13-1

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Motivation across Cultures

Chapter 12

13-2

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

The Nature of Motivation

Motivation Psychological process through which unsatisfied wants

or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives

Universalist Assumption All people are motivated to pursue goals they value Specific content of the goals that are pursued will be

influenced by culture Movement toward market economies may make

motivation more similar in different countries

13-3

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Figure 12-1The Basic Motivation Process

Unsatisfiedneed

Drive toward goal tosatisfy need

Attainment of goal(need satisfaction)

13-4

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

The Nature of Motivation (cont.)

Content theories Explain work motivation in terms of what

arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior

Process theories Explain work motivation by how employee

behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted

13-5

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Figure 12-2Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Self-actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

13-6

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow - Every person has five basic needs

Physiological needs - food, clothing, shelter, and other basic physical needs

Safety needs - desire for security, stability, and the absence of pain

Social needs - need to interact and affiliate with others and the need to feel wanted by others

Esteem needs - needs for power and status Self-actualization needs - desire to reach one’s full

potential by becoming everything one is capable of becoming

13-7

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory (2)

Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs become motivators

Once satisfied, a need is no longer a motivator

13-8

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Maslow's Theory & International Managers

Each country or geographic region appears to have its own need-satisfaction profile

Managers in U.S., U.K., Nordic Europe and Latin America report that autonomy and self-actualization are the most important and least satisfied needs. Some East Asian managers report even more

difficulty in satisfying these needs Study was conducted by Haire and others.

13-9

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Adapting Maslow's Theory to Asia

Nevis suggested that the hierarchy of needs is western-oriented and focuses on the individual. Asian societies focus on group concerns.

Nevis suggested changing hierarchy for China: Belonging (social) Physiological Safety Self-actualization (in the service of society)

There is no esteem need in Nevis' hierarchy.

13-10

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Maslow's Theory and Job Categories

Hofstede noted that the Haire study was limited to managers Every culture has different sub-cultures Looked at job categories as sub-cultures Analyzed motivation by job categories

Divided Maslow's hierarchy into 3 categories Low: physiological and safety needs Middle: social needs High: esteem and actualization needs

13-11

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Highest-ranked Needs by Job Category

Unskilled workers: low-level needs Technicians: mix of needs from different

categories – at least one high-order need and one low-level need

Clerical workers: middle (social) needs Managers: high and mid-level needs Professionals: high-order needs

13-12

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Theory that holds there are two sets of factors that influence job satisfaction Motivators (correspond to Maslow's high-level needs)

Job content factors which include achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself

Produce satisfaction but not dissatisfaction

Hygiene factors (correspond to Maslow's low level and middle level needs) Job context variables that include salary, interpersonal

relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration

Produce dissatisfaction but not satisfaction

13-13

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Figure 12-3Views of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction

Absent Present(no satisfaction) (satisfaction)

(motivators)

Absent Present(dissatisfaction) (no dissatisfaction)

(hygiene factors)

Two-Factor Theory

Satisfaction DissatisfactionTraditional View

13-14

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (2)

Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies Results indicate that Herzberg-type motivators

tend to be more important sources of job satisfaction than are hygiene factors

Job content factors are more important than job context factors in motivating all levels of employees

13-15

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Achievement Motivation Theory

Theory holds that individuals can have a need to get ahead, to attain success and to reach objectives

People who have strong a achievement need: Want personal responsibility for solving

problems Tend to be moderate risk takers Want concrete feedback about their

performance Often do not get along well with other people

13-16

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Achievement Motivation Theory (2)

Achievement motivation is learned and, therefore, can be developed through training

Theory has shortcomings Measurement issues Does not explain need for achievement in

cultures where individual accomplishment is not valued

13-17

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

How to Encourage Achievement Motivation

Train people to Obtain feedback on performance Use the feedback to make efforts in areas where

they are likely to succeed Emulate people who have been successful

achievers Develop an internal desire for success and

challenges Daydream in positive terms by picturing

themselves as being successful in the pursuit of important objectives

13-18

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Achievement Motivation Theory (3)

Because the achievement need is learned, it is largely determined by the prevailing culture

Achievement need is not universal and may change over time.

Achievement motivation training programs have been successful in underdeveloped countries

Cultures of Anglo countries and those that reward entrepreneurial effort support achievement motivation.

Countries have high masculinity and low uncertainty avoidance support achievement motivation.

In countries with low masculinity, managers should focus on quality of life as a motivator.

13-19

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Process Theories – Equity Theory

Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated

When people believe that they are being treated equitably, it will have a positive effect on their job satisfaction

If they believe they are not being treated fairly (especially in relation to others) They will be dissatisfied, which will have a negative

effect on their job performance. They will strive to restore equity.

13-20

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Process Theories – Equity Theory (2)

Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated

Research in western work groups supports the theory Limitations of the theory

Perceptions of equity are not the same everywhere. In collectivist cultures, people may accept unequal

treatment to preserve group harmony. Examples: Most countries in the Middle East &

Asia In some cultures, women may accept unequal treatment

(example: lower wages than men)

13-21

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Process Theories – Goal-Setting Theory

People perform best when they have challenging goals and have a role in setting those goals (participative goal setting). In the United States and in Israel, participative goal

setting with individuals increases both motivation and performance

International research on goal setting theories Employees in Norway and the United Kingdom prefer

to have management work with union officials in setting work goals

Participative goal setting with individuals may not work well in collectivist cultures

13-22

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Setting Goals

Goals should be Challenging but attainable Important Specific: The employee should know what is expected Measurable: The employee and the manager should

agree on how the goal will be measured The employee should receive timely and frequent

feedback on progress toward the goal

13-23

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Process Theories - Expectancy Theory

Motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to specific outcomes, and that these outcomes are valued by the individual

Theory is likely to work best in cultures where employees believe that they have control over what happens to them

Expectancy theory has been used successfully in Japan.

13-24

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Motivation Applied - Overview

Job design Quality of work life Sociotechnical job design

Job satisfaction Work centrality Value of work (reasons for working) Factors that lead to job satisfaction Rewards Incentives

13-25

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Quality of Work Life

Hofstede's cultural dimensions can be used to explain differences in work life.

Example: Japan Strong uncertainty avoidance work is highly

structured and risk taking is discouraged High masculinity people are willing to work hard for

success and money is a powerful motivator. High collectivism emphasis on group harmony and

use of quality circles (with limited power) Moderately high power distance top management

makes most decisions

13-26

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Sociotechnical Job Design

The objective of these designs is to integrate new technology into the workplace so that workers accept and use it to increase overall productivity New technology often requires people learn new

methods and in some cases work faster Employee resistance is common

Effective sociotechnical design can overcome these problems

13-27

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Sociotechnical Job Design (2)

Principles of sociotechnical job design Task variety Skill variety Autonomy: employees have discretion and

decision-making authority Task identity: employees perform an

identifiable unit of work Timely feedback on job performance

13-28

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Sociotechnical Job Design (3)

Multifunctional team with autonomy for generating successful product innovation is most widely used teamwork concept in U. S., Japan, and Europe

General Mills and Volvo have used self-managed work teams Substantial investment in training Managers function as coaches, rather than bosses –

some managers resist this change. Some workers may not want more authority and

responsibility

13-29

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Work Centrality

Work centrality is the importance of work in a person's life, vs. other activities.

An economic need to work may be the most important factor in determining work centrality.

13-30

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved.

Rewards and Incentives

Managers everywhere use rewards to motivate their personnel

Some rewards are financial in nature such as salary raises, bonuses, and stock options Others are non-financial such as feedback and

recognition In collectivist cultures, group rewards often work

better than individual rewards