Chapter 1 Organic Chemistry Chemistry 20. Organic Compounds.
15046 Organic Chemistry
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Transcript of 15046 Organic Chemistry
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CHE101 (B.Tech. Chemistry Course)
Lecture - 23
Basic of Electron Displacement Effect
Prepared By
Dr. ASHISH KUMAR
Department of Chemistry Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
E-mail: [email protected]
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Inductive effect
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TYPES OF INDUCTIVE EFFECTSTYPES OF INDUCTIVE EFFECTSELECTRONWITHDRAWINGGROUPS
ELECTRONDONATINGGROUPS
Cl-
C CH3
-
C
F, Cl, Br, N, O R, CH3, B, Sielectronegative elements take electron densityfrom cabon
alkyl groups and elements less electronegative than carbon donate electron density to carbon
These electron withdrawing and donating groups work throughthe sigma bond system, unlike the similarly named resonance
groups that work through the system.
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Inductive effect
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Inductive EffectsElectronic effects that are transmitted through
space and through the bonds of a moleculeThe effect gets weaker with increasing distance
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Permanent displacement of electron along the chain of carbon atoms due to presence of atom or group of atom having different electronegativity at the end of the carbon chain.
Electron withdrawing inductive effect or –I effect
-NO2 > -SO3H> -CN > -COOH > -F > -Cl > -Br > -I > -OC6H5 > -COOR > -OR > - OH > -C6H5> -H
Electron donating inductive effect or +I effect
-C(CH3)3 > -HC(CH3)2 > -C2H5 > -CH2CH3 > -CH3 > -H
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Inductive effect
Cl C C C-
- + - +
O
O
APPLICATION OF INDUCTIVE EFFECTS APPLICATION OF INDUCTIVE EFFECTS
The effect diminishes with distance - it carries for about 3 bonds.
Cl C
O-
Chlorine helps
to stabilize -CO2-
by withdrawingelectrons
O
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Influence on dipole momentInfluence on dipole moment
H-F H-Cl H-Brµ = 1.90D µ= 1.04D µ = 0.78D
Comparison of relative acidic Comparison of relative acidic strength of alkynesstrength of alkynes
HC ≡ CH > CH3C ≡ CH > C2H5C ≡ CH
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Inductive effect
Factors that Determine Acid Strength—Inductive Effects
• When electron density is pulled away from the negative charge through bonds by very electronegative atoms, it is referred to as an electron withdrawing inductive effect.
• More electronegative atoms stabilize regions of high electron density by an electron withdrawing inductive effect.
• The more electronegative the atom and the closer it is to the site of the negative charge, the greater the effect.
• The acidity of H—A increases with the presence of electron withdrawing groups in A.
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Electromeric effect
Electromeric effect
This is a temporary effect and takes place between two atoms joined by a multiple bond, i.e., a double or triple bond. It occurs at the requirements of the attacking reagent, and involves instantaneous transfer of a shared pair of electrons of the multiple bond to one of the linked atoms.
It is temporary in nature because the molecule acquires its original electronic condition upon removal of the attacking reagent.
For example, consider the carbonyl group, >C=O, present in aldehydes and ketones. When a negatively charged reagent say approaches the molecule seeking positive site, it causes instantaneous shift of electron pair of carbonyl group to oxygen (more electronegative than carbon). The carbon thus becomes deprived of its share in this transferred-pair of electrons and acquires positive charge. In the meanwhile oxygen takes complete control of the electron pair and becomes negatively charged. Therefore, in the presence of attacking reagent, one bond is lost and this negatively charged attacking reagent links to the carbon having positive charge.
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Electromeric effect
This phenomenon of movement of electrons from one atom to another at the demand of attacking reagent in multibonded atoms is called electromeric effect, denoted as E effect. The electromeric shift of electrons takes place only at the moment of reaction. Like the inductive effect, the electromeric effect is also classified as +E and E:
When the transfer of electrons takes place towards the attacking reagent, it is called + E (positive electromeric) effect. For example,
When the transfer of electrons takes place away from the attacking reagent, it is called, -E (negative electromeric) effect. For example,
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Electromeric effect
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Ex.of application of electromeric effect: Additions to Alkenes
Generally the reaction is exothermic because one and one bond are converted to two bonds
The electrons of the double bond are loosely held and are a source of electron density, i.e. they are nucleophilicAlkenes react with electrophiles such as H+ from a hydrogen halide to form a carbocation
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Inductive effect
The inductive effectthe electron-deficient carbon bearing the
positive charge polarizes electrons of the adjacent sigma bonds toward it
the positive charge on the cation is not localized on the trivalent carbon, but delocalized over nearby atoms
the larger the volume over which the positive charge is delocalized, the greater the stability of the cation
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Inductive effect
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ResonanceOften a single Lewis structure does not accurately
represent the true structure of a moleculeThe real carbonate ion is not represented by any of
the structures 1,2 or 3
Experimentally carbonate is known not to have two carbon-oxygen single bonds and one double bond; all bonds are equal in length and the charge is spread equally over all three oxygens
Resonance
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The real carbonate ion can be represented by a drawing in which partial double bonds to the oxygens are shown and partial negative charge exists on each oxygen
The real structure is a resonance hybrid or mixture of all three Lewis structures
Double headed arrows are used to show that the three Lewis structures are resonance contributors to the true structureThe use of equilibrium arrows is incorrect since
the three structures do not equilibrate; the true structure is a hybrid (average) of all three Lewis structures
Resonance
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One resonance contributor is converted to another by the use of curved arrows which show the movement of electronsThe use of these arrows serves as a bookkeeping
device to assure all structures differ only in position of electrons
A calculated electrostatic potential map of carbonate clearly shows the electron density is spread equally among the three oxygensAreas which are red are more negatively charged;
areas of blue have relatively less electron density
Resonance
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Rules for Resonance: Individual resonance structures exist only on paper
The real molecule is a hybrid (average) of all contributing forms Resonance forms are indicated by the use of double-headed arrows
Only electrons are allowed to move between resonance structures The position of nuclei must remain the same Only electrons in multiple bonds and nonbonding electrons can be moved
Example: 3 is not a resonance form because an atom has moved
All structures must be proper Lewis structures
Resonance
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The energy of the actual molecule is lower than the energy of any single contributing formThe lowering of energy is called resonance stabilization
Equivalent resonance forms make equal contributions to the structure of the real moleculeStructures with equivalent resonance forms tend to be
greatly stabilizedExample: The two resonance forms of benzene
contribute equally and greatly stabilize it
Unequal resonance structures contribute based on their relative stabilities More stable resonance forms contribute more to the
structure of the real molecule
Resonance
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Rules to Assign Relative Importance of Resonance FormsA resonance form with more covalent bonds is more
important than one with lessExample: 6 is more stable and more important
because it has more total covalent bonds
Resonance forms in which all atoms have a complete valence shell of electrons are more importantExample: 10 is more important because all atoms
(except hydrogen) have complete octets
Resonance
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Resonance forms with separation of charge are less importantSeparation of charge cost energy and results in a less
stable resonance contributorExample: 12 is less important because it has charge
separation
Forms with negative charge on highly electronegative atoms are more importantThose with positive charge on less electronegative
atoms are also more important
Resonance
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Resonance
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Chapter 1
ExampleThe nitrate ion is known to have all three nitrogen-
oxygen bond lengths the same and the negative charge spread over all three atoms equally
Resonance theory can be used to produce three equivalent resonance forms Curved arrows show the movement of electrons between forms When these forms are hybridized (averaged) the true structure of the
nitrate ion is obtained
Resonance
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CH3 C O
O
H-H+
CH3 C
O
O
CH3 CO
O
base
_
_
acetate ion
RESONANCE IN THE ACETATE IONRESONANCE IN THE ACETATE ION
acetic acid
equivalent structurescharge on oxygens
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PHENOLATE ION RESONANCEPHENOLATE ION RESONANCE
O
-
_
_
_
_
_
O O
OOO
Non-equivalent structurescharge on carbon and oxygen
More structures,but not betterthan acetate.
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Resonance
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Factors that Determine Acid Strength—Resonance Effects
• Resonance is a factor that influences acidity.
• In the example below, when we compare the acidities of ethanol and acetic acid, we note that the latter is more acidic than the former.
• When the conjugate bases of the two species are compared, it is evident that the conjugate base of acetic acid enjoys resonance stabilization, whereas that of ethanol does not.
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Resonance
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• Resonance delocalization makes CH3COO¯ more stable than CH3CH2O¯, so CH3COOH is a stronger acid than CH3CH2OH.
• The acidity of H—A increases when the conjugate base A:¯ is resonance stabilized.
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Resonance
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• Electrostatic potential plots of CH3CH2O¯ and CH3COO¯ below indicate that
the negative charge is concentrated on a single O in CH3CH2O¯, but
delocalized over both of the O atoms in CH3COO¯.C
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Hyperconjugation
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• Hyperconjugation: The spreading out of charge by the overlap of an empty p orbital with an adjacent bond. This overlap (hyperconjugation) delocalizes the positive charge on the carbocation, spreading it over a larger volume, and this stabilizes the carbocation.
works for any sigma bond on the adjacent Csecondary can do 2x, tertiary can do 3x
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Hyperconjugation
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• The order of carbocation stability is also a result of hyperconjugation.
• Example: CH3+ cannot be stabilized by hyperconjugation, but
(CH3)2CH+ can.
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Hyperconjugation
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Hyperconjugation stabilizes the carbocation by donation of electrons from an adjacent carbon-hydrogen or carbon-carbon bond into the empty p orbitalMore substitution provides more opportunity for
hyperconjugation
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Hyperconjugation
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Hyperconjugationpartial overlap of the bonding orbital of an
adjacent C-H bond with the vacant 2p orbital of the cationic carbon delocalizes the positive charge and also the electrons of the adjacent bond
replacing a C-H bond with a C-C bond increases the possibility for hyperconjugation
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Carbocation
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Cleavage of Covalent Bonds
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Carbocation
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• Radicals and carbocations are electrophiles because they contain an electron deficient carbon.
• Carbanions are nucleophiles because they contain a carbon with a lone pair.
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Carbocation
Carbocations are classified as primary (1o), secondary (2o), or tertiary (3o), based on the number of R groups bonded to the charged carbon atom. As the number of R groups increases, carbocation stability increases.
Structure of carbocation:
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Carbocation
More positive charge at C+ = a more unstable C+
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Carbocation
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Carbocation
Carbocation Stability
•The order of carbocation stability is also a consequence of hyperconjugation.
•Hyperconjugation is the spreading out of charge by the overlap of an empty p orbital with an adjacent bond. This overlap (hyperconjugation) delocalizes the positive charge on the carbocation, spreading it over a large volume, and this stabilizes the carbocation.
• Example: CH3+ cannot be stabilized by
hyperconjugation, but (CH3)2CH+ can.
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Free radicals
Free Radicals:Homolytic bond cleavage leads to the formation of
radicals (also called free radicals)Radicals are highly reactive, short-lived species
Single-barbed arrows are used to show the movement of single electrons
Production of RadicalsHomolysis of relatively weak bonds such as O-O or
X-X bonds can occur with addition of energy in the form of heat or light
o or
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Free radicals
• Homolytic Bond Dissociation Energies and the Relative Stabilities of Radicals:
•The formation of different radicals from the same starting compound offers a way to estimate relative radical stabilitiesExamples:•The propyl radical is less stable than the isopropyl radical
\•Likewise the tert-butyl radical is more stable than the isobutyl radical
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Free radicals
•The relative stabilities of radicals follows the same trend as for carbocations•The most substituted radical is most stable •Radicals are electron deficient, as are carbocations, and are therefore also stabilized by hyperconjugation
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Free radicals
Example of free radical Reaction:Chlorination of Methane: Mechanism of ReactionThe reaction mechanism has three distinct aspects: Chain initiation, chain propagation and chain termination
Mechanism:
Chain termination
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Free radicals
2.Radical Addition to Alkenes: The anti-Markovnikov Addition of Hydrogen Bromide in presence of peroxide:
Mechanism:
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Free radicals
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Carbocation stability
Carbocations are classified as primary (1o), secondary (2o), or tertiary (3o), based on the number of R groups bonded to the charged carbon atom. As the number of R groups increases, carbocation stability increases.
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Carbocation stability
Carbocation Stability
The inductive effectthe electron-deficient carbon bearing the
positive charge polarizes electrons of the adjacent sigma bonds toward it
the positive charge on the cation is not localized on the trivalent carbon, but delocalized over nearby atoms
the larger the volume over which the positive charge is delocalized, the greater the stability of the cation
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Carbocation stability
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Carbocation stability
Carbocation Stability•The order of carbocation stability is also a
consequence of hyperconjugation.
• Example: CH3+ cannot be stabilized by
hyperconjugation, but (CH3)2CH+ can.
Hyperconjugationpartial overlap of the bonding orbital of an adjacent C-H bond with the vacant 2p orbital of the cationic carbon delocalizes the positive charge and also the electrons of the adjacent bondreplacing a C-H bond with a C-C bond increases the possibility for hyperconjugation
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Carbocation stability
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Carbanion stability
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Carbanions have 8 valence electrons and a negative charge
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Carbanion stability
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Carbanion stability
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Carbanion stability
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Carbanion stability
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Carbanion stability
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Carbanion stability
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Carbanion stability
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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Types of Organic Reactions:• A substitution is a reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms is replaced by
another atom or group of atoms.
• In a general substitution, Y replaces Z on a carbon atom.
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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• Substitution reactions involve bonds: one bond breaks and another forms at the same carbon atom.
• The most common examples of substitution occur when Z is a hydrogen or a heteroatom that is more electronegative than carbon.
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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• Elimination is a reaction in which elements of the starting material are “lost” and a bond is formed.
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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• In an elimination reaction, two groups X and Y are removed from a starting material.
• Two bonds are broken, and a bond is formed between adjacent atoms.
• The most common examples of elimination occur when X = H and Y is a heteroatom more electronegative than carbon.
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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• Addition is a reaction in which elements are added to the starting material.
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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• In an addition reaction, new groups X and Y are added to the starting material. A bond is broken and two bonds are formed.
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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• Addition and elimination reactions are exactly opposite. A bond is formed in elimination reactions, whereas a bond is broken in addition reactions.
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
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Classify each of the following as either substitution, elimination or addition reactions.
a) OHBr
b)
c)
OH
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Kinds of Organic Reactions
Prepared by:Dr. Ashish Kumar 65
Some other examples: