverse reaction of
Step 1 is possible. What we are allowed to do then is to assume that Step 1 will reach a
dynamic equilibrium, which will lead to a constant concentration of dinitrogen dioxide, that
is, the forward and reverse rates ofStep 1 are equal:
which allows us to express the concentration of the intermediate dinitrogen dioxide in terms
of the starting material:
Therefore allowing us to express:
as:
which then relates the observed rate constant to the rate constants of the elementary steps as
follows:
Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that changes the speed of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing a permanent chemical change in the process. You have seen some examples of a
catalyst. Remember the production of O2 from KClO3, a catalyst was used in this reaction
(MnO2). A catalyst provides a different pathway for a reaction to occur and this different
route involves a lower Energy of activation.
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Homogeneous versus heterogeneous catalysis. A homogeneous catalyst is present in the same
phase as the reacting molecules. A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different phase.
Research question: Why is ozone depleted faster near the polar caps of the earth. Do ice
crystals catalyze the destruction of ozone?
Enzymes (biological catalysts)
Enzymes aid biological reactions by providing sites in which a reaction between two
biological molecules can easily occur. This process is therefore very much sensitive to the
shape of the enzyme, how accessible it is to the reactant species, etc. The shape of an enzyme
is very much dependent on intermolecular forces: hydrogen-bonding, dipole-dipole
interactions and London Forces. Thus, its shape can be drastically changed via changes in
temperature. Thus, unlike industrial catalysts, the activity of enzymes normally attain a
maximum at a given temperature (normally close to the temperature of the organism which is
using this enzyme).
TYPES OF CATALYSIS
This page looks at the the different types of catalyst
(heterogeneous and homogeneous) with examples of each kind,and explanations of how they work. You will also find a description
of one example of autocatalysis - a reaction which is catalysed by
one of its products.
Note: This page doesn'tdeal with the effect of catalysts on rates
of reaction. If you don't already know about that, you might like to
follow this link first. Return to this page via the BACK button on
your browser.
Types of catalytic reactions
Catalysts can be divided into two main types - heterogeneous and
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homogeneous. In a heterogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in a
different phase from the reactants. In a homogeneous reaction, the
catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants.
What is a phase?
If you look at a mixture and can see a boundary between two of the
components, those substances are in different phases. A mixture
containing a solid and a liquid consists of two phases. A mixture of
various chemicals in a single solution consists of only one phase,
because you can't see any boundary between them.
You might wonder why phasediffers from the term physical state
(solid, liquid or gas). It includes solids, liquids and gases, but is
actually a bit more general. It can also apply to two liquids (oil and
water, for example) which don't dissolve in each other. You could
see the boundary between the two liquids.
If you want to be fussy about things, the diagrams actually show
more phases than are labelled. Each, for example, also has the
glass beaker as a solid phase. All probably have a gas above the
liquid - that's another phase. We don't count these extra phases
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because they aren't a part of the reaction.
Heterogeneous catalysis
This involves the use of a catalyst in a different phase from the
reactants. Typical examples involve a solidcatalyst with the
reactants as either liquids or gases.
Note: It is important that you remember the difference between
the two terms heterogeneousand homogeneous.
heteroimplies different(as in heterosexual). Heterogeneous
catalysis has the catalyst in a different phase from the reactants.
homoimplies the same(as in homosexual). Homogeneous
catalysis has the catalyst in the same phase as the reactants.
How the heterogeneous catalyst works (in general terms)
Most examples of heterogeneous catalysis go through the same
stages:
One or more of the reactants are adsorbedon to the surface of the
catalyst at active sites.
Adsorption is where something sticks to a surface. It isn't the
same as absorption where one substance is taken up within
the structure of another. Be careful!
An active site is a part of the surface which is particularly
good at adsorbing things and helping them to react.
There is some sort of interaction between the surface of the
catalyst and the reactant molecules which makes them more
reactive.
This might involve an actual reaction with the surface, or
some weakening of the bonds in the attached molecules.
The reaction happens.
At this stage, both of the reactant molecules might be
attached to the surface, or one might be attached and hit by
the other one moving freely in the gas or liquid.
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The product molecules are desorbed.
Desorption simply means that the product molecules break
away. This leaves the active site available for a new set of
molecules to attach to and react.
A good catalyst needs to adsorb the reactant molecules strongly
enough for them to react, but not so strongly that the product
molecules stick more or less permanently to the surface.
Silver, for example, isn't a good catalyst because it doesn't form
strong enough attachments with reactant molecules. Tungsten, on
the other hand, isn't a good catalyst because it adsorbs too
strongly.
Metals like platinum and nickel make good catalysts because they
adsorb strongly enough to hold and activate the reactants, but not
so strongly that the products can't break away.
Examples of heterogeneous catalysis
The hydrogenation of a carbon-carbon double bond
The simplest example of this is the reaction between ethene and
hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst.
In practice, this is a pointless reaction, because you are converting
the extremely useful ethene into the relatively useless ethane.
However, the same reaction will happen with any compound
containing a carbon-carbon double bond.
One important industrial use is in the hydrogenation of vegetable
oils to make margarine, which also involves reacting a carbon-
carbon double bond in the vegetable oil with hydrogen in the
presence of a nickel catalyst.
Ethene molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the nickel. The
double bond between the carbon atoms breaks and the electrons
are used to bond it to the nickel surface.
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Hydrogen molecules are also adsorbed on to the surface of the
nickel. When this happens, the hydrogen molecules are broken into
atoms. These can move around on the surface of the nickel.
If a hydrogen atom diffuses close to one of the bonded carbons,
the bond between the carbon and the nickel is replaced by one
between the carbon and hydrogen.
That end of the original ethene now breaks free of the surface, and
eventually the same thing will happen at the other end.
As before, one of the hydrogen atoms forms a bond with the
carbon, and that end also breaks free. There is now space on the
surface of the nickel for new reactant molecules to go through the
whole process again.
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Note: Several metals, including nickel, have the ability to absorb
hydrogen into their structure as well as adsorb it on to the surface.
In these cases, the hydrogen molecules are also converted into
atoms which can diffuse through the metal structure.
This happens with nickel if the hydrogen is under high pressures,
but I haven't been able to find any information about whether it is
also absorbed under the lower pressures usually used for these
hydrogenation reactions. I have therefore stuck with the usualexplanation in terms of adsorption.
If anyone has any firm information about this, could they contact
me via the address on the about this site page.
Catalytic converters
Catalytic converters change poisonous molecules like carbon
monoxide and various nitrogen oxides in car exhausts into more
harmless molecules like carbon dioxide and nitrogen. They use
expensive metals like platinum, palladium and rhodium as the
heterogeneous catalyst.
The metals are deposited as thin layers onto a ceramic
honeycomb. This maximises the surface area and keeps the
amount of metal used to a minimum.
Taking the reaction between carbon monoxide and nitrogen
monoxide as typical:
In the same sort of way as the previous example, the carbon
monoxide and nitrogen monoxide will be adsorbed on the surface
of the catalyst, where they react. The carbon dioxide and nitrogen
are then desorbed.
The use of vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact Process
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During the Contact Process for manufacturing sulphuric acid,
sulphur dioxide has to be converted into sulphur trioxide. This is
done by passing sulphur dioxide and oxygen over a solid
vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.
Note: The equation is written with the half in it to make the
explanation below tidier. You may well be familiar with the
equation written as twice that shown, but the present version is
perfectly acceptable. It is also shown as a one-way rather than a
reversible reaction to avoid complicating things.
This example is slightly different from the previous ones because
the gases actually react with the surface of the catalyst, temporarily
changing it. It is a good example of the ability of transition metals
and their compounds to act as catalysts because of their ability to
change their oxidation state.
Note: If you aren't sure aboutoxidation states, it might be useful
to follow this link before you go on. Use the BACK button on your
browser to return to this page.
The sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide by the
vanadium(V) oxide. In the process, the vanadium(V) oxide is
reduced to vanadium(IV) oxide.
The vanadium(IV) oxide is then re-oxidised by the oxygen.
This is a good example of the way that a catalyst can be changed
during the course of a reaction. At the end of the reaction, though,
it will be chemically the same as it started.
Note: If you want more detail about the Contact Process, you will
find a full description of the conditions used and the reasons for
them by following this link.
Homogeneous catalysis
This has the catalyst in the same phase as the reactants. Typically
everything will be present as a gas or contained in a single liquid
phase. The examples contain one of each of these . . .
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Examples of homogeneous catalysis
The reaction between persulphate ions and iodide ions
This is a solution reaction that you may well only meet in thecontext of catalysis, but it is a lovely example!
Persulphate ions (peroxodisulphate ions), S2O82-, are very powerful
oxidising agents. Iodide ions are very easily oxidised to iodine. And
yet the reaction between them in solution in water is very slow.
If you look at the equation, it is easy to see why that is:
The reaction needs a collision between two negative ions.
Repulsion is going to get seriously in the way of that!
The catalysed reaction avoids that problem completely. The
catalyst can be either iron(II) or iron(III) ions which are added to the
same solution. This is another good example of the use of
transition metal compounds as catalysts because of their ability to
change oxidation state.
For the sake of argument, we'll take the catalyst to be iron(II) ions.As you will see shortly, it doesn't actually matter whether you use
iron(II) or iron(III) ions.
The persulphate ions oxidise the iron(II) ions to iron(III) ions. In the
process the persulphate ions are reduced to sulphate ions.
The iron(III) ions are strong enough oxidising agents to oxidise
iodide ions to iodine. In the process, they are reduced back toiron(II) ions again.
Both of these individual stages in the overall reaction involve
collision between positive and negative ions. This will be much
more likely to be successful than collision between two negative
ions in the uncatalysed reaction.
What happens if you use iron(III) ions as the catalyst instead of
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iron(II) ions? The reactions simply happen in a different order.
The destruction of atmospheric ozone
This is a good example of homogeneous catalysis where
everything is present as a gas.
Ozone, O3, is constantly being formed and broken up again in the
high atmosphere by the action of ultraviolet light. Ordinary oxygen
molecules absorb ultraviolet light and break into individual oxygen
atoms. These have unpaired electrons, and are known as free
radicals. They are very reactive.
The oxygen radicals can then combine with ordinary oxygen
molecules to make ozone.
Ozone can also be split up again into ordinary oxygen and anoxygen radical by absorbing ultraviolet light.
This formation and breaking up of ozone is going on all the time.
Taken together, these reactions stop a lot of harmful ultraviolet
radiation penetrating the atmosphere to reach the surface of the
Earth.
The catalytic reaction we are interested in destroys the ozone andso stops it absorbing UV in this way.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) like CF2Cl2, for example, were used
extensively in aerosols and as refrigerants. Their slow breakdown
in the atmosphere produces chlorine atoms - chlorine free radicals.
These catalyse the destruction of the ozone.
This happens in two stages. In the first, the ozone is broken up and
a new free radical is produced.
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The chlorine radical catalyst is regenerated by a second reaction.
This can happen in two ways depending on whether the ClO
radical hits an ozone molecule or an oxygen radical.
If it hits an oxygen radical (produced from one of the reactions
we've looked at previously):
Or if it hits an ozone molecule:
Because the chlorine radical keeps on being regenerated, each
one can destroy thousands of ozone molecules.
Note: If you are a UK A level student it is probable that you will
only want one of these last two equations depending on what your
syllabus says. Unfortunately, at the time of writing, different A
level syllabuses were quoting different final equations. You need
to check your current syllabus. If you don't have a copy of your
syllabus, follow this link to find out how to get one.
Autocatalysis
The oxidation of ethanedioic acid by manganate(VII) ions
In autocatalysis, the reaction is catalysed by one of its products.
One of the simplest examples of this is in the oxidation of a solutionof ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) by an acidified solution of
potassium manganate(VII) (potassium permanganate).
The reaction is very slow at room temperature. It is used as a
titration to find the concentration of potassium manganate(VII)
solution and is usually carried out at a temperature of about 60C.
Even so, it is quite slow to start with.
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The reaction is catalysed by manganese(II) ions. There obviously
aren't any of those present before the reaction starts, and so it
starts off extremely slowly at room temperature. However, if you
look at the equation, you will find manganese(II) ions amongst the
products. More and more catalyst is produced as the reaction
proceeds and so the reaction speeds up.
You can measure this effect by plotting the concentration of one of
the reactants as time goes on. You get a graph quite unlike the
normal rate curve for a reaction.
Most reactions give a rate curve which looks like this:
Concentrations are high at the beginning and so the reaction is fast
- shown by a rapid fall in the reactant concentration. As things get
used up, the reaction slows down and eventually stops as one or
more of the reactants are completely used up.
An example of autocatalysis gives a curve like this:
You can see the slow (uncatalysed) reaction at the beginning. Ascatalyst begins to be formed in the mixture, the reaction speeds up
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- getting faster and faster as more and more catalyst is formed.
Eventually, of course, the rate falls again as things get used up.
Warning!
Don't assume that a rate curve which looks like this necessarily
shows an example of autocatalysis. There are other effects which
might produce a similar graph.
For example, if the reaction involved a solid reacting with a liquid,
there might be some sort of surface coating on the solid which the
liquid has to penetrate before the expected reaction can happen.
A more common possibility is that you have a strongly exothermic
reaction and aren't controlling the temperature properly. The heatevolved during the reaction speeds the reaction up.