1.2. Irradiation Surveillance Programs and Integrity ... 2/Presentations...Transients and LOCA...

Training Symposium on Irradiation Effects in Structural Materials for Nuclear Reactors

17-21 September 2012 Seville

1.2. Irradiation Surveillance Programs and Integrity Concepts for Reactor Pressure Vessels

H. Hein

17-21 September 2012 2

Contents

Introduction

RPV Ageing Mechanisms

RPV Irradiation Surveillance Programs

RPV Integrity Concepts

Specific Issues in Irradiation Behaviour

Countermeasures

Outlook

References


Introduction

Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV) is very important for normal operation and safe inclusion of fission products

Fuel elements (core)

Physical barrier

Core cooling function

RPV is almost impossible to replace

Installation of the EPRTM RPV in Olkiluoto 3

2010

EPRTM (European

Pressurized Water Reactor)


13

Introduction

RPV integrity is a design principle for safe inclusion of the activity inventory

to be maintained during operation

Requirement of both RPV monitoring and structural mechanical analyses

German PWR

1300 MW

13

2

1 RPV

Steam generator heat tubes

Main coolant lines

[1]



Influencing factors

Irradiation by fast neutrons

Neutron generation in the core

Impact on RPV beltline

Gamma irradiation

Thermal loading by hot coolant

Some hydrogen by radiolysis and water chemistry regime

RPV of EPRTM [2] Tinlet=296 °C pop=155 bar



Irradiation by fast neutrons

Formation of microstructural lattice defects

1MeV

Model concept according to Alfred Seeger [3]



Impact of irradiation by fast neutrons (E > 1 MeV) on the microstructure in the RPV beltline region

Ferritic low alloy steel

Core

Axial

Neutron Fluence

150

0

150

10 0 10 - 1

cm

j rel

Matrix damage

Cu-Rich Precipitates (CRP)

with Ni, Mn, Si, …

P segregation on grain

boundary



Impact of fast neutron fluence ( >1017 n/cm2) on the material properties in the RPV beltline region



Thermal Ageing of RPV Materials

For western RPV steels with Cu ≤ 0.25% thermal ageing is not observed for T ≤ 325°C for long operating times

No thermal ageing in LWR RPV steels with Cu < 0.35% and T < 300 °C

Some significance in Magnox type reactors (UK) in C-Mn RPV steels with 360 °C exposure temperature

Other Influencing Factors

Hydrogen: no effect under operating conditions (embrittlement of ferritic RPV material by hydrogen no more detectable at 250°C )

Gamma irradiation: not significant at LWR operating temperatures due to strong annealing effects

• No indications of g-irradiation effect on change of material properties of ferritic RPV materials under operating conditions

• If any g effect would exist it is limited on the surface of inner RPV wall because the attenuation for g is higher than for neutrons

17-21 September 2012 10


Management of RPV Irradiation Behavior

Irradiation Surveillance

Programs

Monitoring material changes

depending on neutron fluence

RPV Integrity Assessment

Fracture mechanics based

PTS analysis

p-T curves, in-service

pressure tests

Assessment

Core Loading Management

Low leakage

RPV Neutron Shielding

Dummy assemblies

Internals replacement

Thermal Annealing

Recovery heat treatment

Countermeasures

17-21 September 2012 11


Objective

Measurement of strength and toughness properties of materials in the RPV core beltline region as a function of neutron irradiation by accelerated irradiation specimen capsules (position nearer to the core)

17-21 September 2012 12


Base and weld materials are monitored in the RPV core beltline

Sampling

X

Y

Core weld

17-21 September 2012 13


Implementation

Material lab Hot cells

Pre & post examination

Assessment of irradiation behaviour

Design and Manufacture

Report

17-21 September 2012 14


Main steps

Manufacture of specimens, fluence dosimeters, temperature monitors, and capsules

Insertion, irradiation and take out of capsules

Transportation services

Radiochemical examinations and activity determination of neutron dosimeters

Neutron fluence calculations for specimens and RPV wall (Dosimetry)

Mechanical testing in the „Hot Cells“ laboratory (tensile, Charpy-V, fracture mechanical)

Evaluation of the results and RPV safety assessment according to regulatory requirements

17-21 September 2012 15


Dosimetry - Dual concept of fast neutron fluence calculation

Data for theoretical calculation

of neutron fluence:

• core burn-up data

• geometry

• material data

• cross section library

(ENDF/B-VI)

Dosimetry data for

fluence detectors:

• 54Fe(n,p)54Mn

• 93Nb(n,n’)93mNb

(IRDF2002)

Detector activity

Irradiation history

Neutron transport

calculation

(MCNPX/DORT)

Theoretical

neutron fluence

Experimental

neutron fluence

Experimental fluence

calculation

(MONIKA)

Neutron spectra

Comparison of results

Benchmarking of theoretical calculations

Verification of theoretical approach

17-21 September 2012 16


Dosimetry

Determination of fast neutron fluence (E > 1 MeV)

• at dosimeter positions

• in RPV wall

Dosimeters

• Internal dosimeters (inside RPV)

• External dosimeters (outside RPV)

RPV scraping samples

• Taken from cladding

17-21 September 2012 17

What else is important?

Take out position and orientation of specimens taken from the (original) material blocks

• Tension, Charpy and fracture toughness specimens shall be removed from 1⁄4-T or 3⁄4-T locations (base metal)

• Transverse specimens (T-L, longitudinal axis transverse to the main direction of forming)

Lead factor - the ratio of the peak neutron fluence (E > 1 MeV) of the specimens in a surveillance capsule to the peak neutron fluence (E > 1 MeV) at the reactor pressure vessel inside surface

• 1.5 ≤ LF ≤ 12 (Germany)

• 1.5 < LF < 5 (USA)

Number of the capsules and take out schedule

• Usually 2 to 6 capsules covering the reactor life


17-21 September 2012 18


How to use surveillance data for RPV integrity assessment?

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

-150 -100 -50 0 50

Temperature [°C]

Ch

arp

y E

ne

rgy [J]

DT41

0

50

100

150

200

-150 -100 -50 0 50

Temperature [°C]

Fra

ctu

re tou

gh

ness K

Ic

-1

/2 ]

plant spec. KIC - Curve

DT41 [M

Pa*m

plant spec. Cv Energy -T - Curve

unirradiated

adjusted versus RTNDT

RTNDTj = RTNDT + DT41

irradiated

adjusted versus

ASME KIC Curve [5]

RTNDT - Concept: RTNDTj = RTNDT + DT41

acc. to [4]

17-21 September 2012 19


The reference temperature (e.g. RTNDTj or RTT0[5]) governs the material resistance

Transients and LOCA govern the load path

Temperature (C)

Load Path

Material Resistance

Str

ess inte

nsity,

Fra

ctu

reto

ughne

ss

MP

am

a

K = a

acc. to [4]

17-21 September 2012 20


Areas of postulated flaws of the RPV [4]

CORE

Loadability

Change

of material properties

Defect size

EOL

BOL

irradiated BOL

unirradiated

Stress intensity factor Kl

Kl = KP + KT + KR KIC KIC

DT41

Temperature [ °C ]

KI, K

IC [

N m

m -3

/2 ]

Material resistance > operational loading

W

2c

a

M

a

2c

W

2c/a

= Shape factor

= Crack depth

= Crack length

= Wall thickness

=

KIC = f (T, RTNDT) > KI = f ( o, a, M)

Residual Life Assessment

by Fracture Mechanics

17-21 September 2012 21


Pressurized Thermal Shock (PTS) by Loss Of Coolant Accident (LOCA) [4]

RPV

A

A

view A

mixing water

hot water

pump

ECC

plume region

Fluid-Fluid-MixingRPV

A

A

view A

mixing water

hot water

pump

ECC

plume region

Fluid-Fluid-Mixing

pffff

postulatedleak

17-21 September 2012 22


Thermal hydraulics at PTS [4], [6]

Strip

cooling

Plume

cooling

17-21 September 2012 23


Thermal hydraulic and mechanical analyses at PTS by FEM [4], [8]

17-21 September 2012 24


Mechanical analysis of postulated flaws at PTS by FEM [4]

Heißseitiges Leck 200 cm²,Submodell für Riss im zylindrischen Bereich, Fehler 20 mm

NT1/20 01 /de/01 40

Anlage 15

PTS-Analyse: GKN 2, KKE, KKI 2, KKP 2, KKG/BKE

1

2

3

1

2

3

12

3

12

3

1

2

31

2

3

GrundwerkstoffPlattierung

2c

a

M uster der Rissgeom etrtrie

Heißseitiges Leck 200 cm²,Submodell für Stu tzenkantenriss, Fehler 20 mm

NT1/2001/de/0 283

Anlage 19

PTS-Analyse: G KN 2, KKE, KKI 2, KKP 2, KKG/BKE

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

Plattierung

WEZ

GW

Heißseitiges Leck 200 cm²,

Submodell für Riss im zylindrischen Bereich, Fehler 20 mm

NT1/20 01 /de/01 40

Anlage 15


1

2

3

1

2

3

12

3

12

3

1

2

31

2

3


2c

a



NT1/2001/de/0 283

Anlage 19


12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

Plattierung

WEZ

GW



NT1/20 01 /de/01 40

Anlage 15


1

2

3

1

2

3

12

3

12

3

1

2

31

2

3


2c

a


Heißseitiges Leck 200 cm²,Subm odell für Stu tzenkantenriss, Fehler 20 mm

NT1/2001/de/0 283

Anlage 19


12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

Plattierung

WEZ

GW



NT1/20 01 /de/01 40

Anlage 15


1

2

3

1

2

3

12

3

12

3

1

2

31

2

3


2c

a



NT1/2001/de/0 283

Anlage 19


12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

Plattierung

WEZ

GW

Example of crack

geometry

Base metalcladding

Betrachtete RDB-Bereiche

RPV Areas under consideration

Hot leg leak 200 cm², Submodel for crack in

cylindrical region, flaw depth 20 mm

Hot leg leak 200 cm², Submodel for crack in nozzle

region, flaw depth 20 mm

Example of crack

geometry

17-21 September 2012 25


Results of deterministic PTS analysis (example) [4]

Konvoi, cold leg nozzle, flaw depth 10 mm,

KI from J as a function of crack tip temperature

0

40

80

120

160

200

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

crack tip temperature [°C]

KI a

us

J [

MP

a√

m]

KIc(RTNDT (Tang.)= 1,5 °C)

KIc(RTNDT (Max.)= 13 °C)

KJ 015h hE_Stutzen_k 2SEP



KJ 040h kE_Stutzen_k 2SEP

KJ 100h kE_Stutzen_k 2SEP

KJ 50h 4SEPk_Stutzen_k


KJ 200h 4SEPk_Stutzen _k


leading transient

allowable material

toughness properties

17-21 September 2012 26


Probabilistic PTS analysis [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]

Probability per year for failure and crack initiation of the RPV

Define PTS-Screening Criterion (allowed reference temperature for a maximum allowed failure probability, see [10])

Quantify the margins of the deterministic PTS analysis

17-21 September 2012 27


Long Term operation

Chemical composition

Neutron flux effects

Late blooming effects

Advantageous RPV design feature

Reconstitution technique

17-21 September 2012 28


Number of reactors in operation by age (as of 31 Dec. 2010)

Long Term Operation ( > 130 plants older than 30 years)

IAEA Reference Data Series No.2 2011 Edition Nuclear Power Reactors in the World [14]

17-21 September 2012 29


Background of Long Term Operation

Increasing age of the existing NPPs and envisaged lifetime extensions up to an EOL of 60 or even 80 years

Need for an improved understanding and prediction of RPV irradiation embrittlement effects under Long Term Operation (LTO)

Irradiation effects caused by high neutron fluences such as the possible formation of Late Blooming Phases and as yet other unknown defects must be considered adequately in safety assessments

In this context the availability of microstructural data is also essential for the understanding of the involved mechanisms

17-21 September 2012 30

Chemical composition

Impact of high contents of Cu and Ni in RPV steel welds on T41 shift

Low irradiation embrittlement for most of the irradiated materials except for weld metals P370 WM (0,22 % Cu) and P16 WM (1,7 % Ni)

High Cu or Ni

Low Cu and Ni

H. Hein, et al

“Final Results from the Crack Initiation and

Arrest of Irradiated Steel Materials Project on

Fracture Mechanical Assessments of Pre-

Irradiated RPV Steels Used in German PWR”

Journal of ASTM International (2010),

STP 1513 on Effects of Radiation on Nuclear

Materials and the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: 24th

Volume [15]


17-21 September 2012 31


Flux effects may occur under certain conditions

0

50

100

150

200

0,0E+00 5,0E+19 1,0E+20 1,5E+20

Neutron Fluence [cm-2] (E > 1 MeV)

DT

41 [

K]

BM 174, surv. program, f =7.2E10 cm-2 sec-1

BM 174, inner irr. position, f =3.1E12 cm-2sec-1

BM 174, VAK, f =2.5E12 cm-2sec-1

22NiMoCr3-7 (0.1 % Cu)

H. Hein, J. May

“Review of irradiation surveillance and test reactor data of RPV

steels used in German LWR in relation to the flux effect issue” [16]

Workshop on Trend Curve Development for Surveillance Data with insight on Flux Effects at High Fluence: Damage

Mechanisms and Modeling, Mol (Belgium), November 19–21, 2008

G. R. Odette and T. Yamamoto

Neutron Irradiation Flux Effects on RPV Steels:

Analysis of the IVAR Database [17]


17-21 September 2012 32

0

50

100

150

200

0,0E+00 1,0E+19 2,0E+19 3,0E+19 4,0E+19

Neutron Fluence [cm -2] (E > 1 MeV)

DT

41 [

K]

WM 186 D, KWO, Cu = 0.22% f =6.1E10 cm-2 sec-1

WM 186 D, VAK, Cu = 0.22% f =2.1E12 cm-2 sec-1

WM 186 A, VAK, Cu = 0.14% f =2.6E12 cm-2 sec-1

WM 186 B, VAK, Cu = 0.30% f =2.6E12 cm-2 sec-1

WM 186 C, VAK, Cu = 0.42% f =2.6E12 cm-2 sec-1


Example for high Cu weld data giving no effect on material properties

SANS results show flux effect on microstructure but not on

mechanical properties!

Bergner, A Ulbricht, H Hein and M Kammel:

Flux dependence of cluster formation in neutron irradiated

weld material

J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 20 (2008) 104262 (6pp) [19]

Flux ratio = 34

H. Hein, J. May

“Review of irradiation surveillance and test reactor data of RPV

steels used in German LWR in relation to the flux effect issue”

Workshop on Trend Curve Development for Surveillance Data with

insight on Flux Effects at High Fluence: Damage Mechanisms and

Modeling, Mol (Belgium), November 19–21, 2008 [18]


17-21 September 2012 33


Flux effects could occur on a large scale of flux densities (φ < 1E+10 n/cm2/s to φ >> 1E+12 n/cm2/s) through different combining influences of specific features [20]

Some flux effects (usually higher DBTT shift at lower flux) observed in some Western LWR and in VVER, in particular for Cu rich RPV steels, however the issue is very complex and needs further clarification

• Surveillance lead factor: 1.5 …12 (German KTA 3203), 1.5 …5 (ASTM E 185)

Flux effects (if any) have to be taken into account for transferability of surveillance specimens and MTR results to RPV wall


17-21 September 2012 34

Late Blooming Effects

First findings by Odette et al

Possible significant increase of irradiation embrittlement at high fluences

• Low or no Cu content

• High Ni and Mn

• Low irradiation temperature

• High fluence (>>1E19 n/cm2, E>1MeV)


17-21 September 2012 35

Late Blooming Effects

Subject of LONGLIFE project [21]

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0 5 10 15 20

neutron fluence (1019

n/cm², E>1MeV)

yie

ld s

tren

gth

in

crea

se (

MP

a)

JPB JPC JFL 0.05%Cu; 0.75%Ni; 0.08%P / 265°C

f 1.9 1012

n/cm².s

Tirrad=255 °C

f 4 1012

- 6 1013

n/cm².s

Tirrad=265 °CE. Altstadt, F. Bergner, H, Hein

“IRRADIATION DAMAGE AND

EMBRITTLEMENT IN RPV STEELS

UNDER THE ASPECT OF LONG TERM

OPERATION – OVERVIEW OF THE FP7

PROJECT LONGLIFE”

ICONE-18, Proceedings of the 18th

International Conference on Nuclear

Engineering ICONE18 May 17-21, 2010,

Xi'an, China [22]


17-21 September 2012 36

Advantageous RPV design feature: large water gap

Neutron fluences in n/cm2 ( E > 1 MeV) after 32 EFPY for German PWR [23]

2,8E19 1,3E19 1E19 3E18


17-21 September 2012 37

Reconstitution technique

Manufacture of new specimens from tested or untested (irradiated) specimens

Compact Crack Arrest (CCA) specimen

Single Edge Bending (SE(B)) specimen


17-21 September 2012 38

RPV

Core BarrelThermal Shield

RPV

Core BarrelThermal Shield

Countermeasures

Core Loading Management (reduction of neutron flux)

Low leakage core

• Changing from out-in fuel loading scheme (new fuel assembly at core edges) to in-out loading scheme (partly burnt-up fuel assembly at core periphery)

17-21 September 2012 39

Countermeasures

RPV Neutron Shielding (reduction of neutron flux)

Dummy assemblies

Internals replacement

Example for use of dummy or shielding assemblies at the core edge in the azimuthal region of the fluence maximum:

• fuel assemblies with high burn up and inserted absorber rods (AgInCd) • modified fuel assemblies with steel rods instead of fuel pellets • special steel elements

17-21 September 2012 40

Countermeasures

Thermal Annealing (recovery of material properties)

Recovery heat treatment

Thermal Annealing of VVER reactors [25]

41 J transition temperature shift in cyclic irradiation annealing experiments [24]

17-21 September 2012 41

Countermeasures

Increase the water temperature in the storage tanks of Emergency Core Cooling System (ECSS) [26]

Reduction of load in PTS case

17-21 September 2012 42

Outlook

Annual construction starts and connections to the grid (1954 - 2010)

Tendency of increasing number of new NPP builds

IAEA Reference Data Series No.2 2011 Edition Nuclear Power Reactors in the World [14]

17-21 September 2012 43

Outlook

RPV irradiation surveillance and safety assessment is an essential part of Plant Life Management and Plant Life Extension

Long term irradiation induced ageing phenomena

60+ operational years are on the agenda

Design life of 60 years for Generations III, III+ (EPR), IV

Life Time Extension activities for Generation II

• USA: extended license life renewals of many NPPs

• Europe: Switzerland, the Netherlands, France, Spain, Sweden, …

• Additional surveillance capsules have been inserted in a number of RPV, e.g. in The Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland and Germany

17-21 September 2012 44

References

[1] Ilg, U., König, G., Erve, M., “Das Werkstoffkonzept in deutschen Leichwasserreaktoren – Beitrag zur Anlagensicheheit, Wirtschaftlichkeit und Schadensvorsorge”, International Journal for Nuclear Power, atw 53 (2008), No. 12

[2] http://www.areva-np.com/common/liblocal/docs/Brochure/BROCHURE_EPR_US_2.pdf

[3] A. Seeger, „Moderne Probleme der Metallphysik“, Erster Band, Springer-Verlag, Berlin ∙ Heidelberg ∙ New Yerk, 1965

[4] Keim, E., “RPV Integrity Assessment in Germany”, IAEA Regional Workshop on Structure, Systems and Components Integrity in Light Water Reactors, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 23–26 June 2009

[5] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI, Division 1, Appendix A, Article A-4000 Material Properties, 2007 Edition

[6] J. Barthelmes, E. Keim, H. Hein, A. de Jong Long Term Operation for Western Europe Nuclear Power Plants – RPV testing for Borssele PLEX, Nuclear Engineering International Magazine; August 2010

[7] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI, Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components, Code Case N-629, 1998 Edition

[8] “Pressurized Thermal Shock in Nuclear Power Plants: Good Practices for Assessment, Deterministic Evaluation for the Integrity of Reactor Pressure Vessel”, IAEA-TECDOC-1627, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2010

[9] R. Tiete, Schlüter, N, “Probabilistic fracture mechanics: PTS Screening criteria for RTNDT, application of FAVOR code to a German KONVOI plant”, 20th International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology (SMiRT 20), Espoo, Finland, August 9-14, 2009

17-21 September 2012 45

References

[10] 10 CFR 50.61 “Fracture toughness requirements for protection against pressurized thermal shock events”, Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, December 2003[6]

[11] Simonen, F.A., S.R. Doctor, G.J. Schuster, and P.G. Heasler, “A Generalized Procedure for Generating Flaw Related Inputs for the FAVOR Code,” NUREG/CR-6817, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, October 2003

[12] EricksonKirk, M.T., Dickson, T.L., “Recommended Screening Limits for Pressurized Thermal Shock (PTS)”, NUREG CR-1874, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, March 2010

[13] Williams, P.T., and T.L. Dickson, “Fracture Analysis of Vessels Oak Ridge, FAVOR v04.1: Computer Code: Theory and Implementation of Algorithms, Methods, and Correlations,” NUREG/CR-6854, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, October, 2004

[14] IAEA Reference Data Series No.2 2011 Edition Nuclear Power Reactors in the World

[15] H. Hein, et al, “Final Results from the Crack Initiation and Arrest of Irradiated Steel Materials Project on Fracture Mechanical Assessments of Pre-Irradiated RPV Steels Used in German PWR”Journal of ASTM International (2010), STP 1513 on Effects of Radiation on Nuclear Materials and the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: 24th Volume

[16] H. Hein, J. May, “Review of irradiation surveillance and test reactor data of RPV steels used in German LWR in relation to the flux effect issue”, Workshop on Trend Curve Development for Surveillance Data With Insight on Flux Effects at High Fluence: Damage Mechanisms and Modeling, November 19-21, 2008, SCK CEN, Mol Belgium

[17] G. R. Odette and T. Yamamoto, “Neutron Irradiation Flux Effects on RPV Steels: Analysis of the IVAR Database”, Workshop on Trend Curve Development for Surveillance Data With Insight on Flux Effects at High Fluence: Damage Mechanisms and Modeling, November 19-21, 2008, SCK CEN, Mol Belgium

17-21 September 2012 46

References

[18] H. Hein, J. May, “Review of irradiation surveillance and test reactor data of RPV steels used in German LWR in relation to the flux effect issue”, Workshop on Trend Curve Development for Surveillance Data with insight on Flux Effects at High Fluence: Damage Mechanisms and Modeling, Mol (Belgium), November 19–21, 2008

[19] Bergner, A Ulbricht, H Hein and M Kammel, “Flux dependence of cluster formation in neutron irradiated weld material”, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 20 (2008) 104262 (6pp)

[20] Odette, G.R., Lucas, G.E., "Embrittlement of Nuclear RPV steels“, Journal of Nuclear Materials 53 (2001) p. 18 – 22

[21] May, J., Hein, H., Altstadt, E., Bergner, F., Viehrig, H. W., Ulbricht, A., Chaouadi, R., Radiguet, B., Cammelli, S., Huang, H., Wilford, K., “FP7 project LONGLIFE: Treatment of long-term irradiation embrittlement effects in RPV safety assessment”, Third International Conference on Nuclear Power Plant Life Management, Salt Lake City, USA,14–18 May, 2012

[22] E. Altstadt, F. Bergner, H, Hein, “Irradiation damage and embrittlement in RPV steels under the aspect of long term operation - Overview of the FP7 project LONGLIFE”, ICONE-18, Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering ICONE18, May 17-21, 2010, Xi'an, China

[23] Leitz, C. and Koban, J., „Development of Reactor Pressure Vessel Design, Neutron Fluence Calculation, and Material Specification to Minimize Irradiation Effects,“ Radiation Embrittlement of Nuclear Reactor Pressure Vessel Steels: An International Review (Third Volume), ASTM STP 1011, L.E. Steele, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1989, pp. 130-144

[24] C. Leitz, “Reactor Pressure Vessel Aging and Countermeasures”, Kerntechnik 51 (1987)

17-21 September 2012 47

References

[25] AMES Report N. 19 “Annealing and re-embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel materials”, EUR 23449 EN – 2008

[26] 1st Nuclear Knowledge Preservation & Consolidation (NKP&C) Workshop WWER - WS1 Summary, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Energy, EUR 23718 EN 2009

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