14873682 Vegetable Gardening Encyclopedia

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    Any gardener wi ll tell you that garden ing is one

    of the most absorbing and rewardingoccupations you can undertake. Any gardener willalso tell you probably loudly and at length thatgardening requires patience, resilience, hard work,

    and a lot of planning. Paperwork is probably the lastthing you have in mind when you think aboutgrowing your own vegetables. More likely you seeyourself leaning contently on your spade as all sortsof lush, healthy plants shoot up in front of your eyes.The fact of the matter, though, is that gardeningbegins not wi th seeds and a spade but wi th paper and apenci l .

    A successful vegetable garden begins with a wel l-

    organized plan of your garden space. Drawing a planmay not sound as exciting as getting outdoors andplanting things. But if you don't spend the necessarytime planning what to grow in your garden andwh en and whe re to plant it, you may spend the rest ofthe growing season correcting the mistakes youmade because yo u didn 't have a pla n. It's a lot easier toerase a bed when it's a few lines on a piece of paperthan when it's an expanse of soil and plants.

    Your plan should include not only the types andquanti ties of vegetables you 'r e going to grow and howthey'll be positioned in your garden, but alsoplanting dates and approximate dates of harvest.Making a plan may seem like a lot of work to getdone before you even start gardening, but carefulplanning will help you make the best use of yourtime and available space and will result in bigger,higher-quality crops.

    This chapter discusses all the questions you need

    to take into account when you're planning yourgarden the hows, whats, whys, whens, andwherefores. The specific cultural requirements ofeach vegetable are given in detail in Part 2.

    THE FIRST DECISION: WHAT TO GROW(AND HOW MUCH)

    The first step to planning a successful vegetable

    garden is to decide which vegetables to grow. Thismay sound fairly straightforward, but there are a lotof factors involved, and you need to answer somebasic questions: What vegetables do you and yourfamily like? Do you want to eat all your crop fresh, orstore or preserve some of your harvest? Can yougrow the vegetables you like successfully in yourclimate? How much time and energy can you putinto your garden? The first factor to consider is

    personal preference.What vegetables do you like to eat? The first

    decision to make in choosing what to grow in yourvegetable garden is simple: What vegetables do

    you and your family like to eat? Perhaps you'd love togrow peas because you remember how wonderfulthey tasted fresh out of the garden in your childhood.Or maybe your family's crazy about spinach salad orbroccoli casserole, or you're just plain tired of frozen

    vegetables.What are you going to do with it? Ho w do you planto use your vegetables, and what are you going to dowith the part of your crop that you don't eat as soonas it's harvested? Do you want to freeze, can, dry,store, or make preserves with some of your crop?

    How much do you need? How you plan to use yourvegetables directly affects how much of eachvegetable you want to grow, and will influence your

    decision about the kind of vegetable you're going toplant all carrots aren' t alike, and ther e arehundreds of different tomato varieties.

    Can you grow it? Not all vegetables gro wsatisfactorily in ail climates. Some vegetables like ithot; some refuse to grow in hot weather. Somevegetables flourish when it's cold; others just shiverand die. Certain plants go from seed to harvest in acouple of months and will grow almost anywhere inthe United States green beans and some kinds oflettuce are among these obliging vegetables. Othersare very picky and need a long stretch of warm orcool weather. You have to take the plant's needs intoconsideration before you can make a decision onwhether or not it's a practical choice for your homegarden.

    Do you have room for it? There are plants that arerather like large pets they're very endearing, butyou just can't live with them because they're too

    big. You want to grow vegetables that will give you areasonable amount of produce in the space thatyou have available. Some vegetables especiallysome vining crops like pumpkins need a greatdeal of room and give you only low yields, so they'renot a practical choi ce in a small hom e garden. An d ifyou're growing an indoor container garden, you'll dofine with cabbages in flowerpots, but there's simplyno place you're going to put a healthy watermelon

    vine or a Jerusalem artichoke.Is it worth the bother? Some vegetables requi re

    very little nurturing, and you can grow them with aminimum of toil. Others require special attentionand need to be babied. Celery and cauliflower, forexam ple, have to be blanche d blanc hing is aprocess that deprives the plant (or part of the plant) ofsunlight in order to whiten it and improve its flavor,color, or texture. Before choosing a crop that's going

    to need special handling, be sure you really want togive it that much attention. Some crops, too, arebothered a lot by insects or plant diseases corn isone of them. If you' re not willi ng to deal wit h these

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    problems as they occur, this type of crop is going tocause you more disappointment than satisfaction.

    Are you trying to save money? Another factor toconsider when you're deciding what to plant is thepractical matter of economics is the vegetablewor th growing, or would it be cheaper to buy it? Some

    vegetables are readily available and inexpensive tobuy, but would produce only low yields from a largespace if you grew them in your garden. Corn, forinstance, is inexpensive to buy when it's In season, butin your garden it needs a lot of growing space andoften only gives you one harvestable ear from a wholeplant. You may decide not to grow corn and settleinstead for a crop like endive, which is expensive inthe store but as easy as leaf lettuce to grow.

    Potatoes, too, are readily available and fairlyinexpensive to buy, but they're space-hungry in thegarden. You might like to plant an asparagus bedinstead it requires a little initial work, but givesyou a gourmet crop for years afterwards.

    The economy question, however, is not clear-cut. The fact remains that the vegetables you pickfresh from your own garden taste a whole lot betterthan the ones you buy in the store, so saving money

    may not be your prime purpose in growing them.You may be perfectly willing to give up half yourgarden (or all your balcony) in order to have acouple of ears of wonderful, milky, homegrown corncome harvesttime. You may consider the deliciousflavor of fresh carrots a more Important issue than thefact that store-bought ones are inexpensive. Theonly way you can get corn from the garden to the tablein a matter of minutes is to grow your own, and the

    freshest possible carrots are the ones you pull out ofthe backyard at dinner time. These are judgmentsyou make yourself, and they're just as importantifnot more so than whether or not a crop is easy togrow, economical in its use of space, or will save youmoney.

    How much is enough or too much?

    Your initial decision about the vegetables you'denjoy growing and eat ingand that you think youcan grow successfully In the conditions you have todeal wi th is the first step to planning a well-thought-out , productive vegetable garden. But this is thepoint where you discover that you still have very littleIdea of how much of each vegetable to grow. Youknow you want to eat some of your crop and freeze,pickle, or preserve some. But how many seeds shouldyou plant to enable you to achieve those ends?Again, advance planning can help you avoid gettingswamped with squash or overrun by radishes it'samazing how energetically your plants will prosper

    under your care and how large a plant a little seedwill produce.

    Planning for the yield you want

    Some gardeners start off in an orderly manner by

    planting all their vegetables in rows of the samelength, but space means something different to acarrot and a cauliflower. A 10-foot row of broccoli willgive you a manageable amount of produce; a 10-foot row of parsley wil l provide enough for you andthe entire neighborhood, but it isn't a big problembecause you can freeze or dry parsley and use it allyear around. A 10-foot row of radishes, however,can be a big mistake no family can eat all those

    radishes, and they don' t store well , so you couldend up with a lot of wasted radishes. Cucumberssprawl all over the place and need a lot of room;carrots are fairly picky about soil conditions, but theydo stay where you put them. So you have toestimate how productive your plants are likely to be.The description of individual vegetables in Part 2will help you estimate how many plants to grow.

    Plan how to use your crop

    Garden space, storage space for preservedvegetables, storage space for preserving equipment,family food preferences, your own preferences,your local climate, the energy costs, time involved inpreserving, and the help available (if any), are allpoints you need to consider when you're decidinghow much of a certain vegetable you want to grow.

    Before you plant large amounts of a vegetable, planwhat you're going to do with the vegetables youcan't eat at once. Check each vegetable's storagepotential detailed information on storing andpreserving Is given in Part 3 and take into accountwhether or not you want to go to the trouble ofstoring or preserving what you don't eat immediately.Some people find canning, freezing, or drying theirhome crop a most pleasurable activity. Others don't

    have time or just don't like doing It. So countingyour chickens before they're hatched is a vital part ofyour planning, and something to keep in mind evenway back In the winter when you're spending a bleakDecember day studying your seed catalogs. Comesummer, it will be too late.

    Do you want to freeze, can, dry, pickle, or store?

    There's more than one way to preserve a crop. Youcan freeze, can, dry, or make preserves and pickles.You can construct a cold storage area or a root cellarin the basement. You can make a storage pit in the

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    gard en. Some vegetables are very obl igi ng. ForInstance, extra green beans are no problem becauseyou can freeze, can, dry, or pickle them. And someroot vegetables are best stored in the ground for aslon g as possible just go out and dig the m upwh en you 're ready to use th em . If you have a big family

    and a lot of garden space, you may need to useseveral different methods to make the most of yourcrop. If you have only a small garden and a smallfamily, perhaps freezing alone is all you need toconsider. Read through the introductory sections oneach method of preserving in Part 3, so you'reaware of the space and equipment involved and theadvantages and disadvantages of each method.Consider also the climate where you live and how

    much time you're able and willing to spend onpreserving. At this point, as in your initial choice ofwhich vegetables to grow, personal preferencesare important. If your family hates turnips and onlylikes carrots raw, it's hardly going to be worthwhileto have a root cellar. If you're always on the run, it'spure fantasy to imagine yourself making preservescom e fal l. You may also wan t to investigate sharing thecrop and the work. If you live in a community of

    gardeners you may find it possible to get together onpreserving projects, sharing crops, equipment, andlabor.

    CLIMATE: HOW WHERE YOU LIVE AFFECTS

    WHAT YOU GROW

    Plants, like people, have definite ideas about wherethey like to live. Like peopl e, they flou rish in congenial

    conditions and become weak and dispirited if life istoo difficult for them to cope with. Unlike people,however, plants can't take practical steps toimprove their homesite they can't up and move,and they can't protect themselves against adverseconditions. You, the gardener, are largely responsiblefor how well your plants do in the climaticconditions you offer them, and you'll save yourself alot of frustration and disappointment if you havesome understanding of how climate affects yourgarden and if you choose your crops ac co ^i ng toyour climate.

    What gardeners mean by a "growing season"

    Throughout this book you'll encounter referencesto the "growing season." The growing season is,essentially, the length of time your area can giveplants the conditions they need to reach maturity andproduce a crop. The growing season is measured interms of the number of days between the last frost inspring and the first frost in fall. In general terms.

    these two dates mark the beginning and end of thetime in which plants grow from seed to maturity.Some areas never have frost at all and use their dryseason as their "winter." In these areas, however,it's still possible to use hypothetical "frost" dates. Sothe length of your growing season is (technically)

    totally dependent on your local climate. When youplant a vegetable depends on how well thatvegetable handles extremes of temperature.

    The dates on which a certain area can expect tohave the last spring frost and the first fall frost arecalled the "average date of last frost" and the"average date of first frost," respectively. They aregenerally used as reference points for planning andplanting vegetables, but they're not infallible. They do

    howe ver, give you a fairly accurate guide as towhich vegetables will do best in your area, and theyare the reference points most generally used in thisbook. As with every other aspect of gardening youneed to be a little bit flexible. The chart at the end ofthis chapter lists the average dates of first and lastfrosts in major cities throughout the United States.If you live within 10 miles of a city listed, you cantake these dates as accurate; three or four days either

    way is just as acceptable, so do n' t feel you must doall your plan tin g exactly on the one listed day. All thesedates are average, and the weather can alwaysspr ing surprises. If you live a long way fr om a listed cityor are for any reason unsure when to plant, call yourlocal Cooperative Extension Service or WeatherBureau for advice. The Cooperative ExtensionService is a joint effort of the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture and the state land-grant

    colleges and universities. The service's local office isan invaluable resource for the gardener, and a list ofoffices throughout the country appears in Part 4.

    Climatic or "hardiness" zones

    The average date of last frost is not the onlyreference point used to determine when to plant agarden. At one time or other gardeners have madethat date dependent on everything from "climaticzones" to the phases of the moon. Climatic zonesare the small maps you find on the back of seedpackages; they divide the United States into zonesor areas with fairly similar climates. They're probablyfar more accurate references for planting thanphases of the m oo n, but they'r e very general , and theydon't tell the whole story. There are manyincidental sometimes almost accidental conditions that can cause changes in climate within

    a climatic zone.

    The climatic zone map in the seed catalog or onthe back of a seed packet can give you a broad idea of

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    how a vegetable (or vegetable variety, becausecarrots, tomatoes, and other popular vegetables don'tby any means conform to a stereotype) will do inyour area. Climatic zones, however, don't take intoaccount the variations that occur within an areawhich, if you go by the book, has the same climatic

    conditions prevailing over many square miles. Forinstance, if the balcony of your downtown apartmentfaces south, you may be able to grow vegetables onit that would never survive in a north-facing garden ofyour apartment block. Lots of large buildings, anearby body of water like a lake, or even heavy trafficcan significantly alter the temperature (andpollution level) in a small garden. So, given all theseimponderables, it's safer to judge how well a

    vegetable will grow by considering its own toleranceto certain conditions, rather than by a hard-and-fastmap reference.

    How ' hardiness'' affects your garden plan

    The way a vegetable type reacts to climaticconditions heat, cold, moisture, and soon determines its "hardiness." It's another way

    of saying how tough it is, but the term hardiness isused specifically to indicate how well a planttolerates cold. Before you study how climate affectsyour garden, it's as well to consider whichhardiness categories certain vegetables fall in to. Thehardiness of each kind determines how thatparticular vegetable will fit into your growing season.

    The vegetables that are grown in a homevegetable garden fall into one of four hardiness

    categories: very hardy, hardy, tender, and verytender. The date on which you can safely plant eachvegetable in your garden depends on whichhardiness category it falls into.

    Very hardy vegetables can tolerate cold and frostand can be planted in the garden four to six weeksbefore the average date of last frost. They includeasparagus, broccol i, Brussels sprouts, cabbage,cauliflower, collards, Chinese cabbage,horseradish, Jerusalem artichokes, kale, kohlrabi,leeks, lettuce, onions, peas, rhubarb, rutabagas,and shallots; and the herbs chives, garlic, mint,tarragon and thyme.

    Hardy vegetables can handle a certain amount ofcold and frost and can be planted two to three weeksbefore the average date of last frost. They includebeets, cardoon, carrots, celeriac, celery, chard,chicory, dandelion, endive, parsnips, Irishpotatoes, radishes, salsify, turnips; and the herbsanise, borage, fennel, marjoram, oregano, parsley,rosemary, and savory.

    Tender vegetables don't like cold weather and can

    be planted on the average date of last frost; you willneed to protect them in some way if there's a latefrost. These vegetables include most beans, cress,mustard, sorrel, corn, tomatoes; the perennialartichokes; and the herbs basil, caraway, chervil,coriander, dill, sage, and sesame.

    Very tender vegetables will not survive any frostand must be planted after the soil has warmed up inthe spring; they can be planted two to three weeksafter the average date of last frost. These vegetablesinclude lima beans, cucumbers, eggplant,muskmelons, okra, peanuts, peppers, pumpkins,winter and summer squash, and watermelons.

    Gamblers can take a chance and plant earlier thanthese dates, but usually this gambling wil l not pay off.

    Even if you beat the odds and your plants are notfrozen out, they wil l probably be inhibited by the coldsoil , and they won't grow any faster than they wouldif you planted them at the proper time.

    THE CONDITIONS THAT ADD UP TO CLIMATE

    The degree to which the successful growing of eachvegetable type is dependent on hot and cold weather

    conditions indicates that temperature is the mostimportant aspect of climate to consider when you'replanning your vegetable garden. At this point it'shelpful to take a good look at how temperature andother basic climatic conditions affect your garden.Rainfall and sunlight also play a most important part inhow your garden grows, so let's take a look at thesethree elements and how they work with your plants.

    How temperature affects plant growth

    Average day-to-day temperatures play an importantpart in how your vegetables grow. Temperatures,both high and low, affect growth, flowering,pollination, and the development of fruits. If thetemperature is too high or too low, leafy crops maybe forced to flower prematurely without producingthe desired edible foliage. This early flowering iscalled "going to seed," and affects crops like cabbagesand lettuce. If the night temperatures get too cool itmay cause fruiting crops to drop theirflowers reducing yields considerably; peppersmay react this way to cold weather. Generally, theideal temperatures for vegetable plant growth arebetween 40 and 85F. At warmer temperatures theplant's growth will increase, but this growth maynot be sound structural growth. At lowertemperatures the plant's growth wi ll slow down or

    stop altogether.Vegetables have different temperature

    preferences and tolerances and are usually classified

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    as either cool-season crops or warm-season crops.Cool-season crops are those li ke cabbages, lettuce ,and peas, which must have time to mature beforethe weather gets too war m; otherwise they will w ilt ,die, or go to seed prematurely. These vegetablescan be started in warm weather only if there will be a

    long enough stretch of cool weather in the fall toallo w the crop to mature befo re the first freeze. Wa rm-season crops are those vegetables that can'ttolerate frost, like peppers, cucumbers, and melons.If the weather gets too cool they may not grow at all;if they do grow, yields will be reduced. Warm-seasoncrops often have larger plants than cool-seasoncrops and have larger, deeper root systems thatenable them to go for relatively longer periods

    without being watered. Even though it is convenientto thi nk of vegetables simply as eit her cool-seasonor warm-season crops, considerable differences canexist within each of these two groups.

    The following lists offer a guide to cool- andwarm-season crops. For specific planting dates foreach type of vegetable, refer to the chart at the endof "Planting Your Garden."

    Cool-season vegetables include: globe

    artichokes, asparagus, beets, broad beans, broccoli,Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower,celeriac, celery, chard, chicory, Chinese cabbage,collards, cress, dandelion, endive, cardoon,horseradish, Jerusalem artichokes, kale, kohlrabi,leeks, lentils, lettuce, onions, parsnips, sweet peas,white potatoes, radishes, rhubarb, rutabagas, salsify,shallots, sorrel, spinach, and turnips. Cool-seasonherbs include: anise, borage, chive, dill, oregano,parsley, peppermint, rosemary, sage, savory,spearmint, tarragon, and thyme.

    Included among the warm-season vegetablesare: dry beans, lima beans, mung beans, snap orgreen beans, chayote, chick peas, corn,cucumbers, eggplant, muskmelons, mustard, okra,black-eyed peas, peanuts, peppers, sweetpotatoes, pumpkins, soybeans. New Zealand spinach,summer squash, winter squash, tomatoes, andwatermelons. Warm-season herbs include: basil,

    caraway, chervil, coriander, marjoram, andsesame.

    Rainfall: How plants use water

    The amount and timing of the rainfall in your areaalso affects how your vegetables grow. Too much rainat one time can wash away seeds or young seedlingsand damage or even kill mature plants. A constant rain

    when certain plants are flowering can reduce thepollination of the flowers and reduce yields. This canhappen to tomatoes, peppers, beans, eggplant,

    melons, pumpkins, and both summer and wintersquash. A constant rain can also tempt the honeybees to stay in their hives instead of pollinating theplants; again, yields will be affected.

    Too little rain over a period of time can slow downplant growth and kill young seedlings or even mature

    plants. Limited moisture in the air can also inhibitpol lin ati on and reduce the yields of some vegetables.Too little rain can be more easily remedied than toomu ch . If it rains to o litt le, you can water the garden. Ifit rains too much, all you can do is pray.

    Rainfall is probably the easiest climatic conditionto improve. Farmers have worried and complainedabout the rainfall since the beginning ofagri cult ure. If you' ve got thousands of acres of land

    and no control over the available water it can bevery frustrating if not a disaster. Since the homegarden is usually small and fairly manageable insize, you can do something to regulate how muchwater it gets. If you don't get enough rain when youneed it, you can simply water, and there are manydifferent methods you can use. These are describedin detail in "Caring for Your Garden." Too much raincan be more difficult to deal with, and here you

    need to take preventive measures. The betterdrained your soil is, the better it will be able to dealwith too much water. When you select the site foryour gar den, av oid any area that is low-lyi ng or poorlydra ine d. If that's the onl y site that you have for thegarden and you're really serious aboutgarde ning you can i mpro ve it by installingdrainage tiles. This can be a costly and complicatedprocess, so consider it only as a last resort.

    Light: Your plants can't live without it

    The third major climatic factor is light, and it's animportant factor to consider when you plan yourgarde n. Sunlight or some type of li ght provides energy that turns water and carbondioxide into the sugar that plants use for food. Greenplants use sugar to form new cells, to thickenexisting cell walls, and to develop flowers and fruit.

    The more intense the light, the more effective it is.Light intensity, undim inis hed by obstructio ns, isgreater in the summer than in the winter, andgreater in areas where the days are sunny and brightthan in areas where it's cloudy, hazy, or foggy. As arule, the greater the light intensity the greater theplants' pr odu cti on of sugar pro vid ed, of course,that it's not too hot or too cold and the plants get theright amount of water.

    If a plant is going to produce flowers and fruit, itmust have a store of energy beyond what it needs justto grow stems and leaves. If the light is limited, even

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    a plant that look s green and healthy may neverproduce flowers or fruit. This can be a problem withvegetables like tomatoes, where you want to eat thefruit. With lettuce, where you're only interested inthe leaves, it's not an issue. All th e same, all vegetablesneed a certain amount of light in order to grow

    properl y, and wit hou t it all the wateri ng, weedin g, andwishing in the world will not make them flourish.

    How day length affects your crops. Many plants,inc lud ing tomatoes and many weed s, are not affectedby day length how lo ng it stays light dur in g theday. But for many others the length of the day plays abig part in regulating when they mature and flower.Some plants are long-day plants, which means theyneed 12 or more hours of sunlight daily in order to

    initiate fl ow eri ng. Radishes and spinach are long-dayplants, and this is the main reason they go to seed sofast in the middle of the summer when the day lengthis more than 12 hours. If you want to grow radishesor spinach in midsummer, you have to cover themwith a light-proof box at about 4 p.m. everyafternoon to fool them into thinking the day's over.Other plants are short-day plants and need lessthan 12 hours of light to initiate flowering; soybeans

    and corn are examples. Many varieties of short-dayplants have been b red to resist the effects of long days,but-most will still flower more quickly when thedays are shorter.

    How much sunlight is necessary? Vegetablesgrown for their fruits need a minimum of six to eighthours of direct light each day. Less light frequentlymeans less than a ful l cr op . I t's very frust rat ing to try togrow tomatoes, peppers, or eggplants in the shade;they'll often produce a good, green plant without

    givin g you anyt hing at all in the way of a vegetable.Crops that are grown for their roots and leaves,however, will give you satisfactory results in lightshade.

    Root crops, such as beets, carrots, radishes,and turnips, store up energy before they flower anddo rather well in partial shade, especially if youdon't compare them with the same crop grown in fullsun. Plants like lettuce and spinach that are grown

    for their leaves are most tolerant of shade; in fact,where the sun is very hot and bright they may needsome shade for protect ion. Onl y mushrooms andsprouts can be produced without any light at all.

    Making the most of your garden light. If you have achoice of where to grow your vegetable garden, don'tput it in the shade of buildings, trees, or shrubs. Theaccompanying illustration shows how to give plantseno ugh light . R emember that as well as shading an

    area, trees and sh rubs also have roots that may exte ndunderground well beyond the overhead reach oftheir branches. These roots will compete with thevegetable plants for nutrients. Stay clear especially

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    of walnut trees; they produce iodine, a growthretardant that will stunt or kill the vegetable plantsin your garden. Go out and stand in your garden to see

    just how the light falls. Walk around and find wherethe light fails to penetrate. This knowledge will be veryuseful when you come to planting time.

    Providing shade from too much sun. Mostvegetables need full sun for best growth, but young ornewly transplanted plants may need someprotection from bright, direct sunlight. It's easier foryou, as a gardener, to provide shade where there'stoo much sun than to brighten up a shady area. Youcan, for instance, plant large, sturdy plants like

    sunflowers or Jerusalem artichokes to provide ascreen, and you can design your garden so thatlarge plants and small ones each get the light theyneed. You can also shade young plants with boxesor screens when necessary. However, too li ttle sun isfar more serious a problem in a garden than toomuch.

    How to make the most of your climate

    Whatever the climate is like where you live, you arenot entirely at the mercy of the elements. There arecertain improvements you can make to enable youto grow some vegetables that would not normally dowell in your area. Don't expect miracles you can

    improve condi tions, but you can't change the climate.No amount of watering can change a desert into avegetable garden; however, if the average rainfall inyour area is reasonable, a few hours of watering canimprove it more than you'd think possible.Experiment with the microclimates in your

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    neighborhood and your yard; it may be possible toincrease your growing season and grow vegetablesthat need a longer growing season than your climatetechnically provides. Microclimates may alsoenable you to grow tender perennials that would notnormally survive the winter in your area. The secret

    is to make the most of the conditions that exist in yourgarden. Experiment plant a tender vegetableclose to the south wall of your house; it may not get allthe sun it needs, but protection from wind and coldmay help it grow where it wouldn't grow at all in theopen garden.

    Another way to frustrate the natural temperaturelimitations of your local climate is by using transplantsInstead of seeds in spring. Transplants are young

    plants started from seed indoors or in a warm placeand set out in the garden later; this gives you a headstart on your growing season, but you can't do it withall vegetables. Growing transplants is discussed indetail in the chapter, "Planting Your Garden," alongwith ways of protecting plants against extremes oftemperature.

    Other weather conditions can also affect theyields of your vegetable crops. Dry, windy days and

    cool night temperatures (a 10F drop from daytemperatures) can cause fruiting crops peppers, forinstance to drop their flowers before they'repol linated; th is means you lose a lot of your crop. Youcan avoid it to some extent by putting up some typeof windbreak to protect the crops from drying winds.It's comforting to remember that although youcan't make major changes in your climate, you cancertainly do a lot to help your plants make the mostof their environment.

    Cold frames and hot frames:Extending your gardening season

    If you have the space for it, a cold frame a glass-enclosed growing area outside can add an extradimension to your garden. It's an ideal place to starthardy annuals and perennials or to put plants in thespring to harden them for the rigors of outdoor life.

    When you have started vegetables inside, especiallythe cold-tolerant ones, you can move them to a coldframe and give them the benefit of much more light ina protected place. And since a cold frame uses solarheat, it qualif ies as an energy-saving device. The hardyherbs, radishes, let tuces, and other greens can begrown in a cold frame dur ing a good part of the year,even in the Nor th.

    A cold frame, often called a "poor man's

    greenhouse," can be made from scrap lumber and oldstorm windows. It should not be too deep fromfront to back or you'll have trouble getting plants in

    and out. Cold frames capture solar heat, and if theyslant to the south they can take advantage of thegreatest amount of sun.

    On the days when the sun is bright you may haveto provide some shade to keep the plants fromsunburning, or lift the cold frame windows to keep

    plants from steaming. If the sun is bright enough thetemperature inside a co ld frame can reach 85 to95F when the temperature outside is only 15F. But oncold nights when the temperature drops belowfreezing, a cold frame wi ll need some extraprotection. An old quilt or blanket under a tarp is agood cover. If you have nothing else newspapers willdo , although they are a bit harder to handle.

    If a cold frame sounds like something you'd like

    to try, look around for some turn-of-the-centurygarden books. These provide excellent step-by-step instructions for building and using cold framesand offer suggestions on how to do all kinds ofserious cold-frame growing.

    Hot frames are a bit more challenging than coldframes, and the opportunities for frustration aremultiplied. In hot frames, heat is provided either byrotting manure (the classic system) or by electricity

    (the modern way). Decomposing cow, horse, andmule manure do not work the same way, and the heatof decomposition depends on the age, the kinds,and amount of litter present. When you're usingmanure there are no thermostats or controls,except the gardener's know-how. Electricity is mucheasier but a lot more expensive than manure, andthere is still work for the gardener to do.

    If you have a basement window facing southwith some space outside, you can incorporate it intoyour hot or cold frame. It wi ll also provide a basic"course in the management of a greenhouse thenext step in gardening addiction.

    HOW TO GET YOUR GARDEN STARTED:PUTTING THE THEORIES TO WORK

    Up to this po int , most of your garden planning has

    been theoretical. You've given thought to thevegetables you want to grow, what you're going todo with them, and how much you need to grow.You've got an idea of how the climate in your areawill influence your final choice of vegetables.You're beginning to understand your microclimate how growing conditions in your own yard maydiffer from the general climate of your area. Nowyou're ready to start getting your plans on paper,

    but as soon as you open the seed catalog, confusionstrikes again. You want to grow your own corn,tomatoes, lettuce, and carrots but what kind?

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    Finding the varieties suited to your area. Becausethere are so many varieties, it can be very difficult tochoose the right one. Part 2 of this book describesthe individual vegetables and their culturalrequirements and lists some of the best and mostwidely used varieties. But in many cases the varieties

    listed represent only the tip of the iceberg. Where alarge number of varieties are available (as with corn ortomatoes) or where success depends as much ongr owi ng condit ion s as on variety (as wi th onion s), yourbest bet is to get in touch with your localCooperative Extension Service. The service's expertswill be able to tell you exactly which varieties will dobest in the gr owi ng condi tio ns that exist in your part ofthe country. A complete list of CooperativeExtension Services is given in Part 4, together withdetailed information on how to get your gardeningquestions expertly answered by their qualifiedhorticulturalists.

    Guaranteed varieties: The All-America Selection.

    Ano the r way to fi nd t he most reliable varieties for yourarea is thr oug h the All-Ameri ca Selections. This is anonprofit organization of seedsmen who developand promote new varieties of vegetables andflowers. The organization awards gold, silver, or

    bronze medals to vegetable varieties that have beenproven to produce reliable results in most areas of theUnited States. If a vegetable is listed in your seedcatalog as an All- Ameri ca Selecti on, you can be surethat it has been tested by growers all over thecountry and that it's a good bet for your own garden.The organization does not bestow its seal ofapproval light ly only one or two vegetable varietieswin a gold medal in any year.

    Experiment with different varieties. Remember,too, that you don't always have to play by the rules.You can plant more than one variety of a vegetableand decide for yourself which one is best suited toyou r palate and your garden . You can also extendyour harvest by planting varieties that mature atdifferent times. Experimenting is a good part of thefun of growing a vegetable garden.

    Dates: When to plant and when to harvest

    Selecting the varieties you're going to grow givesyou some hard information with which to work. Younow know when to plant your vegetables. Thehardiness chart in "Plan ting Your Ga rd en " wi ll tell youto wh ic h category very hardy, hardy, ten der,very tender a vegetable belongs and whe n to plantit. Now is the time to decide whether to use seeds or

    transplants . Transplants are you ng plants started fr omseed indoors or in a warm place (like a hot frame)and planted in the garden when the weather's warm

    enough. By planting transplants you can often get ahead start on your growing season and avoid some ofthe limitations placed on you by your area climate.Not all vegetables, however, take kindly to beingtransplanted. Full information about growingvegetables from transplants including what to plant

    and when is given in "Planting Your Garden."It's important to plan your planting dates

    accurately. It's also imp ort ant to know wh en your cropwill be ready for harvest. The number of days ittakes a plant to reach maturity varies according to typeand to varieties within a type.

    Each vegetable variety has its "days to maturity"listed in the seed catalog. Take a calendar, and seehow the dates fall for the crops you're thinking of

    growing. For instance, "jade Cross Hybrid" Brusselssprouts take 95 days to maturity. They're very hardy,so you can plant them six weeks before your lastspring frost. If your area expects its last frost at theend of Ap ri l, yo u can plant your Brussels sprouts in thegarden in mid-March, and they'll mature in mid-June. They're a cool-season vegetable, so as long asthe weather in your area won't be sizzling hot bymid-June, you should do well with them. In this way,work out all the dates on which you can expect to

    harvest your vegetables, and make a list of them. Thiswill give you a chance to make changes if, despite allyour planning, you've got too large a crop maturing atthe same time. It will also give you some ideas about"paci ng" your crop.

    Pacing your harvest for best yield

    Deciding when to plant involves more than

    avoiding kil lin g frosts. It also means pacing your planting so you get maximum yields from limitedspace. You can harvest some crops gradually,enjoyi ng them for a long period of tim e; othersmature all at once. This takes careful planning. Youhave to have a good idea of how long it will takeyour vegetables to mature and how long the harvestwill last. It will also take some self-control. Thetem pta tio n to plant rows of everyt hing at once is great.

    Planting short rows. A simple way to pace yourharvest is to plant only short rows or partial rows.Planting short rows is probably easier; you may feelmore comfortable with a complete row, even if it isshort. A 10-foot row looks short, but 10 feet ofradishes ready to eat at once is more than mostpeople can handle. Ten feet of parsley or garlic maybe more than enough for the whole neighborhood.You can freeze parsley and dry the garlic, but what

    can you do with all those radishes? Unwantedexcesses of crops can be avoided if you divide yourseeds into groups before going out to plant. Put them

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    in "budge t" envelopes to be planted on definitedates later on in the season but before the early cropsare harvested. For instance, plant lettuce every twoweeks. This way you can have vegetables all season,rather than glut followed by famine.

    Using several varieties. Another way to pace your

    harvest is to plant several varieties of the samevegetable that mature at different rates. Forinstance, on the average date of last frost plant threedifferent tomato varieties: an early variety that willmature in about 60 to 70 days; a midseason variety thatwill mature in about 75 to 80 days; and a late varietythat will mature in about 80 to 90 days. By plantingthese three varieties on the same day you havespread your harvest over a 30- to 50-day period,

    instead of a 10- to 20-day period.Succession planting. With careful planning you

    may also be able to save garden space and get two ormore harvests from the same spot by successionplant ing. After early-maturing crops are harvested,you clear a portion of the garden and replant it witha new crop. Plant so that cool-season crops grow in thecooler part of the season, and warm-season cropscan take advantage of warmer weather.

    One example of succession planting is to start offwith a fast-growing, cool-season crop that can beplanted earlyle ttuce, spinach, and cabbage(cole) family vegetables are good examples. Replacethese by warm-weather crops like New Zealandspinach, chard, corn, okra, and squash. Then in fallmake another planting of cole crops, or put in rootcrops like turnips or beets.

    In a small area, one simple plan is to start off withspinach, which is very hardy but hates hot weather,and replace it with heat-tolerant New Zealandspinach. Despite their different temperaturerequirements, the two can double for each other intaste, and you get spinach all season long.

    You can also make double use of trel lis space abig plus in a small garden. Plant early peas, replacethem with cucumbers, and after harvesting yourcucumbers, plant peas again for a fall crop.

    Companion planting. This is another way to

    double up on planting space. This you do by plantingshort-term crops between plants that will take alonger time to mature. The short-term crops areharvested by the time the longer-season crops needthe extra room. A good example of this is to plantradishes between rows of tomatoes; by the time thetomatoes need the space, the radishes will be gone.

    GETTING YOUR GARDEN ON PAPER

    By this time you've put a lot of thought into yourgarden plan, and you've got some vital information

    and dates on paper the names of the varietiesyou're going to plant and your planting and harvestdates. Now comes the real paperwork. The size ofyour garden depends on your interest in gardeningand how much time you're going to be able to giveto the garden. Some gardeners use every available

    inch of space; others use a small corner of theirproperty some, of course, don' t have much choice,and this may be your case if you have a small gardento begin with or if you're gardening on a patio orbalcony. The larger your garden, the more time andwork it's going to need, so unless you're alreadyhooked on gardening, it's probably better to startsmall and let your garden size increase as yourinterest in gardening and confidence in your ability

    develops.Before you decide the exact dimensions, look atthe list of the vegetables you've chosen and theamount you're going to grow of each one , andfigure ou t if they're going to fit into the allotted space.You may see at once that you've overestimatedwhat you can grow in the available space, so you'l lhave to do a little compromising between fantasyand reality. If your projected crops look as though

    they'll fi t, you can now start drawing an actual plan.

    Drawing a plot plan

    This is the pencil-and-paper stage of planning, andif you use graph paper, you'll find it easier to work toscale. Don' t be intimidated by all this talk aboutdrawing and sketching. Your garden plan doesn'thave to be a work of art just a working document.

    Drawing to scale, however, is helpful. A commonlyused scale is one inch on paper to eight feet ofgarden space adapt the scale to whatever iseasiest for you .

    Draw up a simple p lot plan giving your garden'smeasurements in all directions. Remember there's nolaw that says a garden has to be square orrectangular. Your vegetable garden can be round,triangular, curved, or any shape that fits yourlandscape and takes best advantage of the space

    you've got. When you've drawn the outline, sketchin all the nongrowing areas where you won't be able to ''plant trees, shrubs, sidewalks, sheds, buildings,wal ls, and the garage. Indicate any areas that areparticularly shady or poorly drained and, therefore,aren't suitable for fussy crops.

    Planning for three stages. It's helpful to draw threeplot plans: The first wil l show the garden at plantingtime in the spring; the second will show the garden

    in the summer; and the third will show the garden inthe fall. These plans will reflect the changes thattake place in your garden when you harvest early

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    crops and replace them with new plantings. Maketwo copies of plans; keep one set inside where theplans will stay dry, clean/and legible. Use the otherset in the garden where it probably won't stay dry,clean, or legible for long. Plans have also beenknown to blow away in a spring breeze a disaster if

    that's your only copy.Putting the plants into the plan. Once you've

    outlined your plot and indicated all the nongrowing

    areas, get down to detai l. Use the accompanyingillustrations as a guide, and divide the plot among thevegetables you want to grow. The individualdescriptions of vegetables in Part 2 give detailedinformation on the amount of space each vegetableneeds for growth. For a quick check on spacing refer

    to the chart at the end of "Planting Your Garden."Don' t try to economize on space better a smallernumber of healthy plants than a lot of starved ones.

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    Using your space efficiently. Take care in placingthe vegetables. Place the taller plants on the north ornortheast side of the garden so that as they growthey won' t shade the rest of the garden. In a largegarden where you've got plenty of space, the mostconvenient way to lay out the vegetables is in rows

    and hills. Straight rows and hills are easier to water,weed, cultivate, mulch, and fertilize. If you are goingto use a rototiller, make sure the rows are large

    enough to accommodate the machine.In smaller gardens it's more space-efficient to

    plant in wide rows or in solid blocks four to five feetwide. You must always be able to reach the centerof a wide row comfortably from either side and to getbetween the short rows in a block. You can also

    save space in a small garden by using verticalspace growing vining crops up a trellis, forexample, rather than letting them spread all over the

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    ground. Similarly, tomatoes can be staked or cagedto contain their growth.

    Adding dates and details. Finally, indicate whetheryou're planting from transplants or seeds, and addyour planting dates for each vegetable; now yourplan is complete, and you can see exactly what you'l l

    be doing come spring. You'll also have compiled agood mental library of incidental knowledge aboutplants and how they grow and how your climate

    affects them; this knowledge is going to stand you ingood stead throughout your growing season.

    Recording the growth of your garden

    If you're serious about gardening, you should keep

    records. Planning your records should be part ofplanning your garden. The better the planning, themore efficient use you'll be able to make of your time

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    and the more time you will have for enjoying thepleasures of your garden not just keeping up withthe chores. Build your records the same way youbui ld your garden; profit from past mistakes, andIncorporate new ideas.

    Start out wi th a ledger that has sewn-in pages.

    Don't write notes on slips of paper and expect to beable to find the one you want when you want It.Don 't use a three-r ing notebook, because if you cantake a page out you wi ll , and then you'l l probablylose it. Your first entry m your record of your vegetablegarden should be the plot you designed when you

    ordered the seeds. Mark this page with a paper clip soyou can easily find it.

    After the garden plot , you can keep a daily recordof preparing the soil, planting, weeding, fertilizing,growing results (or lack of results); whether theharvest of each item was sufficient, too much, or not

    enough; and problems with weeds, bugs, or lack ofrain. At the end of the growing season you'l l have acomplete record of what you did and a recordcan be good for the morale.

    Your record wi ll list the plants that did well Inyour garden and those that didn't, and thisinformation will give you the basics for planningnext year's garden. Include in your ledger commentsabout the weather, varieties of plants that were

    productive or flopped, and notes about why you thinksome plants made it and others did not.

    The computerized garden plan

    If all this planning thoroughly intimidates you,don't abandon the idea of gardening. It's the age oftechnology, and you can have your entire gardenplanned by a computer. The computer uses some

    basic information that you supply about yourgarden and develops a complete, easy-to-use planthat includes all the information the novicegardener needs to grow a vegetable garden. The onlyproblem involved in having your garden planned bya computer is f ind ing out who offers the service. At themoment only a few states' Cooperative ExtensionServices and a few seed companies providecomputerized planning services, but they'rerapidly becoming popular and more available. Askyour local Cooperative Extension Service if theyoffer computerized planning or can put you in touchwi th some organization that does. You may alsofind such services advertised in gardening magazines.

    CONTAINER GARDENING

    In areas where there is little or no space, a well-organized container garden can produce substantial

    vegetables. A po int to remember about containergardening: The small volume of soil in a raised bed willwarm up faster in spring than the soil in your opengarden. This gives you a longer growing season,because you can start your cool-season cropsearlier. You can also bring plants inside if thetemperature takes an unexpected plunge thismobili ty is an advantage you obviously lack in an opengarden.

    Plan a container garden the same way as a smallgarden plot, making the best possible use of yourvertical space. Use a trellis for vining crops and

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    stakes and cages for tomatoes or other semi-viningcrops. If you're planting on a balcony, don't let anypossible support go to waste. Position climbing plantswhere the railing provides a readymade trellis.There are also space-saving techniques unique tocontainer gardens. You can use the vertical space of

    a container itself by planting in holes or pockets inthe sides of the container. Growing some vining plantsin hanging baskets wil l save space too, but be sureto place hanging baskets where they won't shadeother plants. When you are growing a containergarden, always select varieties that are suitable forcontainer growing, and remember that containersdry out faster than a traditional garden, so you'l l needto water more often. Plants growing in containers

    are also more affected by changes in temperature; youdo have the advantage, though, of being able tomove them to a more protected area or even inside oncool nights.

    Essentially, planning a container garden is lit tledifferent from planning an outdoor plot. The maindifference may be in the varieties you choose ifyou' re planting in a confined space you're going totake a special interest in smaller varieties and plants

    with compact, contained growth habits. But basically,any plant that will grow in your garden will alsogrow on your balcony or patio.

    Extending your garden indoors

    If you don't have a garden or even a balcony, youcan still have a container vegetable garden. Don'tunderestimate the number of vegetables that can

    be grown successfully indoors. Near a bright windowthat is not too warm, leafy vegetables, such aslettuce, parsley, and chives, will do nicely. Fruitingplants are worth a try, but they take a lot more lightat a higher intensity; unless the window is very bright,the plants may grow but not produce. Cherrytomatoes in hanging baskets will sometimes grow invery bright windows, and sometimes plants can bebrought in from outdoors and grown on for severalmonths. Herbs are rewarding indoor-gardenplants, and they go a long way in adding your personaltouch to everyday eating.

    Providing indoor lighting

    If you have lights or if you have a place for puttinglights, you can grow vegetables indoors without anysun at all. Lettuce does beautifully in the basementor the attic when grown under fluorescent

    lightusually these spots are not as warm as therest of the house. Lettuce can also be grown in anapartment if you can find a spot where the heating is

    not very efficient or if you don' t mind wearing asweater.

    Cucumbers will grow beautifully under artificiallight. But just as long days will prevent flowering, sowill long periods under artificial light. The bestthing to do is experiment and find what does well for

    you. A timer can be useful in giving certain plants adark resting period. Given lots of water, watercressworks almost as well as lettuce under the lights.Instead of seeds, you can start with cuttings (thebottoms of some of those stems of fresh watercressyou bought to indulge yourself).

    Various possibi lities for using vegetables ashouseplants are discussed in the description ofindividual vegetables in Part 2.

    Gardening in a greenhouse:A refuge for plants and gardener

    With a greenhouse you can garden all year aroundand experiment with ail kinds of plants that you havelittle chance of growing out in the open garden. Agreenhouse is also a nice, cozy, private place for thegardener whose gardening time Is often interrupted

    by demands from other family members. If you'regoing to buy and install a greenhouse, it's worthgetting a good one. Greenhouses vary vastly in size,price, and construction and many companiessupply them; not all of them, however, are well -designed and well-put-together, so you need to dosome homework. The following are reputable sourcesthat can provide you with basic information to helpyou make a choice. Some of them wi ll design agreenhouse to fi t your available space andspecifications.

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    First and last frost dates for major cities in the United States

    state and city Average date of Average date of Number of days in

    last frost first frost growing season

    Alabama

    Birm ingha m Marc h 19 Nove mber 14 241

    Mo bi le February 17 Decem ber 12 298

    Mon tgo mer y February'27 December 3 279

    Alaska

    Anch orag e May 18 September 13 118

    Cord ova May 10 Oct obe r 2 145Fairbanks May 24 Augu st 29 97

    Arizona

    Flagstaff June 8 Oc to be r 2 116Phoen ix January 27 Dec emb er 11 317Win slo w Apr il 28 Octo ber 21 176

    Arkansas

    Fort Smith Marc h 23 Nove mber 9 231Little Rock Mar ch 16 No vem ber 15 244

    California

    Bakersfield February 14 No vem ber 28 287

    Fresno February 3 Dec emb er 3 303

    Sacra mento January 24 Dec emb er 11 321

    ColoradoDenver May 2 Octo ber 14 165

    Pueblo Apr il 28 Octo ber 12 167

    Connecticut

    Har tfo rd Apr il 22 Octo ber 19 180

    New Haven Apri l 15 Oct obe r 25 193

    District of Columbia

    Was hin gto n Apri l 10 Oct obe r 28 200

    Florida

    Jacksonvil le February 6 Dec emb er 16 313

    Or lan do January 31 Decem ber 17 319

    Tallahassee February 26 Dec emb er 3 280Tampa January 10 Dec emb er 26 349

    Georgia

    Atlanta March 20 Nove mber 19 244

    Mac on Mar ch 12 Nove mber 19 252

    Savannah February 21 Dec emb er 9 291

    Idaho

    Boise Apr il 29 Oc to be r 16 171

    Pocatell o May 8 Sept embe r 30 155

    Illinois

    Cairo March 23 Nove mber 11 233

    Chicago Apri l 19 Oct obe r 28 192

    Sprin gfield Apr il 8 Octo ber 30 205

    Urbana Apr il 22 Octo ber 20 151

    IndianaEvansville Apr il 2 Nov em ber 4 216

    Fort Wayne Apri l 24 Oct obe r 20 179

    Indiana polis Apri l 17 Oct obe r 27 193

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    First and last frost dates for major cities in the United States (cont.)

    state and city Average date of Average date of Number of days inlast frost first frost growing season

    IowaDes Moines Apr il 20 October 19 183Dubuque April 19 October 19 184

    KansasConcordia Apr il 16 October 24 191Topeka Apr il 9 October 26 200Wichi ta Apr il 5 November 1 210

    KentuckyLexington Apri l 13 October 28 198Louisville Apr il 1 November 7 220

    LouisianaLake Charles February 18 December 6 . 291New Orleans February 13 December 12 302Shreveport March 1 November 27 272

    MaineGreenvil le May 27 September 20 116Presque Isle May 31 September 18 110Portland Apr il 29 October 15 169

    MarylandBaltimore March 28 November 17 234Cumberland May 1 October 10 163

    MassachusettsAmherst May 12 September 19 130Boston Apr il 16 October 25 192Nantucket Apri l 12 November 16 219

    MichiganDetroit Apri l 25 October 23 181Grand Rapids April 25 October 27 185Lansing May 6 October 8 155

    Minnesota

    Duluth May 22 September 24 125Minneapolis Apri l 30 October 13 166

    MississippiJackson March 10 November 13 248Biloxi February 22 November 28 279Vicksburg March 8 November 15 252

    Missouri \Columbia Apri l 9 October 24 198Kansas City Apr il 5 October 31 210St. Louis April 2 November 8 220

    Montana Billings May 15 September 24 132Glasgow May 19 September 20 124Havre May 9 September 23 138

    NebraskaLincoln Apri l 20 October 17 180Norfolk May 4 October 3 152Omaha Apri l 14 October 20 189

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    First and last frost dates for major cities in the United States (cont.)

    State and city Average date of Average date of Number of days in

    last frost first frost growing season

    NevadaLas Vegas Mar ch 13 Nov emb er 13 245

    Reno May 14 Oct obe r 2 141

    New HampshireConc ord May 11 Octobe r 1 143

    New JerseyNew Brunsw ick Apr il 21 Oct obe r 19 179 .Tren ton Apr il 8 Nove mber 5 211

    New MexicoAlbuquerque April 16 Oct ob er 29 196

    Santa Fe Apr il 23 Oct ob er 19 179New York

    Bing hamt on May 4 Oct obe r 6 154Buffalo Apr il 29 Oct obe r 23 178New York Apr il 7 Nove mber 12 219

    North Carolina

    Char lotte Mar ch 21 Nove mbe r 15 239Raleigh Ma rch 24 . No vem ber 16 237

    Wilm ing ton March 15 November 19 274

    North Dakota

    Bismarck May 11 Sept ember 24 136Fargo May 13 Sept embe r 27 137

    Will ist on May 14 September 23 132

    OhioCinci nnat i Apr il 15 Octo ber 25 192

    Clevelan d Apr il 21 Nove mber 2 195Col umb us Apr il 17 Oct obe r 30 196Dayton Apr il 20 Oct obe r 21 184

    Toledo Apri l 24 Octobe r 25 184

    OklahomaOkl aho ma City Marc h 28 Nove mber 7 223

    Tulsa Marc h 31 Nove mbe r 2 216

    OregonMed for d Apri l 25 Octobe r 20 178

    Por tlan d February 25 Dec emb er 1 279Salem Ap ril 14 Oct ob er 27 197

    Pennsylvania

    Har risbu rg Apr il 10 Oct obe r 28 201

    Philadelphia March 30 Nove mber 17 232

    Pittsburgh April 20 Octo ber 23 187

    Rhode IslandProviden ce Apr il B Octo ber 27 197

    South Carolina

    Charle ston February 19 Decem ber 10 294Colu mbia March 14 November 21 252

    Green ville Mar ch 23 Nove mbe r 17 239

    South DakotaHu ro n May 4 Septembe r 30 149

    Rapid City May 7 Oc to be r 4 150

    Sioux Falls May 5 Oc tob er 3 152

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    First and last frost dates for major cities in the United States (cont.)

    state and city Average date of Average date of Number of days Inlast frost first frost growing season

    TennesseeChattanooga March 26 November 10 229Knoxville March 31 November 6 220Memphis March 20 November 12 237Nashville March 28 November 7 224

    TexasBrownsvil le February 15 December 10 298Dallas March 18 November 22 249Houston February 5 December 11 309Plainview Apr il 10 November 6 211

    UtahBlanding May 18 October 14 148Salt Lake City April 12 November 1 202

    VermontBurlington May 8 October 3 148Saint Johnsbury May 22 September 25 126

    VirginiaNorfolk March 18 November 27 254Richmond April 2 November 8 220

    WashingtonSeattle February 23 December 1 281

    Spokane April 20 October 12 175West Virginia

    Charleston Apri l 18 October 28 193Parkersburg Apri l 16 October 21 189

    WisconsinGreen Bay May 6 October 13 161La Crosse May 1 October 8 161Madison Apr il 26 October 19 177Milwaukee Apri l 20 October 25 188

    Wyoming

    Casper May 18 September 25 ' 130Cheyenne May 20 September 27 130Sheridan May 21 September 21 123

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    7here are a great many garden tools on theyou'll be able to tell at a glance if you've put

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    7here are a great many garden tools on themarket. Some are necessary, some are helpful,and some are a complete waste of money. If you'rea beginning gardener, approach all this equipmentwith cautionbe sure that you're going to enjoybeing a gardener before you spend a small fortune on

    tools . Remember, too, that one of your motives inbeing a gardener Is to save money by growing yourown vegetables; you'll have to grow a lot of lettuceto pay for a $300 rototiller.

    When you decide which tools you need, buy thebest you can find and take good care of them. As in somany other activities, it's a long-term economymove to buy good equipment right awayask anyserious cook. Good tools work better and last

    longer than the cheap kinds that fall to pieces the firsttime you need them to do any real work.The first test of a tool is how it feels in your hands.

    Is it well-balanced? Can you lift it when it's ful l as wellas when it's empty? Gardeners and gardening toolscome in different sizes and weights; since you'll beworking together, you and your equipment shouldbe compatible.

    In caring for your tools, there are three basicrules that are often stated and seldom fol lowed:

    1. Clean your tools before putting them away. Itmay be a bore, but it's even more boring to have toclean them before you can use them again.

    2. Have a regular storage place for each tool .Visitors will be impressed by your orderliness, and

    you ll be able to tell at a glance if you ve puteverything away or if you've left some small item out inthe rain to rust.

    3. Use each tool the way it was meant to be used.For instance, a rakeeven a good-quaii ty rake^won'tlast long if you consistently use it to dig holes or

    turn soi l. You've got a perfectly good spade for thosetasks.Follow these three simple rules and your tools

    wil l give you long, eff icient, and economical service.

    BASIC GARDENING TOOLS

    The following are the basic tools of the gardener.You may not need them all. Consider the type and

    amount of gardening you do, and choose theimplements that best suit your needs.Shovel and spade. A shovel has a curved scoop and

    a handle with a handgrip. It's used for lifting, turning,and moving soil. A spade is a sturdy tool w ith a thickhandle (and a handgrip) and a heavy blade that youpress into the ground w ith your foot. The blade isusually flatter and sharper than the shovel's, and oftensquared off at the bottom. A spade is for harddigging work; it should be strong but light enough tohandle comfortably. A nursery shovel or nurseryspade is an excellent all-around tool in the vegetablegarden.

    Spading fork. A spading fork is also used for heavydigging, and its two to four prongs make it the best

    tool for breaking up compacted soil lifting root mounding the soil and for making rows and it's one

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    tool for breaking up compacted soil, lifting rootvegetables, and digging weeds. The handle is sturdyand has a handgrip; your foot presses the prongsinto the ground. Forks with flexible prongs are calledpitchforks; the ones with sturdier, rigid prongs arecalled spading forks.

    Rake. A rake with a long handle and short sturdymetal prongs is used for leveling and grading soil,stirring up the soil surface, and removing lumps,rocks, and shall ow-r oote d weeds . It's an essential toolfor the home gardener. You can also get rakes withlonge r, fle xibl e fingers. This type is not as versatile asthe first type, but it's good for gentle cultivating,cleaning-up chores like raking the leaves, andcollecting trash from between plants.

    Hoe. The hoe is a tool with a flat blade attached atright angles to a long handle. It's used for stirring or

    mounding the soil and for making rows, and it s oneof the gardener's most necessary tools. It's also usedfor cutti ng off weeds and cultivating.

    Trowel. This is a short-handled implement with apointed scoop-shaped blade. It can be used as a handshovel or spade and is useful when transplanting

    young plants into the garden.Hose. A garden hose is essential for carrying

    water to your garden. Hoses are usually made fromrubber or vinyl; rubber is more expensive, but it'sworth the initial extra cost because it's far moredurable than vinyl and much easier to work with.Make sure your hose is long enough to reachcomfortably to all parts of your garden. An effectivehose should probably be no less than 50 feet long.

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    Choose the planter best suited to your needs.Planting row guide. A row guide is simply two

    stakes with a line marked at six-inch intervalsstretched between them. It helps you mark straightrows and plant seeds or plants evenly and quickly. Arow guid e you make yourself works every bit as wellas an expensive stor e-bou ght one. To make your ow n,just tie a good string line (as long as your garden atits longest point) between two stakes, and mark theline every six inches with colored markers. Comep lan t ing t ime,se tupyourgu ideandp ian ta long i t .Thestraight rows of plants you get when you use a guideare easier to weed, water, and harvest than randomplantings.

    Plant cages. Alt hough these are commo nly

    referred to as tomato cages, you can also use them tosupport vining crops like cucumbers and squashes.They're usually made of wire or covered wire andcome in a variety of sizes. They contain the plant in amanageable space and keep it off the ground. Roundcages are the most common, but you can now buysquare ones that are a lot more convenient becausethey fold flat for storage. When you're buyingcages, make sure that they're big enough and sturdy

    enough for the plant variety and that you can getyour hand inside to harvest your crop.

    TOOLS FOR CONTAINER GARDENING

    If you're a container gardener, special toolsinmany respects scaled-down versions of regulargarden toolsare available for your use.

    Hand cultivator. A hand cultivator helps youcon tro l weeds. O ne type has three prongs. The pickaxkind has one single-pointed end and a double pointon the other en d. Choose whatever type you like best.

    Hand hoe. This has a shorter hand le and a smallerblade than a regular garden hoe.

    Trowel. No container gardener should be withouta tro welit 's even mor e useful here than in a full-sizegarden for fill ing containers, transplanting,dividing clumps of plants, and leveling soil.

    Watering equipment. A watering wand makes iteasier to reach the less accessible corners of yourcontainer garden. The wand is a hollow metal tubethat attaches to the end of your hose, and it lets youwater the back rows of your container gardenwithout reaching over and possibly crushing the frontrows. If you're an indoor gardener, you will alsomake good use of a small watering can, and a spray-mister to freshen foliage. Any household spray

    bottle makes a good mister, provided it is thoroughlywashed out first.

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    Soil is the thin blanket that exists between enough to support the plant securely. The ideal soil

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    Soil is the thin blanket that exists betweensterile rock and the sky. Soil supports all life andis itself, in some measure, the product of livingthin gs. For all that, we ofte n treat the soil lik e, literal ly,the dirt under ou r feet. We' ve develop ed thiscareless attitu de part ly because for generations soil

    has been dirt cheap. There was never any problemabout having eno ugh of it. This is no longer tr ue ; go odsoil is getting harder to find. You can no longer takeit for granted that you'll find good garden soil lyingaround in your backyard. If you live in a residentialor industrial area, you can be pretty sure that afterthe developers left, not much good soil remained. Itwas probably removed and sold before theconstruction began, or buried under the excavation

    for the foundation of the new buildings.Unless you're a farmer or a commercial grower,

    chances are yo u simply lay out you r garden in the mostconvenient spot and make the best of whatever soilhappens to be there. But even if what happens to bethere is less than ideal, there's a lot you can do toturn it into a healthy, productive garden.Understanding soil and how plants grow in it willhelp you make the most of what you've got right there

    in your own yard.

    HOW SOIL WORKS WITH YOUR PLANTS

    Essentially the function of the soil in relation to theplants that grow in it is fou rf ol d: It must supply water ;it must supply nutri ent s; it must supply gases(carbon dioxide and oxygen); and it must be firm

    enough to support the plant securely. The ideal soilis a middle-of-the -road mixt ure, ho ldin g moisture andnutrients while letting excess water drain away tomake room for air.

    Don't make the mistake of assuming that yourgarden contai ns only one type of soi l; several diffe rent

    soils can exist in one backyard. Each natural soil iscomposed of fine rock particles, organic matter, andmicroorganisms. A good soil is 50 percent solidsand 50 percent porous space, whi ch provides ro om forwater, air, and plant roots. The solids are 80 to 90percent i norgani c matter and 10 to 20 percent organicmaterials. Water and air should each occupy abouthalf of the porous space.

    Types of soil

    There are four basic types of soil, and the texture ofeach is det ermi ned by the different prop ortions ofvarious-sized soil particles. These four types of soilare clay, sand, silt, and lo am.

    Clay soil. A clay soil is composed of particles thatare less than 1/31750 of an inch (1/200mm) in diamete r.

    These minute particles pack together more closely

    than larger particles and have a greater totalsurface area. Clay soil can hold more waterthan other soils. It often drains poorly, but drainagecan be improved by the addition of organic matterto break up the clay particles. If you try to wo rk wit h aclay soil when it's wet, you'll compress the particleseven more closely; then, when the soil dries, you'll beleft with a surface something like baked brick or

    concrete. Properly managed, however, clay soils can hands. Try this test: Take a small handful of moist

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    be the most productive of all.Sandy soil. A sandy soil is made up mostly of

    particles that are over 1/3175 of an inch (1/20 mm) indiameter. They are much larger than clay particlesand irregular in shape, so they don' t pack as closely

    together as clay particles. Because they have less totalsurface area, these larger particles hold less waterthan smaller particles and are much more porous.Sandy soil drains like a sieve, but can be improvedby the addition of organic matter, which helps retainmoisture and nutrients.

    Silt soil. In a silt soil the size of the particles isintermediate between clay and sand. Dependingon the size of its particles, a silt soil can act either

    like a clay soil or like a f ine sandy soi l. Silt consists ofsmall, gritty particles that can pack down very hard,and it's not very ferti le. Silt soil is often found on top ofheavy clay, which slows or stops drainage.

    Loam. Loam is a mixture of clay, si lt, and sandparticles. A good garden loam is something to cherish,particularly if it also contains a heavy supply oforganic matter. All soil improvement is aimed atachieving a good loam when you add organic

    matter or make other improvements to your clay orsandy soil, you're trying to provide the type of loamthat lucky gardeners have without all that extra work.

    A do-it-yourself test of soil mixture

    The best way to determine the approximate textureof the soil in your garden is by feeling it with your

    garden soil, and hold some of the sample betweenyour thumb and the first knuckle of your forefinger.Gradually squeeze the soil out with your thumb toform a ribbon. If you can easily form a ribbon thatholds together for more than one inch, you have a very

    heavy clay soil. If a ribbon forms, but it holdstogether for only three-quarters of an inch to oneinch, your soil is a silty clay loam. If the ribbon formsbut breaks into pieces shorter than three-quarters ofan inch, you have a silty soil. If a ribbon won't format all , you have a sandy soi l.

    IMPROVING YOUR GARDEN SOIL

    Unless you're one of the lucky people with a gardenful l of rich, productive loam, it's probable that you willwant to improve your soil in the interests ofharvesting a bigger and better crop of vegetables atthe end of your growing season. When you'replanning your soil-improvement program you have totake two issues into account: the texture of the soiland the nutrient content of the soil. You can improveboth quite easily.

    Improving soil texture

    The physical texture of any soil can be improved bythe addition of large amounts of organic matter. Youcan use materials like ground corncobs, sawdust,bark chips, straw, hay, peat moss, and cover crops; it'sa great way to recycle a lot of garden wastes. You

    can use grass clippings, provided the lawn has not that do the tests. Either way, you wi ll be charged a

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    g pp g , pbeen treated with a herbicide or weed killer; thesesubstances wil l damage the plants you want to grow.Also avoid walnuts or walnut leaves. They containiodine, which is a growth retardant. Making your owncompost pile gives you excellent organic matter to

    enrich the soil and will be discussed later in thischapter.

    The more organic matter you add, the more youcan Improve the texture of the soil. Blend the organicmatter into the soil to a depth of 12 inches, makingsure that it's evenly dispersed through the wholeplanting area. When organic matter is added to thesoil, it will absorb some of the soil's nitrogen; tocompensate for this, you should add two handfuls

    of a complete, well-balanced fert ilizer (10-10-10) foreach bushel of organic matter, working itthoroughly into the soil.

    Improving nutrient content

    The next step in your soil-improvement program isto have the soil tested to identify deficiencies unless you correct those deficiencies, they can

    cause poor plant growth. In some states theCooperative Extension Service will act asmiddleman and send your soil sample to thelaboratory for you; in all states the extensionservice can give you information on firms in your area

    y, y gfee for the test.

    The results of the soil test will give you the pH(acid-alkaline balance) of the soil and its content ofthree essential nutrients: nitrogen (N), whichpromotes leafy growth (although too much nitrogen

    wil l encourage too much foliage growth and slowdown crop ripening); phosphorus (P), which isimportant for root growth and the production offlowers, fruits , and seeds; and potassium (K), which isnecessary for the development of leaves and roots.The pH is measured on a scale of 1 (most acid or sour)to 14 (most alkaline or sweet), with 7 representingneutral. Most vegetables do best in soil that has a pHbetween 5.5 and 7.5, and most of them prefer soil to

    be on the acid side of neutral.How to take a soil sample. Soil samples can be

    taken any time of the year, as long as the ground isn'tfrozen hard. Use a plastic bucket instead of metal,especially if the soil sample is to be used for testingmicronutrients. You'll also need a digging tool,such as a spade or a trowel , and a clean container (acarefully washed-out one-pint milk carton or thecontainer provided by the testing service). All

    equipment should be perfectly clean.If there's any grass on the spot you're sampling,remove it. Then take a slice of soil half an inch thickand about eight inches deep straight down from anumber of locations throughout your garden. Ifyou're sampling a large area, 20 samples mixedtogether wi ll do as fine a job as 40 or100. if your gardenis small, a minimum of five samples will be enough.Place all the samples in the plastic bucket, and thenmix them thoroughly. If the soil is very wet, let it air-dry before mixing. Do notheat it in the oven or on aradiator; heat will kill the microorganisms andcause nitrogen and other elements to change form,making the test inaccurate. If there are a lot oflumps, crush them with a wooden spoon or arolling pin on a wooden surface. After the soil isthoroughly mixed, fill your container and follow thelaboratory's instructions for sending the sample.

    Adjusting the pH balance. The results of your soiltest will give you the pH balance of the soil. If you'relucky, the laboratory may say that the pH is just fineand you need make no adjustment. Or the laboratorymay advise you to raise the pH by adding arecommended amount of lime or to lower the pH byadding a recommended amount of a sulfurproduct ammonium sulfate is the one mostcommonly used. Don't use aluminum sulfate inyour vegetable garden; the aluminum can be

    absorbed by the plant, making it toxic to you whenyou eat the vegetable. You can get lime and sulfurproducts from hardware stores and garden

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    centers; the laboratory report will tell you how muchto use and how to apply it.

    It's a good idea to have your soil tested everythree to four years to make sure that the pH is in anacceptable range. If you've had a problem with thepH, it may be a good idea to test your soil even more

    often. This may seem like a lot of work, but goodsoil is essential to a good harvest, and your care andlabor will pay off in higher yields and better-qualityvegetables.

    FERTILIZING: HOW TO DO IT (AND WHY)

    Many inexperienced gardeners have the idea thatsince their vegetables have been doing fine so far

    without fertilizer, they'll do fine without it nextyear, too . But it's not quit e that easy. Cer tainly, yourplants may provide you with vegetables even if you

    don 't fertiliz e at all, but you wo n' t be getting their besteffort. Vegetable plants that are properly fertilizedwill be healthier and better able to resist disease andattacks from pests, thus giving you more andhigher-quality produce.

    Organic vs. synthetic fertilizers

    There are two types of fertilizer: organic andinorganic. They're both means to the same end, buttheir composition and action differ in a number ofways. Some people make a sharp disti nctio n betweenthe two, and organic gardeners as the namesuggests are strongly in favor of organic fertilizersand strongly opposed to the use of synthetics. This

    is more a matter of personal philosophy than ofhorticulture, because plants can't read the label onthe package and can only absorb nutrients in an

    can save time, too, because it gives you a place todi f l d li i

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    Organic matter has to take nitrogen from the soil inorder to keep the decaying process going.Composting keeps the waste in one place where it'snot depriving plants of nitrogen.

    Composting can save money that you wouldother wise spend on soil condit ioner s and fertilize rs. I t

    dispose of leaves and grass clippings.

    How the composting process works

    Compost forms as organic wastes are broken down

    by microorganisms in the soil. These microorganismsdon't create nutrients; they just break downcomplex materials into simple ones that the plant canuse. Most soil organisms are inactive when soiltemperatur es are bel ow 40F; they do n' t beginworking in earnest until the temperature goes up toabout 60F, and mos t of them don 't wor k we ll i n avery acid element. Because they are extremely small,microorganisms work faster when not

    overwhelmed by large chunks of material.There are two basic kinds of microorganisms:

    those that need air to work (aerobic) and those thatdon't (anaerobic). It's possible to compost in anairtight container, thanks to the microorganisms thatdon't need air. A tightly covered plastic trash canwill convert an enormous amount of organic kitchenwaste into compost in the course of a winter. Theclassic outdoor compost pile should be turned

    regularly with a pitchfork to provide air for themicroorganisms that need it.

    How to start a compost pile

    If you have a fairly large garden, the best place toput your compos t pile is at one end of the garden. The

    pile can be square, rectangular or round; four tofive feet across; and as long as the available space You

    care of your garden and that you're not just ahorticultural dabbler

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    five feet across; and as long as the available space. Youcan use fencing or cinder blocks to keep the pileunder contro l

    If space is at a premium or if a compost piledoesn't fit in with your landscaping, start the heap

    behind some bushes or behind the garage. If thespace available is extremely small, you can compost ina large heavy-duty plastic bag or plastic garbagecan. You can also work the material directly into the soil .

    To build a compost pile, start out with one to twofeet of leaves, if you have them, or six to twelve inchesof more compact material, such as grass clippingsor sawdust. Over this put a layer of fert ilizer (manure,blood, bone, cottonseed meal, or commercial

    fertilizer) and some finely ground limestone (mostmicroorganisms like their environment sweet).Then add some soil to hold water and provide a startercolony of microorganisms. Water the compostcarefully. Add a second layer of leaves or othergarden waste and repeat the layers. If you haveenough material or enough room, put on a thirdlayer. The pile should be kept moist like a squeezed,but not sopping, sponge. As more material

    becomes available, make new layers, adding morefertilizer and lime each time. Turn the pile with apitchfork about once a month.

    You can use all garden waste on your compostpile except disease- and pest-laden materials, or thosethat have been treated with pesticides or weedkillers for instance, grass clippings from an areathat's been treated with a herbicide. Usenontreated grass clippings, leaves, weeds, and sod.You can also use kitchen leftovers like vegetableand fruit peels, vegetable tops, coffee grounds, tealeaves, and eggshells. The finer these materials arechopped and the deeper they're bur ied, the quickerthey'll be converted and the less chance there isthat they'll be dug up by inquisitive animals. You canalso compost hay, straw, hulls, nutshells, and treetrimmings (not walnut). But unless they're shedded,these materials will take a long time to decompose.

    There are a number of ways you can speed up thecomposting process. First, you can grind or shred all.compost materials to give the microorganisms ahead start. Second, make sure the pi le doesn't dry out,and provide enough fertilizer to encourage rapidgrowth of the bacteria. Third, you can use a starterculture, either material from an establishedcompost pile or a commercial starter culture.

    Composting is a creative activity. There arealmost as many different methods of composting as

    there are gardeners, and like a good stew, the proofis in the final product. And when other gardeners seeyour compost pile, they'll know you're taking good

    horticultural dabbler.

    Compost and mulch The difference is in the use

    If you're an inexperienced gardener, you may be

    confused by the difference between composting andmulching both processes use waste organicmatter. The difference is in the use. Compostedmaterials are dug back into the soil to enrich it andto enable the plants to use the nutrients that havebeen released by the decaying process. A mulch is alayer of material spread over the ground or aroundplants to provide protection from heat or cold, toretain soil moisture, or to maintain a certain soil

    temperature. Compost stays in the soil andeventually becomes part of it; a mulch is removedwhen the protection it provides is no longerneeded.

    HOW TO GARDEN WITH HOPELESS (OR NO) SOIL

    You may be unlucky enough to have a garden ful l ofhopeless soilheavy clay, perhaps, or as sandy as a

    beach. Even if you're sure that no soil improvementprogram would help, you needn't give up hope ofhaving a vegetable garden. It's not too difficult to

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    you've probably been looking forward toplanting your garden all winter And you've lot or know you're only going to be able to gardenon weekends you may want to give yourself a break

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    yplanting your garden all winter. And you veprobably been thinking it's the easiest part, too.What can be so complicated about planting a garden?Nothing to It. Mot so fastthere are a number ofquestions you have to consider before you start

    throwing seeds around.For one thing, should you be planting seeds at

    all? Or should you be using transplants (youngplants started from seed indoors)? If you're going touse transplants, should you grow them yourself orbuy them from a nursery or garden store? And howshould your crop be spacedin rows, wide bands,or inverted hills? Like every other stage of growing avegetable garden, planting poses a lot of questions;

    It's more complex than you may have figured.

    SEEDS OR TRANSPLANTS: HOW TO DECIDE

    The answers to the questions of what