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Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street

LightingHandbook



Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 3


LightingHandbook

F I R S T E D I T I O N 2 0 1 4




His Highness Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan

President of the United Arab Emirates, Ruler of Abu Dhabi Emirate





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His Highness General Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan

Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed

Forces and Chairman of the Abu Dhabi Executive Council




ImprintDepartment of Municipal Affairs Abu Dhabi; Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook, First Edition

Copyright © 2014 by Abu Dhabi City Municipality, and the Editing Consultant Team:

World Planners Consultant Engineers LLC and

Lichttechnische Planung - Lighting Design Austria e.U.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form,in any electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission

of the Abu Dhabi City Municipality and that of the contributors.

ISBN 978-3-200-03884-4

Printed in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi

Note:

The “Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” development process brings together contributors representing varied

viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus on lighting recommendations. While the contributors tried to administer the process and

to establish policies and procedures to promote at first independency in the development of consensus, it must be said that a main basic

input is to develop the lighting design and implementation process especially for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In this regard it makes no

guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.

The contributors disclaim liability for any injury to persons or property or for damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect,

consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance on this document.

In issuing and making this document available, the contributors are not undertaking to render professional or any other kind of services

for or on behalf of any person or entity. Nor are the contributors undertaking to perform any duty owed by any person or entity to someone

else. Anyone using this document should rely on his or her own independent judgement or, as appropriate, seek the advice of competent

professionals in determining the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances.

The contributors have no power, nor do they undertake, to police or enforce compliance with the contents of this document. Nor do the

contributors list, certify, test or inspect products, designs or installations for compliance with this document. Any certifications or statements

of compliance with the requirements of this document shall not be attributable to the contributors and is solely the responsibility of the

certifier or maker of the statement.

It is acknowledged by the editors and the publisher that all the service marks, trademarks, and copyrighted images/graphics (if any) in

this book are for editorial purposes only and to the benefit of the service mark, trademark or copyright owner, with no intention of infringing

on that service mark, trademark, or copyright. Nothing in this handbook should be construed to imply that respective service mark, trade-

mark, or copyright holder endorses or sponsors this handbook or any of its contents.

For general information please visit the Abu Dhabi City Municipality at www.adm.gov.ae page.





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Foreword:

Abu Dhabi has long been recognized worldwide as a global leader in the promotion and

development of sustainable infrastructure. The Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council developed

the ‘Abu Dhabi 2030 Structure Framework Plan’ to optimize the Emirate’s development through

a 25-year program of urban evolution and in doing so it is laying the foundation for socially

cohesive and economically sustainable community that preserves the Emirates’ unique cultural

heritage. This foresight to plan for sustainable infrastructure ahead of time is a key example

of visionary government.

The Abu Dhabi City Municipality working with The Department of Municipal Affairs in 2010

launched the Abu Dhabi Sustainable Lighting Strategy to ensure the vision for quality and

sustainable lighting would be at the core of all future development.

Le Corbusier, the iconic Swiss architect and renowned protagonist of the modern architecture

movement wrote in 1950 “Urbanism and Architecture and Light are Inseparable” and the

Municipality of Abu Dhabi has long since recognized the importance of ‘Light’ and ‘Sustainable

Lighting’ to be provided as an essential public service both within the City limits and beyond in

the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.

The Municipalities over the last four years have taken the initiative forward through new

Lighting Specifications and project designs to address the overriding importance of Urbanism, Architecture and Sustainable Lighting and now prides itself on being among the first Civic

Authorities to promote an expansive technical lighting handbook in support of the Sustainable

Lighting Strategy.

The Department of Municipal Affairs, Abu Dhabi City Municipality, Al Ain Municipality and

Western Region Municipality are pleased and proud to introduce this new ‘Abu Dhabi Public

Realm & Street Lighting Handbook’ as a universal guide for lighting design, for the promotion

of the art, science and technical aspects of lighting and as a tool to aid understanding,

promote education and improve sustainable lighting practice in the years ahead.

H.E Saeed Eid Al Ghafli

Chairman of the Department of Municipal Affairs

Emirate of Abu Dhabi

F o r e w

o r d




Municipality of Abu Dhabi City:

Address: Abu Dhabi City Municipality (ADM), Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 263

Telephone: +971 26788888, Fax: +971 2677 3338, Web: www.adm.gov.ae

ADM Project Coordinator/Advisor: Martin Valentine MSLL PLDA

Department of Municipal Affairs:

Address: Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA), Al Markaziya, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 3

Telephone: +971 2678555, Fax: +971 2677 7755, Web: www.dma.abudhabi.ae

Stakeholders:

Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA) Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC) Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council (UPC) Abu Dhabi City Municipality (ADM)

Al Ain City Muncipality (AAM) Western Region Municipality (WRM)

Department of Transport (DoT) Masdar

Musanada

Acknowledgements

H.E. Musabbah Mubarak Musabbah Al Marar, Acting General Manager, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Eng. Eisa Mubarak Al Mazrouei, Executive Director, Municipal Infrastructure & Assets Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Eng. Majed Abed Al Kathiri, Division Director, Internal Roads and Infrastructure, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Eng. Ahmed Saif Al Saedi, Section Head – O&M of Internal Roads & Street Lighting and Public realm Team, Abu Dhabi City MunicipalityJamal El Zarif, Ph.D. Technical Advisor, Municipal Infrastructure & Assets Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Ian Rose, Landscape Consultant, Parks & Recreational Facilities Division, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Mona Rizk, Project Development Consultant, Parks & Recreational Facilities Division, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Eng. Khaled N. Al Junadi, Environment Expert, Town Planning Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Eng. Khaled Jaman Al Sokhny, Consultant-Coordination-ADEA, Infrastructure Coordination & Services, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Martin Valentine MSLL PLDA, Lighting Expert, Executive Director Office, Abu Dhabi City Municipality

Gordon McMurray, Head of Project Management, World Planners Consultant Engineers (WP) llc





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Foreign Lighting Consultant:

Lichttechnische Planung - Lighting design Austria e.U.

Address: Marienstrasse 23, 3032 Eichgraben, Austria

Tel & Fax: 0043 2773 43534

Email: [email protected]

Managing Director / Project Director: Mr. Helmut Regvart

Local Project Coordinator: Mr. Arch. Gordon McMurrayProject Lighting Designer: Mr. Eng. Deshprim Krasniqi

Project Lighting Designer: Ms. Arch. Elisabeta Manescu

LLC

Local Consultant:

World Planners Consultant Engineers LLC

Address: P.O.Box: 126634 Abu Dhabi, UAE

Tel: 00971-2-22 22 052

Fax: 00971-2-22 22 171

Email: [email protected]

Managing Director Mr. Arch. Camille Feghali

C

o n t r i b u t o r s




Preface:

Abu Dhabi City Municipality and the contribu-

tors produce this “Abu Dhabi Public Realm &

Street Lighting Handbook” to guide and to give

authoritative recommendations to those who

design, specify, install, and maintain lighting

systems, and as an impartial source of informa-

tion for the public. The “Abu Dhabi Public

Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” contains

a mix of science, technology and design;

mirroring the nature of lighting itself.

Four main sections are represented in this first

edition: Visual Effects of Lighting, Recommen-

dations – ADM Sustainable Lighting Strategy –

Efficiency – The Problem of Light Pollution –

Visual Hierarchies for Public Realm Lighting,

Equipment and Lighting Design Standards.

Visual Effects chapters describe the science

and technology related to lighting, including

vision, optics, non-visual effects of optical radia-

tion, photometry and light sources.

Recommendations – ADM Sustainable Lighting

Strategy – Efficiency – The Problem of Light

Pollution – Visual Hierarchies for Public Realm

Lighting chapters include not only fundamental

considerations of artificial lighting, but alsoenergy management, controls, and economics.

Equipment and Lighting Design Standards

chapters establish the design context for many

lighting applications, especially for outdoor

and in detail for all public realm lighting, provide

luminance recommendations for specific tasks

and areas, and identify some of the analytic

goals of lighting design using science and

technology.

During the past years, the science, technology,

and the design practice related to lighting has

advanced significantly. Vision and biological

sciences have deepened knowledge of com-

plex relationship between light and health,

adding both opportunity and awareness of

the public of how lighting affects our lives.

Technology has transformed lighting with the

light emitting diode, now a practical source

for general illumination in many cases. New

equipment, new testing procedures, and new

application considerations have all risen in

response to this development. And the philoso-

phy, goals, and practice of architectural design

have been deeply affected by concerns for

the natural environment and desires for more

sustainable buildings and public grounds. New

developments in sustainable practices and

lighting control technology provide ways to

respond to these concerns and expectations.

New and helpful information is provided in the

chapters of visual effects and equipment and

in the lighting design standards chapters.

The aim is that in the future artificial lighting,





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controls design and implementation

throughout all public realm areas may

act in concert to produce better luminous

environments. The consequences of this

for the public realm energy consumption

can be very large if design parameters

and controls are an integral part of newly

developed lighting systems.

The public hope and expectations of

reducing the energy allotted to the public

realm have increased the challenge of

providing the lighting required for comfort,

safety, and appropriate to the use of the

outdoor space. In response to these con-

straints, the contributors have established

this first edition of “Abu Dhabi Public Realm

& Street Lighting Handbook” to generate

recommended illumination targets cited at

different parts of this handbook. This fine

and detailed information gives the designer

and the client the ability to more carefully

match illuminance targets with visual

tasks outdoor. These recommendations

for outdoor applications will take into

account the activity levels and special

tasks for safety especially for outdoor

design and implementation of lighting

systems.

Among many effects of the new techno-

logy and understanding of light and well-

being, has been the emergence of wide

interest in new lighting technologies and

large questions of public policy regarding

lighting, energy, sustainability, and health.

For these reasons this first edition of

“Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street

Lighting Handbook” has been designed

and written for a very wide audience.

This first edition of the “Abu Dhabi Public

Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” pro-

vides information and recommendations

that can guide designers and users of lighting systems in the Emirate of Abu

Dhabi of both reduced lighting energy

expectations and undiminished needs

for attractive, comfortable, productive

luminous environments.

The Contributors

P r e f

a c e




Chapter A

Fundamentals1.0 Light1.1 The Nature of Light1.2 The CIE Standard Observers

2.0 The Measurement of Light – Photometry 2.1 Luminous Flux2.2 Luminous Intensity 2.3 Illuminance2.4 Luminance2.5 Reflectance2.6 Typical Values2.7 The Measurement of Light – Colourimetry 2.8 The CIE Chromaticity Diagrams2.9 Correlated Colour Temperature2.10 CIE Colour Rendering Index2.11 Colour Gamut

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1.0 The Structure of the Visual System1.1 The Visual Field1.2 Optics of the Eye1.3 The Structure of the Retina1.4 The Central Visual Pathways1.5 Colour Vision2.0 Continuous Adjustments of the Visual Systems2.1 Adaptation

2.1.1 Change in Pupil Size2.1.2 Neutral Adaptation2.1.3 Photochemical Adaptation2.2 Photopic, Scotopic and Mesopic Observer2.2.1 Photopic Vision2.2.2 Scotopic Vision2.2.3 Mesopic Vision2.3 Accommodation2.4 Capabilities of the Visual System2.5 Threshold Measures2.6 Factors Determining Visual Threshold2.7 Colour Threshold2.8 Visual Discomfort

2.9 Illuminance Uniformity 2.10 Glare2.10.1 Saturation Glare2.10.2 Adaptation Glare2.10.3 Disability Glare2.10.4 Discomfort Glare2.10.5 Overhead Glare2.11 Veiling Reflections2.12 Shadows

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Chapter B

Vision





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1.0 Light Sources / Production of Radiation1.1 Incandescence1.2 Electric Discharges

1.3 Electroluminescence1.4 Luminescence2.0 Electric Light2.1 Incandescent2.2 Tungsten Halogen2.3 Fluorescent2.4 High Pressure Mercury

(also HID, Mercury Vapour, MVP Technique)2.5 Metal Halide2.6 Low Pressure Sodium2.7 High Pressure Sodium2.8 Induction2.9 Conventional (non-LED) Luminaire Requirements

2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)2.10.1 The Main Components of LEDs2.10.2 LED Luminaire Requirements2.11 Electroluminescence2.12 Plasma Lamp2.12.1 Limited Life2.12.2 Size2.12.3 Heat and Power2.12.4 High-Efficiency Plasma (HEP)2.12.5 System Efficacy 2.12.6 CRI3.0 Electric Light Source Characteristics3.1 Luminous Flux

3.2 Power Demand3.3 Luminous Efficiency 3.4 Lumen Maintenance3.5 Life3.6 Colour Properties3.7 Run-up Time3.8 Other Factors3.9 Summary of Lamp Characteristics4.0 Other Types of Lighting4.1 Flames4.2 Candle4.3 Oil4.4 Gas

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Chapter C

Technology




1.0 Basic Requirements2.0 Electrical2.1 Electrical Wiring

2.2 Earthing3.0 Mechanical3.1 Materials3.1.1 Steel3.1.2 Stainless Steel3.1.3 Aluminium Sheet3.1.4 Cast Aluminium – Extruded Aluminium3.1.5 Plastics, PVC, Acrylic, etc.3.1.6 Glass3.1.7 Ceramics4.0 Construction5.0 Optical Control5.1 Reflectors

5.2 Refractors5.3 Diffusers5.4 Baffles5.5 Louvres5.6 Filters5.7 Luminaire Efficiency 5.8 Thermal5.9 Environmental6.0 Luminaire Types6.1 Exterior Lighting6.1.1 Road Lighting Luminaires6.1.2 Post-Top Luminaires6.1.3 Secondary Reflector Luminaires

6.2 Floodlights6.3 Wall-mounted Luminaires6.4 In-Ground (Above-Ground)

Up-Lights, Directional Lights7.0 Certification and Classification7.1 Certification7.2 European (EU) Standards and Safety Trade Marks7.3 United States of America (US) Standards

and Safety Trade Marks7.3.1 The ANSI/UL 153 Standard7.3.2 The ANSI/UL 1598 Standard7.3.3 The ANSI/UL 8750 Standard7.4 International used Standards and Safety Trade Marks7.4.1 Operating Conditions (IP-Rating)7.4.2 IK Code and Impact Energy 7.4.3 Electrical Protection7.4.4 Separated or Safety Extra-Low Voltage (SELV)7.4.5 Class II Insulation7.4.6 Flammability 7.5 ADQCC and ESMA 7.5.1 Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC)

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1.0 Control Gear1.1 Ballasts for Discharge Light Sources –

General Principles1.1.1 Electromagnetic Control Gear

for Fluorescent Light Sources1.1.2 Electromagnetic Control Gear for HID Light Sources1.1.3 Low Pressure Sodium Lamp1.1.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamp1.1.5 Electronic Control Gear

for Fluorescent Light Sources1.1.6 Electronic Control Gear for HID Light Sources1.1.7 Iron-Core Transformers for Low-Voltage

Light Sources

1.1.8 Electronic Transformers for Low-VoltageLight Sources

1.1.9 Drivers for LEDs2.0 Lighting Controls2.1 Options for Control2.2 Input Devices2.2.1 Manual Inputs2.2.2 Presence Detectors2.2.3 Timers2.2.4 Photocells2.2.5 Advanced Lighting Control Systems2.3 Control Processes and Systems2.3.1 0-10V or 1-10V Dimming Systems

2.3.2 DSI/DALI Lighting Control /Dimming System Description

2.3.3 DMX 512 or DMX512-A Lighting ControlSystem Description

2.3.4 LON (Local Operating Network)Lighting Control Systems

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Chapter E

Electrics

7.5.1.1 Abu Dhabi Certification Schemefor LED Exterior Lighting Fixtures (Luminaires)

7.5.1.2 Conformity Certificate

7.5.2 ESMA 7.5.2.1 Scope7.5.2.2 Emirates Quality Mark7.5.2.3 Energy Efficiency Label8.0 Road Lighting Luminaires8.1 Luminous Intensity Distribution

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Chapter F

Applications1.0 Lighting Design1.1 Objectives and Constraints1.2 A Holistic Strategy for Lighting

1.3 Legal Requirements1.4 Visual Function1.5 Visual Amenity 1.6 Lighting and Architectural Integration1.7 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability 1.8 Maintenance1.9 Lighting Costs2.0 Photopic or Mesopic Vision3.0 Light Trespass and Skyglow4.0 Basic Design Decisions4.1 Choice of Electric Lighting System4.2 Integration4.2.1 Integration within the Space

4.2.2 Integration with the Surroundings4.2.3 Integration with other Services4.2.4 Integration with Daylight4.3 Equal and Approved

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Chapter G

Road Lighting1.0 Road – Public Realm Classification1.1 Lighting for Traffic Routes2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial

2.1 Short-Cut Tutorial for DIALux 4.12.0.1 –for standard Street Lighting Calculations3.0 Lighting Recommendations for Traffic Routes3.1 Design Criteria used to define Lighting

for Traffic Routes3.1.1 Overall Luminance Uniformity3.1.2 Longitudinal Luminance Uniformity3.1.3 Threshold Increment3.1.4 Surround Ratio3.2 Lighting Classes for Traffic Routes3.3 Samples of Streetlighting Calculations3.3.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation

for a typical Highway Layout

3.3.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a typical Boulevard Layout

3.3.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a typical Avenue Layout

3.3.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a typical Street Layout

3.3.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a curvy Street Layout

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3.4 Lighting Recommendationsfor Areas adjacent to the Carriageway

3.5 Lighting Recommendations for Conflict Areas

3.5.1 Average Road Surface Illuminance3.5.2 Overall Illuminance Uniformity3.6 Samples of typical Conflict Area Lighting

Calculations3.6.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation

for a typical Two Lane Roundabout Layout3.6.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation

for a typical One Lane Roundabout Layout3.6.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation

for a typical Street (mini) Roundabout Layout3.6.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a

typical Junction of Boulevard / Boulevard Layout3.6.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation

for a typical Junction of Street / Street Layout3.7 Coordination3.8 Traffic Route Lighting Design Fundamentals3.8.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition

of relevant Area3.8.2 Collection of Preliminary Data3.8.3 Calculation of Design Spacing3.8.4 Plotting of Luminaire Positions4.0 Lighting for Subsidiary Roads4.1 Lighting Recommendations for Subsidiary Roads4.2 Lighting Design for Subsidiary Roads4.2.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition

of relevant Area

4.2.2 Collection of Preliminary Data4.2.3 Calculation of Design Spacing4.2.4 Plotting of Luminaire Positions5.0 Lighting for Urban Centres and Public

Amenity Areas6.0 Pedestrian Underpasses in Public Realm Areas7.0 Tunnel Lighting8.0 Entrances or Underpasses, Underground Car Park

Facilities9.0 Car Parks (above Ground)9.1 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical

Low-Risk Car Park next to Streets9.2 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical

Medium-Risk Car Park next to Streets9.3 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical

Medium-Risk Car Park9.4 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical

High–Risk Car Park10.0 Service Stations and Mini-marts

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Chapter H

Exterior Workplace Lighting1.0 Functions of Lighting in Exterior Workplaces2.0 Factors to be Considered2.1 Scale

2.2 Nature of Work2.3 Need for Good Colour Vision2.4 Obstruction2.5 Interference with Complementary Activities2.6 Hours of Operation2.7 Impact on the Surrounding Area2.8 Atmospheric Conditions3.0 Lighting Recommendations3.1 Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity 3.2 Glare Control3.3 Light Source Colour Properties3.4 Localised Lighting

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Chapter I

Security Lighting1.0 Functions of Security Lighting1.1 Factors to be Considered1.2 Type of Site1.3 Site Features1.4 Ambient Light Levels1.5 Crime Risk1.6 CCTV Surveillance1.7 Impact on the Surrounding Area2.0 Lighting Recommendations2.1 Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity 2.2 Glare Control2.3 Light Source Colour Properties3.0 Approaches to Security Lighting3.1 Secure Areas3.1.1 Area Lighting

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Chapter J

Public Realm Lighting1.0 Public Realm Definition1.1 Guiding Principles for Public Realm Lighting1.2 Design Considerations for Public Realm Lighting

1.2.1 Visual Hierarchy 1.2.2 Lighting Techniques1.2.3 Colour1.2.4 Fixture Aesthetics & Theme1.2.5 Detailing and Documentation1.2.6 Public Wellbeing and Safety 1.2.7 Solar2.0 Public Realm Typical Elements2.1 Pathway Lighting2.1.1 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical

Main Pathway (10 lux) usingTypical Direct-Optic Column-Top Luminaires

2.1.2 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical

Secondary Pathway (5 lux) usingTypical Direct-Optic Column-Top Luminaires

2.1.3 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typicalMain Pathway (10 lux) using Typical Direct/IndirectSecondary-Reflector Column-Top Luminaires

2.1.4 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typicalSecondary Pathway (5 lux) using Bollard Luminaires

2.2 Tree Lighting2.2.1 Introduction2.2.2 Examples of Tree Lighting in Public Realm2.2.3 Techniques for Tree Uplight Luminaires2.3 Water Feature Lighting2.3.1 Introduction

2.3.2 Interaction of Light with Water2.3.3 Techniques for Lighting Water Features2.4 Playgrounds and Play Areas2.4.1 Introduction and Principles2.4.2 Examples of Playground Lighting2.5 Flexible Lawn Areas

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Chapter K

Sports Lighting1.0 Functions of Lighting for Sports1.1 Factors to be considered1.2 Standard of Play and viewing Distance

1.3 Playing Area1.4 Luminaires1.5 Obtrusive Light1.6 Lighting Recommendations1.6.1 Athletics1.6.2 Bowls, Boccia1.6.3 Cricket1.6.4 Fitness Training1.6.5 Football (Association, Gaelic and American)1.6.6 Lawn or Hardcover Tennis1.6.7 Rugby 1.7 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for MUGA

(Multi-Use-Gaming-Area)

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Chapter L

Lighting Performance

Verification1.0 The Need for Performance Verification1.1 Relevant Operating Conditions2.0 Instrumentation2.1 Illuminance Meters2.2 Luminance Meters3.0 Methods of Measurement3.1 Maintained average (mean) Illuminance3.2 Interior Lighting3.3 Exterior Lighting4.0 Selection of a Grid for Calculation or Measurement4.1 Straight Roadway Sections4.2 Curved Roadway Sections

4.3 Traffic Conflict Areas4.4 Measurement for all other Areas at Public Realm4.5 Measurement of Illuminance Variation and Diversity 4.6 Illuminance Uniformity 4.7 Luminance Measurements4.8 Measurement of Reflectance

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Chapter M

Lighting Maintenance1.0 The Need for Lighting Maintenance1.1 Lamp Replacement1.2 Cleaning Luminaires

1.3 Outdoor Surface Cleaning2.0 Maintained average (mean) Illuminance2.1 Designing for Lighting Maintenance2.2 Determination of Maintenance Factor

for Interior Lighting2.3 Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor2.4 Lamp Survival Factor2.5 Luminaire Maintenance Factor2.6 Room (exterior) Surface Maintenance Factor2.7 Determination of Maintenance Factor

for Standard Exterior Lighting3.0 Disposal of Lighting Equipment

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Chapter N

On the Horizon1.0 Changes and Challenges1.1 The Changes and Challenges

facing Lighting Practice1.1.1 Costs1.1.2 Technologies1.1.3 Specifications of LED Products2.0 Three main Topics to be considered by designing

or using LED Systems

2.1 System Reliability 2.2 LED Performance2.3 Optical Performance2.4 PCB Quality and Design2.5 Finish of the Luminaires2.6 Mechanical Quality – IP Rating, etc.2.7 Thermo Management2.8 Housing Design2.9 Gaskets, Sealants2.10 Electrical Connections – Internal / External2.11 Control Gear, Driver Design and Quality 2.12 Drive Current / LED Technique in General2.13 Manufacturing

2.14 Operational Environments3.0 Life3.1 Lifetime3.1.1 Failure Fraction

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4.0 Luminaire Manufacturers Design Data4.1 LED light Source / Luminaire / System Data4.2 Measured LED Module Data4.3 Measured Luminaire Data4.4 Rated Power4.5 Power Factor4.6 Rated Lumen Output4.7 Light Loss Maintenance Factor4.8 Rated Luminaire Efficacy 4.9 The Board Temperature4.10 Lumen Depreciation4.11 Life4.12 Failure Fraction

4.13 Colour Temperature4.14 Colour Maintenance4.15 Colour Temperature Tolerance4.16 Colour Rendering Index of the Luminaire4.17 Light Intensity Distribution4.18 Temperature Cycling Shock Test4.19 Supply Voltage Switching Test4.20 Thermal Endurance Test5.0 Data required for Specification of LED and /

or LED Luminaires / Systems6.0 Lighting Controls7.0 New Knowledge8.0 Energy Consumption and Environmentally friendly

sustainable Lighting Design Approach8.1 Environmentally friendly Lighting Design8.2 Energy Sustainability 8.3 Energy Sources8.4 Solar Street Lighting Developments as a Future Way

to reduce Energy Demand9.0 Sustainable Lighting Design Codes of Practice

and Industrial Standards10.0 Institutes and Societies for Standardisation,

Regulations and Societies for Lighting Technology 11.0 Conclusion

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Chapter O

Lighting Vocabularyfrom A to Z A –Z

Page

416 – 470

Chapter P

References

1.0 Acknowledgements2.0 Executive Leadership and Higher SteeringCommittee

3.0 Technical Advisory Committee4.0 DMA Project Coordinator / Advisor5.0 Consultant Team – The Contributors6.0 References, Standards and Documents used to

develop this Comprehensive Handbook6.1 Authorities, Local Standards and Guidelines

to be referred to for Development and Designof Public Realm and Street Lighting

6.2 Norms, Standards and Publications used todevelop this Handbook

6.3 Referenced Norms and Standards – International6.4 Referenced Norms and Standards - Local7.0 Referenced Lighting Societies and Organisations

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C o n t e

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FundamentalsChapter A




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1.0 Light

1.1 The Nature of Light

Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum that

stretches from cosmic rays to radio waves (Figure 1).

What distinguishes the wavelength region between

380-780 nanometres (nm) from the rest is the

response of the human visual system.

Photoreceptors in the human eye absorb energy in

this wavelength range and thereby initiate the pro-

cess of seeing.

1.2 The CIE Standard Observers

The sensitivity of the human visual system is not

the same at all wavelengths in the range 380 nm to

780 nm. This makes it impossible to adopt the ra-

diometric quantities conventionally used to measurethe characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum

for quantifying light. Rather, a special set of quanti-

ties has to be derived from the radiometric quantities

by weighting them by the spectral sensitivity of the

human visual system. The result is the photometry

system (see Chapter A / 2.0).

The Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE)

has established three standard observers to repre-

sent the sensitivity of the human visual system to

light at different wavelengths, in different conditions.

In 1924, the CIE adopted the Standard Photopic

Observer to characterise the spectral sensitivity of

the human visual system by day.

The commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE)

has established three standard observers to repre-

sent the sensitivity of the human visual system to

light at different wavelengths, in different conditions.

In 1990, in the interests of greater photometric

accuracy, the CIE produced a Modified Photopic

Observer, having greater sensitivity than the CIE

Standard Photopic Observer at wavelengths below

460 nm. This CIE Modified Photopic Observer is

considered to be a supplement to the CIE Standard

Photopic Observer not a replacement for it. As a

result, the CIE Standard Photopic Observer has

continued to be widely used by the lighting industry.

This is acceptable because the modified sensitivity

at wavelengths below 460 nm has been shown to

make little difference to the photometric properties of

light sources that emit radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. It is only for light sources that emit si-

gnificant amounts of radiation below 460 nm that

changing from the CIE Standard Photopic Observer

to the CIE Modified Photopic Observer makes a

Figure 1

A schematic diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum showing

the location of the visible spectrum. The divisions between the

different types of electromagnetic radiation are indicative only.




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significant difference to photometric proper-

ties. Some narrow band light sources, such as

blue light emitting diodes, fall into this category.

In 1951, the CIE adopted the CIE Standard

Scotopic Observer to characterise the spec-

tral sensitivity of the human visual system by

night. The Standard Scotopic Observer is

used by the lighting industry to quantify the

efficiency of a light source at stimulating the

rod photoreceptors of the eye (see Chapter

B / 2.2).

The CIE Standard and Modified Photopic

Observers and the CIE Standard Scotopic

Observer are shown in Figure 2, the Standard

and Modified Photopic Observers having

maximum sensitivities at 555 nm and the

Standard Scotopic Observer having a maxi-

mum sensitivity at 507 nm. These relative

spectral sensitivity curves are formally known

as the 1924 CIE Spectral Luminous Efficiency

and References Function for Photopic Vision,

and the 1951 CIE Spectral Luminous Efficiency

Function for Scotopic Vision, respectively. More

commonly, they are known as the CIE V (λ ),

CIE VM (λ ), and the CIE V` (λ ) curves. These

curves are the basis of the conversion from

radiometric quantities to the photometric

quantities used to characterise light.

Figure 2

The relative luminous efficiency functions for the CIE Standard Photopic Observer, the CIE Modified Photopic Observer,

the CIE Standard Scotopic Observer, and the relative luminous efficiency function for a 10 degree field of view in photopic

conditions.




2.0 The Measurement of Light – Photometry

2.1 Luminous Flux

The most fundamental measure of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a source is its radiant flux:

This is the rate of flow of energy emitted and is measured in watts. The most fundamental quantity used to

measure light is luminous flux. Luminous flux is radiant flux multiplied, wavelength by wavelength, by the relative

spectral sensitivity of the human visual system, over the wavelength range 380 nm to 780 nm (Figure 3).

This process can be represented by the equation:

where: = luminous flux (lumens)

= radiant flux in a small wavelength interval (watts)

= the relative luminous efficiency function for the conditions

= constant (lumens/watt)

= wavelength interval

In System International (SI) units, the radiant flux is measured in watts (W) and the luminous flux in lumens (lm).

The values of Km are 683 lm/W for the CIE Standard and Modified Photopic Observers and 1699 lm/W for the

CIE Standard Scotopic Observer. It is always important to identify which of the CIE Standard Observers is being

used in any particular measurement or calculation. The CIE recommends that whenever the Standard Scotopic

Observer is being used, the word scotopic should precede the measured quantity, i.e. scotopic luminous flux.

Luminous flux is used to quantify the total light output of a light source in all directions.

= K m V

V

K m

Figure 3

The process for converting from radiometric to photometric quantities. The left-hand Figure shows the spectral power distribution of a light source in radiometric quantities (watts/wavelength interval). The centre Figure shows the CIE Standard Photopic Observer.

Multiplying the spectral power at each wavelength by the luminous efficiency at the same wavelength given by the CIE Standard Photopic

Observer, the right-hand Figure is produced. The right-hand Figure is the spectral luminous flux distribution in photometric quantities

(lumens/wavelength interval).




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2.2 Luminous Intensity

Luminous intensity is the luminous flux emit-

ted/unit solid angle, in a specified direction.

Solid angle is given by area divided by the

square of the distance and is measured in

steradians. An area of 1 square metre at a

distance of 1 metre from the origin subtends

one steradian. The unit of measurement of

luminous intensity is the candela, which is

equivalent to one lumen/steradian. Luminous

intensity is used to quantify the distribution of

light from a luminaire.

2.3 Illuminance

Illuminance is the luminous flux falling on unit

area of a surface. The unit of measurement of

illuminance is the lumen/m2 (lm/m²) or lux (lx).

The illuminance incident on a surface is the

most widely used electric lighting design

criterion. Figure 4 shows some typical illumi-

nances on different surfaces under the noon-

day sun in temperate climates.

2.4 Luminance

The luminance of a surface is the luminous in-

tensity emitted per unit projected area of the

surface in a given direction. The unit of mea-

surement of luminance is the candela/m2

(cd/m²). Luminance is widely used to define

stimuli presented to the visual system.

2.5 Reflectance

As might be expected, there is a relationship

between the amount of light incident on a sur-

face and the amount of light reflected from the

same surface. The simplest form of the re-

lationship is quantified by the luminance

coefficient. The luminance coefficient is the

ratio of the luminance of the surface to the

illuminance incident on the surface and has

units of candela/lumen. The luminance coeffi-

cient of a given surface is dependent on the

nature of the surface and the geometry bet-

ween the lighting, surface and observer.

There are two other quantities commonly

used to express the relationship between

the luminance of a surface and the illumi-

nance incident on it. For a perfectly diffusely-

reflecting surface, the relationship is given by

the equation:

where luminance is expressed in candela/m2

and illuminance is expressed in lumens/m2

or lux (lx).

e)reflectancce(illuminan luminance

Figure 4

Typical illuminances on different surfaces under the

noonday sun in temperate climates.




For a diffusely-reflecting surface, reflectance is defi-

ned as the ratio of reflected luminous flux to incident

luminous flux. For a non-diffusely-reflecting surface,

i.e. a surface with some specularity, the same equa-

tion between luminance and illuminance applies but

reflectance is replaced with luminance factor. Lumi-

nance factor is defined as the ratio of the luminance

of the surface viewed from a specific position and lit

in a specified way to the luminance of a diffusely-

reflecting white surface viewed from the same

direction and lit in the same way. It should be clear

from this definition, that a non-diffusely-reflecting

surface can have many different values of the lumi-

nance factor. Table 1 summarises these definitions.

Measure Definition Units

Luminous flux That quantity of radiant flux which

expresses its capacity to produce

visual sensation

lumens (lm)

Luminous intensity The luminous flux emitted in a very

narrow cone containing the given

direction divided by the solid angle

of the cone, i.e. luminous flux/unit

solid angle

candela (cd)

Illuminance The luminous flux/unit area

at a point on a surface

lumen/m2 or lux

Luminance The luminous flux emitted in a

given direction divided by the

product of the projected area of

the source element perpendicular

to the direction and the solid angle

containing that direction, i.e.

luminous intensity/unit area

candela/m2

Luminance coefficient The ratio of the luminance of a

surface to the illuminance incident

on it

candela/lumen

Reflectance The ratio of the luminous flux

reflected from a surface to the

luminous flux incident on it

Table 1

The photometric quantities:




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For a diffuse surface:

e)reflectancce(illuminan luminance

Measure Definition Units

Luminance factor The ratio of the luminous flux

reflected from a surface to the

luminous flux incident on it

The ratio of the luminance of a

reflecting surface viewed from a

given direction to that of a perfect

white uniform diffusing surface

identically illuminated

For a non-diffuse surface, for a specific direction and lighting geometry:

factor)luminancece(illuminan luminance

Situation Illuminance (lm/m2 )

or lux

Typical surface Luminance

(cd/m2 )

Clear sky in

summer in

temperate zones

100,000 lx Grass 1,910

Overcast sky in

summer in

temperate zones

16,000 lx Grass 300

Moonlight 0.5 lx Asphalt road surface 0.01

2.6 Typical Values

Table 2 shows some illuminances and luminances typical of commonly occurring situations,

all measured using the CIE Standard Photopic Observer.

Table 2

Typical illuminance and luminance values:




2.7 The Measurement of Light —

Colourimetry

Photometry does not take into account the wave-

length combination of the light. Thus it is possible for

two surfaces to have the same luminance but the

reflected light to be made up of totally different combi-

nations of wavelengths. In this situation, and provided

there is enough light for colour vision to operate, the

two surfaces will look different in colour. The CIE co-

lourimetry system provides a means to quantify colour.

2.8 The CIE Chromaticity Diagrams

The basis of the CIE colourimetry system is colour

matching. The CIE Colour Matching Functions are

the relative spectral sensitivity curves of the human

observer with normal colour vision and can be

considered as another form of standard observer.

The CIE colour matching functions are mathematical

constructs that reflect the relative spectral sensitivi-

ties required to ensure that all the wavelength

combinations that are seen as the same colour have

the same position in the CIE colourimetry system

and that all wavelength combinations that are seen

as different in colour occupy different positions.

Figure 5 shows two sets of colour matching

functions. The CIE 1931 Standard Observer is used

for colours occupying visual fields up to 4° of angular

subtense. The CIE 1964 Standard Observer is used

for colours covering visual fields greater than 4° in

angular subtense. The values of the colour matching

functions at different wavelengths are known as the

spectral tristimulus values.

Figure 5

Two sets of colour matching functions: The CIE 1931standard observer (2 degrees)

(solid line) and the CIE 1964 standard observer (10 degrees) (dashed line).




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The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram can be

considered as a map of the relative location of

colours. The saturation of a colour increases

as the chromaticity coordinates get closer to

the spectrum locus and further from the equal

energy point. The hue of the colour is deter-

mined by the direction in which the chromati-

city coordinates move. The CIE 1931 chroma-

ticity diagram is useful for indicating approxi-

mately how a colour will appear, a value

recognised by the CIE in that it specifies

chromaticity coordinate limits for signal lights

and surfaces so that they will be recognised

as red, green, yellow, and blue.

Figure 6

The CIE 1931 Chromaticity Diagram showing the spectrum locus, the Planckian locus and the equal energy point).




The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram is perceptually

non-uniform. Green colours cover a large area while

red colours are compressed in the bottom right cor-

ner. This perceptual non-uniformity makes any

attempt to quantify large colour differences using the

CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram problematic. In an

attempt to improve this situation, the CIE first intro-

duced the CIE 1960 Uniform Chromaticity Scale

(UCS) diagram and then, in 1976, recommended the

use of the CIE 1976 UCS diagram. Both diagrams

are simply linear transformations of the CIE 1931

chromaticity diagram. The axes for the CIE 1976

UCS diagram are

where x and y are the CIE 1931 chromaticity coordi-

nates. Figure 7 shows the CIE 1976 UCS diagram.

u' = 4x/ (–2x+12y+3)v' = 9y/ (–2x+12y+ 3)

Figure 7

The CIE 1976 Uniform Chromaticity Scale diagram.




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2.9 Correlated Colour Temperature

While the CIE colourimetry system is the most

exact means of quantifying colour, it is com-

plex. Therefore, the lighting industry has used

the CIE colourimetry system to derive two sin-

gle-number metrics to characterise the colour

properties of light sources. The metric used to

characterise the colour appearance of the

light emitted by a light source is the correlated

colour temperature. The basis of this measure

is the fact that the spectral power distribution

of a black body is defined by Planck’s

Radiation Law and hence is a function of its

temperature only (see Chapter C, 1.1).

Figure 8 shows a part of the CIE 1931

chromaticity diagram with the Planckian

locus shown. The locus is the curved line

joining the chromaticity coordinates of black

bodies at different temperatures. The lines

running across the Planckian locus areiso-temperature lines. When the CIE 1931

chromaticity coordinates of a light source

lie directly on the Planckian locus, the colour

appearance of that light source is expressed

by the colour temperature, i.e. the tempera-

ture of the black body that has the same

chromaticity coordinates. For light sources

that have chromaticity coordinates close to

the Planckian locus but not on it, their colour

appearance is quantified as the correlated co-

lour temperature, i.e. the temperature of the

isotemperature line that is closest to the

actual chromaticity coordinates of the light

source. The temperatures are usually given in

kelvins (K).

As a rough guide, nominally-white light sour-

ces have correlated colour temperatures

ranging from 2,700 K to 7,500 K. A 2,700 K

light source, such as an incandescent lamp,

will have a yellowish colour appearance and

be described as ‘warm’, while a 7,500 K

lamp, such as some types of fluorescent

lamp, will have a bluish appearance and be

described as ‘cold’. It is important to appre-

ciate that light sources that have chromaticity

coordinates that lie beyond the range of theiso-temperature lines shown in Figure 8

should not be given a correlated colour tem-

perature. The light from such light sources

will appear greenish when the chromaticity

coordinates lie above the Planckian locus or

purplish if they lie below it.




2.10 CIE Colour Rendering Index

The CIE colour rendering index measures how well a

given light source renders a set of standard test co-

lours relative to their rendering under a reference

light source of the same correlated colour tempera-

ture as the light source of interest.

The reference light source used is an incandescent

light source for light sources with a correlated colour

temperature below 5000 K and some form of day-light for light sources with correlated colour tempera-

ture above 5000 K. The actual calculation involves

obtaining the positions of a surface colour in the CIE

1964, U*,V*, W*, colour space under the reference

light source and under the light source of interest,

correcting for any difference in white point under the

two light sources and expressing the difference bet-

ween the two positions on a scale that gives perfect

agreement between the two positions a value of

100. The CIE has fourteen standard test colours.

The first eight form a set of pastel colours arranged

around the hue circle. Test colours nine to fourteen

represent colours of special significance, such as

skin tones and vegetation. The result of the calcula-

tion for any single colour is called the CIE special

colour rendering index, for that colour. The averageof the special colour rendering indices for the first

eight test colours is called the CIE general colour

rendering index (Ra). It is the CIE general colour ren-

dering index that is usually presented in light source

manufacturers’ catalogues. The CIE general colour

rendering index varies widely across light sources

(see Chapter C / 3.9).

Figure 8

The Planckian locus and lines of constant correlated colour temperature plotted on the CIE 1931 (x,y) chromaticity diagram.

Also shown are the chromaticity coordinates of CIE Standard Illuminants, A, C, and D65.

Figure 9

The Ra8 and Ra14 colour fields

for description of colour rendering.




Chapter B

Vision




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1.0 The Structure of the Visual System

The visual system consists of the eye and brain

working together. Functionally, the visual system is

an image-processing system that extracts specific

aspects of the retinal image for interpretation by the

brain.

1.1 The Visual Field

Humans have two eyes, mounted frontally. Figure 11

shows the approximate extent of the visual field of

the two eyes in humans, measured in degrees from

the point of fixation. The enclosed darker area can

be seen with both eyes. The shaded area to the left

is visible to the left eye only. The shaded area to the

right is visible to the right eye only.

1.2 Optics of the Eye

Figure 12 shows a section through the eye, the

upper and lower halves being adjusted for focus at

near and far distances, respectively. The eye is basi-

cally spherical with a diameter of about 24 mm.

The sphere is formed from three concentric layers.

The outermost layer, called the sclera, protects the

contents of the eye and maintains its shape under

pressure. Over most of the eye’s surface, the sclera

looks white but at the front of the eye the sclera

bulges up and becomes transparent. It is through

this area, called the cornea, that light enters the eye.

The next layer is the vascular tunic, or choroid. This

layer contains a dense network of small blood ves-

sels that provide oxygen and nutrients to the next

layer, the retina. As the choroid approaches the front

of the eye it separates from the sclera and forms the

ciliary body. This element produces the watery fluid

that lies between the cornea and the lens, called the

aqueous humor. The aqueous humor provides oxy-

gen and nutrients to the cornea and the lens, and

takes away their waste products. Elsewhere in the

eye this is done by blood but on the optical pathway

through the eye, a transparent medium is necessary.

As the ciliary body extends further away from the

sclera, it becomes the iris. The iris forms a circular

opening, called the pupil, that admits light into the

eye. Pupil size varies with the amount of light

reaching the retina but it is also influenced by thedistance of the object from the eye, the age of the

observer and by emotional factors such as fear,

excitement and anger.

Figure 11

The binocular visual field expressed in degrees deviation from the

point of fixation. The shaded areas are visible to only one eye.Given this limited field of view for a fixed position, it is necessary

for the two eyes to be able to move. There are two ways this can

be done; by moving the head and by moving the eyes in the

head. Humans have a limited range of head movements but

a wide range of eye movements.




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After passing through the pupil, light reaches

the lens. The lens is fixed in position, but va-

ries its focal length by changing its shape. The

change in shape is achieved by contracting or

relaxing the ciliary muscles. For objects close

to the eye, the lens is fattened. For objects far

away, the lens is flattened.

1.3 The Structure of the Retina

The retina is an extension of the brain. The vi-

sual system has four photoreceptor types in

the retina, each containing a different photo-

pigment. These four types are conventionally

grouped into two classes, rods and cones.

All the rod photoreceptors are the same, con-

taining the same photopigment and hencehaving the same spectral sensitivity. The other

three photoreceptor types are all cones, each

with a different photopigment. Figure 14

shows the relative spectral sensitivity functi-

ons of the three cone photoreceptor types,

called short (S), medium (M) and long (L)

wavelength cones.

Figure 12

A section through the eye adjusted for near and distant vision.

Figure 13

System sketch of retina section.




Figure 15

shows the distribution of rod and

cone photoreceptors across the

retina. The 0 degree indicates the

position of the fovea. The three

cone types are also not distributed

equally across the retina. The L-

and M-cones are concentrated in

the fovea, their density declining

gradually with increasing eccentri-

city. The S-cones are largely absent

from the fovea; reach a maximum

concentration just outside the fovea

and then decline gradually in den-

sity with increasing eccentricity.

Rods and cones are distributed differently across the retina (Figure 15). Cones are concentrated in one small

area that lies on the visual axis of the eye, called the fovea, although there is a low density of cones across the

rest of the retina.

For more details about optics and function of eye please refer to the SLL Handbook article 2.1.3 and following ones.

Figure 14

The relative spectral sensitivitiesof long wavelength (L),

medium wavelength (M)

and short wavelength (S)

cone photoreceptors.




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The optic nerves leaving the two eyes are

brought together at the optic chiasm where

the nerves from each eye are split and parts

from the same side of the two eyes are

combined. This arrangement ensures that

the signals from the same side of the two

eyes are received together on the same side

of the visual cortex. The pathways then

proceed to the lateral geniculate nuclei.

Somewhere between leaving the eyes and

arriving at the lateral geniculate nuclei, some

optic nerve fibers are diverted to the superior

colliculus, responsible for controlling eye

movements, and to the suprachiasmatic

nucleus which is concerned with entraining

circadian rhythms. After the lateral geniculate

nuclei, the two optic nerves spread out to

supply information to various parts of the

visual cortex, the part of the brain where

vision occurs. The visual cortex is located

at the back of cerebral hemispheres. About

80% of the cortical cells are devoted to the

central ten degrees of the visual field, the

centre of which is the fovea, a phenomenon

that again emphasises the importance of

the fovea.

Figure 16 A schematic diagram of the pathways from the eyes to the visual cortex.

1.4 The Central Visual Pathways

Signals from the retina are translated to the visual cortex of the brain over the central visual

pathways (Figure 16).




1.5 Colour Vision

Human colour vision is trichromatic. It is based on the L, M and S cone photoreceptors. Figure 17 shows

how the outputs from the three cone photoreceptor types are believed to be arranged. The achromatic channel

combines inputs from the M- and L-cones only. Its output is related to luminance. The other two channels are

opponent channels in that they produce a difference signal. These opponent channels are responsible for the

perception of colour. The red-green opponent channel produces the difference between the output of the

M-cones and the sum of the outputs of the L- and S-cones. The blue-yellow opponent channel produces the

difference between the S-cones and the sum of the M- and L-cones.

Figure 17

The organisation of the human colour system showing how the three cone photoreceptor types are believed to feed into one achromatic,

non-opponent channel and two chromatic, opponent channels.

The ability to discriminate the wavelength content of

incident light makes a dramatic difference to the

information that can be extracted from a scene.

Creatures with only one type of photopigment, i.e.

creatures without colour vision, can only discriminate

shades of grey, from black to white. Approximately

100 such discriminations can be made. Having

three types of photopigment increases the number

of discriminations to approximately 1,000,000.

Thus, colour vision is a valuable part of the visual

system, and not a luxury that adds little to utility.




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2.1 Adaptation

To cope with the wide range of luminances to

which it might be exposed, from a very dark

night (10–6 cd/m2 means theoretically much

less than 0.1 lux*) to a sunlit beach (106 cd/m2

means theoretically more than 100,000 lux*),

the visual system changes its sensitivity

through a process called adaptation. Adapta-

tion is a continuous process involving three

distinct changes.

2.1.1 Change in Pupil Size

The iris constricts and dilates in response

to increased and decreased levels of retinal

illumination. The maximum change in retinal

illumination that can occur through pupil

changes is 16 to 1. As the visual system

can operate over a range of about

1,000,000,000,000 to 1, this indicates

that the pupil plays only a minor role in

the adaptation of the visual system.

2.1.2 Neural Adaptation

This is a fast (less than 200 ms) change in

sensitivity produced in the retina. Neural

processes account for virtually all the transi-

tory changes in sensitivity of the eye at

luminance values commonly encountered in

electrically lighted environments, i.e. below

luminances of about 600 cd/m2. The factsthat neural adaptation is fast, is operative at

moderate light levels, and is effective over a

luminance range with a maximum to minimum

ratio of 1000:1 explain why it is possible to

look around most lit interiors without being

conscious of being misadapted.

2.1.3 Photochemical Adaptation

The sensitivity of the eye to light is largely a

function of the percentage of unbleached

pigment in each photoreceptor. Under

conditions of steady retinal illumination, the

concentration of photopigment produced by

the competing processes of bleaching and

regeneration is in equilibrium. When the retinal

irradiance is changed, pigment is bleached

and regenerated so as to re-establish

equilibrium. Because the time required to

accomplish the photochemical reactions is of

the order of minutes, changes in the sensiti-

vity can lag behind the irradiance changes.

The cone photoreceptors adapt much more

rapidly than do the rod photoreceptors.

Exactly how long it takes to adapt to a

change in retinal illumination depends on the

magnitude of the change, the extent to which

it involves different photoreceptors and the

direction of the change. For changes in retinal

illumination of about 2–3 log units, neural

adaptation is sufficient so adaptation should

be complete in less than a second. For

larger changes photochemical adaptation is

necessary. If the change in retinal illumination

lies completely within the range of operationof the cone photoreceptors, a few minutes will

be sufficient for adaptation to occur. If the

change in retinal illumination covers from cone

photoreceptor operation to rod photoreceptor

* Conversion between cd/m 2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above

Figures and based on typical experienced situations.

2.0 Continuous Adjustments of the Visual System




operation, tens of minutes may be necessary for

adaptation to be completed. As for the direction

of change, once the photochemical processes are

involved, changes to a higher retinal illuminance

can be achieved much more rapidly than changes

to a lower retinal illuminance.

When the visual system is not completely adapted to

the prevailing retinal illumination, its capabilities are

limited. This state of changing adaptation is called

transient adaptation. Transient adaptation is unlikely

to be noticeable in interiors in normal conditions but

can be significant where sudden changes from high

to low retinal illumination occur, such as on entering

a long road tunnel on a sunny day or in the event of

a power failure in a windowless building.

2.2 Photopic, Scotopic and Mesopic Vision

This process of adaptation can change the spectral

sensitivity of the visual system because at different

retinal illuminances, different combinations of retinal

photoreceptors are operating.

The three states of sensitivity are conventionally

identified as follows:

2.2.1 Photopic Vision

This occurs at luminances higher than approximately

3 cd/m2 (seeing colours will start at approx. 0.2 lux,

depending on intensity of colour, age of viewer, andadaption stage of eye)*. For these luminances, the

retinal response is dominated by the cone photore-

ceptors so both colour vision and fine resolution of

detail are available.

2.2.2 Scotopic Vision

This occurs at luminances less than approximately

0.001 cd/m2 (means approx. 0.02 lux)*. For these

luminances only the rod photoreceptors respond to

stimulation so colour is not perceived and the fovea

of the retina is blind.

2.2.3 Mesopic Vision

This is intermediate between the photopic and

scotopic states, i.e. between about 0.001 cd/m2 and

3 cd/m2 (means between approx. 0.02 lux and ap-

prox. 0.2 lux)*. In the mesopic state both cones and

rod photoreceptors are active. As luminance

declines through the mesopic region, the fovea,

which contains only cone photoreceptors, slowly

declines in absolute sensitivity without significant

change in spectral sensitivity, until vision fails

altogether as the scotopic state is reached. In the

periphery, the rod photoreceptors gradually come to

dominate the cone photoreceptors, resulting in

gradual deterioration in colour vision and resolution

and a shift in spectral sensitivity to shorter wave-

lengths. The relevance of the different types of vision

for lighting practice varies. Scotopic vision is largely

irrelevant. Any lighting installation worthy of the name

provides enough light to at least move the visual

system into the mesopic state. Most interior lighting

ensures the visual system is operating in the photo-

pic state. Current practice in exterior lighting ensures

the visual system is often operating in the mesopicstate.

All photometric quantities used by the lighting indu-

stry are based on the CIE Standard Photopic Obser-

* Conversion between cd/m2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above





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ver, i.e. photopic vision. Therefore, it should

not come as a surprise when light sources

with different spectral content do not have the

same effects when used to provide mesopic

vision despite being matched photometrically.

2.3 Accommodation

There are three optical components involved

in the ability of the eye to focus an image on

the retina, the thin film of tears on the cornea,

the cornea itself, and the crystalline lens. The

ciliary muscles have the ability to change the

curvature of the lens and thereby adjust the

power of the eye’s optical system in response

to changing target distances; this change in

optical power is called accommodation.

Accommodation is a continuous process,

even when fixating, and is always a response

to an image of the target located on or near

the fovea rather than in the periphery of the

retina. Any condition that handicaps the

fovea, such as a low light level, will adversely

affect accommodative ability. As adaptation

luminance decreases below 0.03 cd/m2

(means approx. 0,6 lux)*. the range of

accommodation narrows so that it becomes

increasingly difficult to focus objects near and

far from the observer. When there is no stimu-

lus for accommodation, as in completedarkness or in a uniform luminance visual

field such as occurs in a dense fog, the visual

system typically accommodates to approxi-

mately 70 cm away.

2.4 Capabilities of the Visual System

The human visual system has a limited range

of capabilities. These limits, conventionally

called thresholds, are mainly of interest for

determining what will not be seen rather than

how well something will be seen. For the

threshold measurements shown here the

observers were all fully adapted, the target

was presented on a field of uniform luminance

and the observers’ accommodation was

correct.

2.5 Threshold Measures

The threshold capabilities of the human visual

system can conveniently be divided into spa-

tial, temporal and colour classes.

2.6 Factors Determining

Visual Threshold

There are three distinct groups of factors that

influence the measured threshold; visual sy-

stem factors, target characteristics and the

background against which the target appears.

Important visual system factors are the lumi-

nance to which the visual system is adapted,

the position in the visual field where the target

appears, and the extent to which the eye is

correctly accommodated. As a general rule,

the lower the luminance to which the visual

system is adapted, the further the target isfrom the fovea, and the more mismatched the

accommodation of the eye is to the viewing

distance, the larger will be the threshold

values.

** Conversion between cd/m 2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above





Important target characteristics are the size and

luminance contrast of the target and the colour

difference between the target and the immediate

background. All three factors interact. For example,

the visual acuity for a low luminance contrast,

achromatic target will be much larger than for a high

luminance contrast, achromatic target when expres-

sed as minutes of arc but will be reduced if there is a

colour difference between the target and the back-

ground.

As for the effect of the background against which

the target appears, the important factors are the

area, luminance and colour of the background. As

a general rule, the larger the area around the target

that is of a similar luminance to the target and

neutral in colour, the smaller will be the threshold

measure.

2.7 Colour Threshold

Figure 18 shows the MacAdam ellipses, ten times

enlarged, plotted in the CIE chromaticity diagram.

Each ellipse represents the standard deviation in the

chromaticity coordinates for colour matches made

between the two parts of a 2–degree bipartite field

with the reference field having the chromaticity of the

centre point of the ellipse. The lighting industry uses

four-step MacAdam ellipses as its tolerance limits for

quality control in lamp manufacture.

Figure 18

The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram with the MacAdam Ellipses displayed, multiplied by ten times.




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2.8 Visual Discomfort

There are four situations in which lighting installations may cause visual discomfort.

They are:

• Visual task difficulty, in which the lighting makes the required information

difficult to extract (Figure 19).

Figure 19

Visual discomfort – the beach in front is not visible, it is not possible to walk safe.

• Under- or over-stimulation, in which the visual environment is such that it

presents too little or too much information (Figure 20, 21).

Figure 20

Under-stimulation – walkways are not recognisable.




Figure 21

Over-stimulation – glare, reflection, decorative lights, etc. – the check of the contents is sometimes required.

• Distraction, in which the observer’s attention is drawn to objects that do not contain the information

being sought (Figure 22).

Figure 22

The floor mounted lights are very bright, the parking and surrounding area is too dark to feel safe, or to recognise parking bays,

pedestrians, cars or other objects.




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• Perceptual confusion, in which the pattern of illuminance can be confused with

the pattern of reflectance in the visual environment (Figure 23).

Figure 23

Confusion through different light sources, different designs, different light distribution and glare.

The occurrence of visual discomfort manifest it-

self through eye strain like: Soreness, redness,

blurring vision, tiredness, headaches, different

physical aches and pains. The most common

aspects of lighting that cause visual discomfort

are insufficient light, too much variation in illumi-

nance between and across working surfaces,

glare, veiling reflections, shadows and flicker.

2.9 Illuminance Uniformity

Lighting recommendations almost always

include an illuminance uniformity criterion.

These criteria can be direct or indirect.

Direct criteria are ratios of illuminance,

typically minimum/maximum or minimum/

average measured on the relevant area.




2.10 Glare

The presence of a luminance much above the

average for the visual field will produce discomfort

and is called glare. There are fife forms of glare

associated with lighting installations.

2.10.1 Saturation Glare

This occurs when a large part of the visual field is at

a very high luminance for a long time, e.g. sunlight

on snow. Saturation glare is painful and the beha-

vioural response is to shield the eyes in some way,

e.g. by wearing low transmittance glasses.

2.10.2 Adaptation Glare

This occurs when the visual system is exposed to

a sudden, large increase in luminance of the whole

visual field, e.g. on exiting a long road tunnel into

bright sunlight. The perception of glare is due to the

visual system being oversensitive. Adaptation glare is

temporary in that visual adaptation will soon adjust

the visual sensitivity to the new conditions. It can

be avoided by providing a transition zone of interme-

diate luminance, the transition zone being large

enough to allow the visual system time to adapt to

the new conditions.

2.10.3 Disability Glare (mainly outdoor)

This occurs when high luminance is present in a low

luminance scene. Light from the source is scattered

in the eye thereby forming a luminous veil over the

retinal image of parts of the scene adjacent to the

source. This luminous veil reduces the luminance

contrast and desaturates any colours in the retinal

image of the adjacent parts of the scene. The magni-

tude of disability glare is quantified by the equivalent

veiling luminance. See Figure 24.

Figure 24

Disability glare makes the area darker as it is.




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For glare sources within an angular range of 0.1 to 30 degrees, this is given by the equation:

where: = equivalent veiling luminance (cd/m2 )

= illuminance at the eye from the “ nth” glare source (lx)

= angle of the “nth” glare source from the line of sight (degrees)

The effect of the equivalent veiling luminance on the luminance contrast of an object can be estimated

by adding it to the luminance of both the object and the immediate background. Disability glare can be

associated with point sources and large area sources. The disability glare formulae can be applied directlyto point sources but for large area sources, the area has to be broken into small elements and the overall

effect integrated. Disability glare from point sources is experienced most frequently on the roads at night

when facing an oncoming vehicle. Disability glare from an extended source can occur when looking at

an object on a wall adjacent to a window. The sky seen through the window is the glare source.

LV = 10 2

n

n E

LV

E n

n

Figure 25

Viewer in connection with luminaire producing glare.




UGR

Lb

2.10.4 Discomfort Glare (indoor only)

This occurs when people complain about visual discomfort in the presence of bright light sources, luminaires

or windows. Discomfort glare is quantified by the Unified Glare Rating (UGR), derived from the equation:

where: = Unified Glare Rating

= background luminance (cd/m2), excluding the contribution of the glare sources.

This is numerically equal to the indirect illuminance on the plane of the observer’s eye,

divided by

= luminance of the luminaire (cd/m2)

= solid angle subtended at the observer’s eye by the luminaire (steradians)

= Guth position index

UGR values typically range from 13 to 30, the lower the value, the less the discomfort. Luminaire manufacturers

publish UGR values for regular arrays of their luminaires in a number of standardised rooms. This enables

comparisons to be made between different luminaire types. When making such a comparison the smallest

meaningful difference is one whole unit in UGR.

UGR = 8 log 10 b L

25.0

2

2

s L

Ls

p




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2.10.5 Overhead Glare

A high luminance immediately overhead can

also cause discomfort, even when though it

cannot be seen when looking directly ahead.

The cause of the discomfort is distraction,

caused by high luminance reflections from

eyebrows, glasses and facial features. The

UGR system can be applied to overhead glare

to predict the magnitude of discomfort.

2.11 Veiling Reflections

Veiling reflections are luminous reflections

from specular surfaces that physically change

the contrast of the visual task and therefore

change the stimulus presented to the visual

system (Figure 26). The two factors that deter-

mine the nature and magnitude of veiling

reflections are the specularity of the surface

being viewed and the geometry between the

observer, the surface, and any sources of high

luminance. If the surface is a perfectly diffuse

reflector, no veiling reflections can occur. If the

surface has a specular reflection component,

veiling reflections can occur.

Figure 26

A glossy dry street, with veiling reflections, caused by floodlights.




Figure 27

Shadows hiding light from above, safe walking is made more difficult.

Although veiling reflections are usually considered a negative outcome of lighting that can cause discomfort, they

can be used positively, but when they are, they are conventionally called highlights. Physically, veiling reflections

and highlights are the same thing. Display lighting of specularly reflecting objects is all about producing highlights

to reveal the specular nature of the surface.

2.12 Shadows

Although shadows can cause visual discomfort, it should be noted that they are also an essential element in

revealing the form of three-dimensional objects. Techniques of display lighting are based around the idea of

creating highlights and shadows to change the perceived form of the object being displayed. Many lighting

designers insist that the distribution of shadows is as important as the distribution of light in achieving an

attractive and meaningful visual environment.

The number and nature of shadows produced by a lighting installation depends on the size and number of light

sources and the extent to which light is inter-reflected around the space. The strongest shadow is produced

from a single point source in a black background. Weak shadows are produced when the light sources are large

in area and the degree of inter-reflection is high. See Figures 27, 28.




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Figure 28

Shadows through trees does not promote feeling of safety.




Chapter C

Technology




T e c h n o l o g y




1.0 Light Sources / Production of Radiation

1.1 Incandescence

When an object is heated to a high temperature,

the atoms within the material become excited by the

many interactions between them and energy is

radiated in a continuous spectrum. The exact nature

of the radiation produced by an idealised radiator,

known as a black body, was studied by Max Planck

at the end of the 19th century.

The values of the spectral radiant exitance are

plotted for different temperatures in Figure 29.

Figure 29

Spectral power distribution of radiation according to Planck’s Law.




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1.2 Electric Discharges

An electric discharge is an electric current that flows through a gas. These discharges generally

take a high voltage to initiate but once started they can carry considerable currents with very little

voltage drop. A good example of such a discharge is the natural phenomenon of lightning. In an

electric discharge the electric current is carried by electrons that have been removed from the gas

atoms and ions that are gas atoms with one or more electrons removed. This is shown in Figure 30.

Figure 30

Electric discharge through an ionised gas.

The negatively charged electrons tend to drift towards the anode whilst the positively charged ions

drift towards the cathode. As the ions are several thousand times heavier than the electrons they

tend to be less mobile.

1.3 Electroluminescence

Some materials will convert electricity into

light directly. Two major physical processes

account for the majority of the various electro-

luminescence phenomena. They are the re-

combination of current carriers in certain

semi-conductors and via the excitation of

luminescent centres in certain phosphors.

Pure semi-conductors have intrinsically a very

high resistivity and it is only when they are

doped with other materials that it is possible

to pass electricity through them. Some

materials induce conduction by negatively

charged carriers (n-type) and some by positi-

vely charged carriers (p-type). When charged

carriers of different types recombine the

energy released may be emitted as light.

See Chapter 2.10 and 2.11 of this part for

more information on light emitting diodes.




1.4 Luminescence

The term luminescence is sometimes also known as

fluorescence, or photoluminescence. The process

involves a material absorbing radiation and then

reemitting light. The energy may be re-radiated

almost immediately or it may take several hours.

There are a number of ways that the material can

hold the energy and this impacts on length of the

time the energy is stored and the amount of energy

that is re-radiated.

In Figure 31 image (a) represents simple lumines-

cence where the material absorbs the energy and

the next transition is to re-radiate the energy. In (b)

some of energy in the material is lost via another

process before re-radiation takes place. In (c) some

of the energy is dissipated and the material falls into

a state where it cannot re-radiate until it is restored

to the higher energy level. This process can lock

energy into materials and is the basis of some ‘glow

in the dark’ materials.

Figure 31

Simplified representations of energy level schemes

in luminescence.




Figure 34

Standard typical incandescent lamps (230V) with E40, E27, E14, S14s socket.

The filament design is critical in setting up the

operating characteristics of the lamp. The length of

the filament wire is largely determined by the supply

voltage, whilst the thickness of the wire is deter-

mined by the operating current of the lamp.

The filament is coiled to reduce heat convection to

the filling gas. There are various forms of filament

coiling with the coiled coil being one of the mostcommon ones (see Figure 35).

Figure 35

A coiled coil filament (enlarged).

E 27 E 14 E 27 E 27 E 40

E 14s




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2.2 Tungsten Halogen

The applications of conventional incandescent lamps are limited by their physical size and

luminous efficiency. Raising the filament temperature to increase the luminous output has the effect

of increasing the rate of blackening of the glass envelope, blackening which is a result of the

evaporation of tungsten from the filament. By adding a halogen to the gas fill a chemical transport

cycle involving the reaction of tungsten reduces the amount of blackening of the envelope.

It is then possible to reduce the size of lamp, increase the pressure of the filling gas and thereby

limit the loss of the tungsten from the filament. See Figures 36, 37, 38, 39.

Figure 36

A representation of the tungsten halogen cycle.

The chemistry of the tungsten halogen cycle is highly complex. However the key stages are:

• The halogen combining with the tungsten on the wall of the lamp (zone 3).• The tungsten halide vapour mixing with the fill gas of the lamp (zone 2).

• The tungsten halide dissociating close to the filament of the lamp, leaving the

halogen free to migrate though the fill gas to the lamp wall again and the tungsten being

deposited on the filament (zone 1).




To enable an efficient cycle it is necessary for the wall of the lamp to run at a temperature above 250°C;

this means that the bulb has to be made from quartz or hard glass.

Tungsten halogen lamps are more efficient and have longer lives compared with standard tungsten lamps.

Also they are more compact than standard lamps. However they are more expensive as it is hard to make

the quartz outer bulb and it is harder to introduce the gas fill into the lamp due to the high filling pressure.

Figure 37

Typical spectral light distribution of tungsten halogen lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.

GY9.5 2-pin G22 G22

R7s

Figure 38

Professional typical Tungsten Halogen lamps (220V/240V) with R7s, GY9.5, 2-pin (heat-sink), G22 socket – professional version.

Glass cylinder should not be touched, this will shorten the lifetime dramatically!

Daylight Halogen




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GY6.35 E27 E27 E27

E14

Figure 39

Common use typical Tungsten Halogen lamps (220V/240V) with E14, GU10, E27 socket – glass cylinder is protected by

outer bulb; Tungsten Halogen low voltage (12V) lamp GY6.35. Glass cylinder should not be touched, this may shorten the

lifetime dramatically, as required in the case of the GY 6.35 base capsule lamp NB!

E27

GU10 GU10




2.3 Fluorescent

Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used

form of discharge lamp. They come in a variety of

shapes and sizes and are available in a wide range

of colours. The original form of the lamp was a long

straight tube. New forms of the lamp known as

compact fluorescent lamps have been developed

where the lamp tube is bent or folded to produce a

smaller light source. Fluorescent lamps work by

generating ultraviolet radiation in a discharge in low

pressure mercury vapour. This is then converted

into visible light by a phosphor coating on the inside

of the tube. The electric current supplied to the

discharge has to be limited by control gear to

maintain stable operation of the lamp.

See Figures 40, 41, 42.

Traditionally this is done with magnetic chokes

but most manufacturers now use high frequency

electronic control gear. Electronic control gear has

a number of advantages:

• Driving the lamp at high frequency maintains the ions in the gas and thus

makes the lamp run more efficiently.

• It reduces the amount of flicker in the lamp and, finally, electronic gear

consumes less power than a magnetic choke.

Figure 40

Working principle of a fluorescent lamp.

Figure 41

Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure mercury lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.

Daylight Fluorescent (white)




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LightingHandbook

Colour appearance Triphosphor colour

rendering group 1b

Multi-phosphor colour

rendering group 1a

Northlight (6000–8000 K) Colour 865

Lumilux Plus ECO 860

Luxline Plus ECO 860

Polylux XLR 860

Skywhite 880

Colour 965

Daylight (5000–5500 K) Colour 950

Lumilux De Luxe 950

Cool White (4000 K) Colour 840

Lumilux Plus ECO 840Luxline Plus ECO 840

Polylux XLR 840

Colour 940

Lumilux De Luxe 940Polylux Deluxe 940

Intermediate White

(3500 K)

Colour 835



Polylux XLR 835

Warm White

(3000 K)

Colour 830



Polylux XLR 830

Colour 930

Lumilux De Luxe 930

Polylux Deluxe 930

Very Warm (2700 K) Colour 827



Polylux XLR 827

Table 3

Colours of fluorescent lamps (code may vary depending on manufacturer):




NOTE 1 The codes for same lamps may vary, depending on manufacturer and type of lamp e.g. for T5-54W

(samples of different company codes for 4000K colour of light):

• FQ 54W/840 HO for indoor 30° - 40°C / RA 80…89

• FQ 54W/840 HO constant for indoor 5° - 70°C / RA 80…89

• FQ 54W/940 HO RA >90

• FQ 54W/840 SPS protected against splinters / RA 80…89

• SUPREME T5 54W/840 HO long-life RA 85

• SUPREME T5 54W/840 LL HO Thermo for outdoor and indoor -15° - +20°C RA 85

• SUPREME PROTECTOR T5 54W/840 LL HO protected against splinters RA 85

• SUPREME REFLECTOR T5 54W/840 LL HO including reflector RA 85

• ULTIMATE SIGNETTE T5 54W/840 LL HO for signs RA 85

• T5 54W 4000 DFH RA >85

• LT 54W T5-HQ/840 RA 1B(>85)

• LT-XL 54W T5-HQ/840 extended life RA 1B(>85)

• LT-SPT 54W T5-HQ/840 RA 1B(>85) protected against splinters

• T5 FHO /840 RA 1B(>85)

• NL-T5 54W/840/G5 RA80…89

• F54W/T5/840/LL RA 85

• F54W/T5/840/LL/BULK RA 85

• FHO 54W/840 RA 1B

• MASTER TL5 HO Super 80 54W/840 RA 85

• etc.

In general compact fluorescent lamps are less efficient than linear lamps, but because of their small size,

they are suited to many applications where a smaller lamp is needed. Some of the lamps have the control gear

built into them and can be retro-fitted into GLS lamp sockets.

Additionally fluorescent tube and CFL lamps are available in different colours such as

(depending on power of lamp and manufacturer availability may vary):• T8/26mm red, yellow, green, blue

• T5/16mm red, green, blue

• CFL colours available depending on manufacturers range





LightingHandbook

E27 E27 2G11 G5

GR8

Figure 42

Common use fluorescent lamps, GR8, G23, G24q-2, G24d-1, E27, 2G11, G13, G5, etc.

G13

G23 G24q-2

2.4 High Pressure Mercury (also HID,

Mercury Vapour, MVP Technique)

In this type of lamp a discharge takes place in

a quartz discharge tube containing mercury

vapour at high pressure (2 to 10 atmosphe-

res). Some of the radiation from the discharge

occurs in the visible spectrum but part of the

radiation is emitted in the ultraviolet. The outer

bulb of the lamp is coated internally with a

phosphor that converts this UV radiation into

light. The general construction of the lamp is

shown in Figure 43 below.

The operation of the lamp is quite complex

and needs to be considered in three

phases:

• Ignition

• Run-up

• Stable running.

G24d-1

E27

T e c h n o l o g y




Figure 43

Construction of a high pressure mercury lamp.

Figure 44

Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure mercury lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.

Figure 45

Typical high pressure mercury lamp E27 socket.

E27

The performance of these lamps is not considered to be very good today. Their efficacy is around 40 lumens

per watt. Their CIE general colour rendering index is between 40 and 50 and they can have a very long life but,

because of poor lumen maintenance and heat issues in hot environment, it is generally recommended that

the lamps are changed after 6,000 to 10,000 (from local experience) hours of use. Because of their poor

performance and the fact that better lamp types are available for almost all of the applications these lamps

are being phased out. See Figures 43, 44, 45.

Daylight High Pressure Mercury (white)




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LightingHandbook

2.5 Metal Halide

Metal halide lamps were developed as a way

of improving the performance of high pressure

mercury lamps in terms of their colour appea-

rance and light output. They work by introdu-

cing the salts of other metals into the arc

tube. As each element has its own characteri-

stic spectral line, by adding a mixture of diffe-

rent elements into the discharge it is possible

to create a light source with good colour ren-

dering in a variety of colours.

There are a lot of problems with introducing

new elements into a discharge. First, the

element must be volatile and secondly it

should not chemically attack the arc tube.

To avoid these problems it has become

common practice to introduce metals into the

lamp as metal halides.

Metal halides are generally more volatile than

the metals themselves and the metal halides

do not attack the arc tube. The metal halide

compound breaks up into the metal and

halogen ions at the high temperatures in the

centre of the discharge and reforms at the

lower temperatures near the wall of the tube.

Many different combinations of elements

have been used to make metal halide lamps.

Depending on combinations of elements to-

gether with the spectral output they create the

light output and the colour of light will change.

See Figures 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51.

Figure 46

Construction of metal halide lamp E27.

Figure 47

Arc chamber detail.




Figure 48

Typical spectral light distribution of metal halide lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.

E27 E40 E40G8.5

Fc2

RX7s

G12

Figure 49

Common used metal halide lamps; Fc2, RX7s (green light), G8.5, G12 (green light), E27, E40.

Daylight Metal Halide (white)




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LightingHandbook

E27

NOTE1 Some manufacturers provide additional metal halide lamps with light colours:

• Orange

• Red

• Magenta

• Green

• Blue

NOTE 2 Depending on manufacturers and colours, power; 70W(RX7s, G12), 150W(G12, E26,

RX7s-24; E40), 175W(E26), 250W(E39, E40), 400W(E39, E40), 1000W(E39) and socket may vary.

NOTE 3 All high pressure mercury vapour and metal halide lamps are to be used

ONLY inside enclosed luminaires! All these lamps are emitting high levels of UV-radiation!

Figure 50

Long life (double arc) metal halide lamp E27 details.

G12

Figure 51

Typical ling life MH G12 system.




2.6 Low Pressure Sodium

Low pressure sodium lamps are similar in many ways

to fluorescent lamps as they are both low pressure

discharge lamps. All the differences in characteristics

stem from the use of sodium in the discharge tube

rather than mercury. The key differences are the need

to run the lamp hotter to maintain the vapour pres-

sure of sodium, the need to contain the very reactive

sodium metal; and the fact that sodium emits its

light in the visible rather than the UV frequency

range, so there is no need for a phosphor layer.

There used to be a range of designs for sodium

lamps but currently the U-tube lamp is by far the

most common type. A typical lamp of this design

is shown in Figure 52.

Figure 52

Typical construction of a low pressure sodium lamp.

Figure 53

Typical spectral light distribution of low pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.

Daylight Low Pressure Sodium (yellow)




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LightingHandbook

Figure 54

Typical low pressure sodium lamp, socket BY22d.

BY22d




2.7 High Pressure Sodium

The high pressure sodium lamp generates light in a discharge through sodium vapour at high pressure.

As the vapour pressure of sodium in a lamp rises the spectrum at first broadens and then it splits in two

with a gap appearing at about 586 nm. Figure 56 shows the spectrum of a high pressure sodium lamp.

As the vapour pressure rises the colour rendering of the lamp increases. However, this is at the expense of

efficacy in terms of lumens per watt. Figure 55 shows the construction of a high pressure sodium lamp.

Figure 56

Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.

Figure 55

Typical high pressure sodium E27 system construction.

Figure 57

Typical high pressure sodium lamp E27 socket.

E27 E27

Daylight High Pressure Sodium (orange-yellow)




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LightingHandbook

Figure 58

Typical long life high pressure sodium lamp (double burner), E27, (opaque) E40.

E27 E40




2.8 Induction

Induction lamps are essentially gas discharge lamps that do not have electrodes. Instead the electric field in the

lamp is induced by an induction coil that is operating at high frequency. The only types of induction lamps that are

currently in production are based on fluorescent lamp technology. See Figures 59, 60, 61.

Figure 60

Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.

Figure 59

Typical construction of a cavity type induction lamp.

Daylight Fluorescent (white)




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LightingHandbook

The lamp consists of a glass bottle with a cavity in it into which the induction coil is placed.

The glass vessel has a gas filling similar to a conventional fluorescent lamp and the phosphor

coating on the inside of the lamp is also similar.

The induction coil in the centre of the lamp is fed from a high frequency generator.

An alternative architecture for this type of lamp is to have the induction coil wrapped around

a toroidal lamp. Figure 61 shows a lamp of this type.

Induction lamps have many of the same

properties as fluorescent lamps. They are,

however, slightly less efficient. The big advan-

tage with this type of lamp is its long life. This

is because here are no electrodes to fail and

the inside of the lamp does not get coated

with material that has been vaporised away

from the electrodes. A number of lamps of

this type have rated lives of 100,000 hours.

These lamps are more expensive than con-

ventional fluorescent lamps so they tend to be

used in places where it is difficult to change

lamps and thus long life is an important

requirement.

Figure 61 (inbuilt in a custom luminaire)

Standard induction lamp, depending on manufacturer shape, size and socket may vary – External coil type induction lamp.

NOTE 1 Induction type lamps cannot be used if exact directional focused light is required,

due to the large physical size of the system.




Figure 62, 63

External coil type induction lamp in use, day – night.

Figure 64

External coil type induction lamp in use, detail.

Note 2 The lamp lifetime is to be seen in relation of the lumen depreciation. In this case (Figures 62, 63, 64)

the maintenance (exchangeability) is the more important problem as to achieve a certain light level

over all the life time.




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2.9 Conventional (non-LED) Luminaire Requirements

Within the luminaire; the light source shall be of standard proven lamp type, energy efficient with minimum lamp

efficacy as per handbook.

The lamps shall be from reputed manufacturers with standard lamp base type configuration and shall provide

class A1, A2 or A3 high efficiency (HF) electronic control gear, where available. Conventional wire-wound control

gears are only acceptable if no HF-control gear is available or for any application which is liable to extreme high

temperatures, in excess of degree Celsius ambient operation, as per DMA specifications.

NOTE 1 Acceptable lamp types include compact and linear fluorescent (tri-phosphor only), metal halide,

induction, plasma, LED and efficient electro-luminescent technologies.

NOTE 2 The CRI of above lamp types must be as per DMA specifications.

NOTE 3 Lamps and gear shall be replaceable/removable on site without any possible risk to maintaining the

luminaire photometry, the IP rating, causing any degradation and without the need to demount the luminaire for

sake of future upgrading/maintenance requirements.

NOTE 4 Whole luminaire efficacy; the optimum efficiency of the luminaire for example shall be confirmed not

below > 50llm/cct/W (@min50°C, min95%RH). Which is given as a total luminaire design (delivered) lumen output

(llm) over total luminaire circuit watts (cctW) at minimum 50°C – 60°C operating outside ambient temperature and

minimum 95% relative humidity. All parameters to be seen as examples, the relevant DMA specifications will prevail.

NOTE 5 Luminaire maximum % direct up-light shall be as per CIE 126-1997/CIE 150:2003 or less and as

required/allowed for the project for the ESTIDAMA application as applicable.

NOTE 6 The Figures given in the datasheets must provide correct lumen output for minimum 50°C-60°C

ambient temperature operation of the luminaire. Figures showing standard testing with other ambient

temperatures or laboratory conditions are not acceptable, for more information please refer to DMA specifications.

NOTE 7 The luminaire shall be fitted with optical refractors, diffusers and/or reflectors. Different optics shall be

used to suit exactly the application. Independent accredited laboratory photometric test reports shall be available

including luminaire photometric files which can be used in DIALux or Relux lighting project calculation programs.




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2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

The basic operating principle behind light emitting diodes (LEDs) is covered in Chapter 1.3 of this part.

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes, colours and power ratings and development is proceeding

at a rapid rate. Whilst LEDs come in a variety of styles, Figure 65 illustrates two common forms.

2.10.1 The Main Components of LEDs

The chip of semiconductor material in the centre of the lamp may be made of a wide variety of materials.

Differing materials result in a different colour of light being produced. Table 4 lists some of the more

commonly used materials.

Table 4

Materials used in LEDs and the radiation produced:

The chip is mounted onto one of the lead in

wires. In high power LEDs the mounting isdesigned in such a way as to conduct heat

away from the chip. The other lead wire is

bonded to the chip generally connecting to

a very small area close to the actual semicon-

ductor junction. The whole device is thenpotted in a plastic resin, usually epoxy.

See Figures 65, 66, 67.

Materials Radiation

Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Red and infrared

Aluminum gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Green

Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Orange-red, orange, yellow, and green

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Red, orange-red, orange, and yellow

Gallium phosphide (GaP) Red, yellow and green

Gallium nitride (GaN) Green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Near ultraviolet, green, bluish-green and blue

Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Blue

Aluminum nitride (AlN),

Aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN)

Near to far ultraviolet

Diamond (C) Ultraviolet




Figure 65

The construction of low power (left) and high power (right) LEDs.

Figure 66

Typical spectral light distribution of LED in comparison to daylight spectrum.

Daylight LED (white)




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E27 E27 E27E14

LED “engine” (COB*)single LED + lens

E14

Figure 67

Samples of common use LED lamps and LED engines (professional use). Depending on manufacturer power, shape,

size, type, colour and features may vary, some of the require ‘active cooling’ with additional fan or osculating membranes mounted

on the heat-sink (not recommended, especially in exterior use).

LED “engine”

with active

cooling (COB*)

NOTE 1 The LED-Engines are now available in different shapes: round, array and special designed ones

to fit special applications.

LEDs generally have a long life and may last up to 100,000 hours. LEDs generally emit light in a relatively

narrow band so that most LEDs produce light that is a saturated colour. It is possible to make white LEDs

by using a blue or ultraviolet chip and putting a phosphor coat around it. White can also be achieved by

combining red, green and blue chips through colour mixing.

LEDs have a lot of applications associated with signals and signage. The use of saturated colours in these

applications is a real bonus. This coupled with the ease of producing light in a number of small units means

that LEDs are replacing a number of other light sources in these areas. It is also possible to make lamps

that are a cluster of LEDs of different colours. By controlling the outputs of the different colours it is possible

to make a lamp that can produce light in a wide variety of colours. At the time of writing, white LEDs are

making fast technical progress but have not yet proved to cover all applications in the area of general

lighting. In some cases the common lamps are still achieving better results.

* Footnote: COB - C hip O n Board type




NOTE 1 Within the luminaire:

The light source shall be high brightness white light emitting Diodes (LED) with individual minimum efficacy as

per current DMA specifications arranged modularly (where possible) to provide the required light output.

All lumen Figures shall be deliver (hot) lumens and all luminaires must have certification provided to show

compliance with listed relevant standards and technical requirements of DMA or clients specifications.

NOTE 2 LEDs shall be from a reputed manufacturer of LEDs with proven past performance in accordance with

ANSI/NEMA/ANSLG C78.377-2008 (America National Standard for Chromaticity of Solid State Lighting

Products) or with a similar approved international standard.

NOTE 3 LEDs shall only be from MacAdam Ellipse Step-2, Step-3 or maximum Step-5 Bins. Other binning is not

acceptable. The CRI must be as per current DMA specifications.

NOTE 4 The LEDs shall be removable/replaceable on site by modular means, wherever possible – depending on

type and use of the luminaire. Such replacement must be possible without any risk to maintaining luminaire

photometry, the IP rating and without the need to demount the luminaire for sake of future up-grading or

maintenance requirements.

NOTE 5 Whole luminaire efficacy; the optimum efficiency of the luminaire shall be > 50llm/cctW (@min.50°C,

min95%RH). Which is given as a total luminaire design (deliver) lumen output (llm) over total luminaire circuit

watts (cctW) at minimum 50°C-60°C operating outside ambient temperature and minimum 95% relative

humidity, as per latest DMA specifications.

NOTE 6 Luminaire maximum % direct up-light shall be as per CIE 126-1997 or less and as required/allowed for

the project for the ESTIDAMA application as applicable.

2.10.2 LED Luminaire Requirements

(As per DMA Lighting Specifications)

As a part of the overall sustainable lighting strategy for Abu Dhabi, the DMA/DoT requires quality energy efficient

technologies and solutions which are LED or equivalent to be used on roads and put forward wherever possible

elsewhere in the public realm. Where specific tasks may indeed be proved better performed by an energy-efficient

lighting technology other than LED then either the relevant municipality or DoT will accept their inclusion as an

option in the design proposals and review the technical details before taking the final decision.




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NOTE 7 The Figures given in the datasheets must provide correct lumen output for a minimum

50°C-60°C ambient temperature operation of the luminaire. Figures showing standard testing with

other ambient temperatures or laboratory conditions are not acceptable, as per latest DMA

specifications.

NOTE 8 The luminaire shall be fitted with optical refractors, diffusers and/or reflectors. Different

optics shall be used to suit exactly the application. Independent laboratory photometric test reports

shall be available including luminaire photometric files used in DIALux or Relux lighting calculation

programs. For LED luminaires or LED components used within conventional luminaires, the testing

should conform to IESNA LM-79-08 standards or CIE equivalent tests. The manufacturer must

supply light distribution files as it might be required for the client’s specific approval.

NOTE 9 The LED modules shall be mounted on heavy duty heat sinks to ensure excellent heat

dissipation. The design of the heat sinks shall be such that there is a direct thermal path from the

LED junctions to the atmosphere thus providing a thermal transfer effect throughout the lifetime of

the luminaire. Active cooling through fans is not acceptable without matter of the task.




2.11 Electroluminescence

Electroluminescence, including OLED, is the result

of radiative recombination of electrons and holes in

a material, usually a semiconductor. The excited

electrons release their energy as photons - light.

Prior to recombination, electrons and holes may

be separated either by doping the material to form

a p-n junction (in semiconductor electroluminescent

devices such as light-emitting diodes) or through

excitation by impact of high-energy electrons

accelerated by a strong electric field (as with the

phosphors in electroluminescent displays).

Electroluminescent devices are fabricated using

either organic (called OLED) or inorganic electrolumi-

nescent materials. The active materials are generally

semiconductors of wide enough bandwidth to allow

exit of the light. The most typical inorganic thin-film

EL (TFEL) is ZnS:Mn with yellow-orange emission.

Depending on the task and colour of light required

other materials could be used.

The most common electroluminescent (EL) devices

are composed of either powder (primarily used in

lighting applications) or thin films (for information

displays.) The basic principles of electroluminescent

(EL) light sources are discussed in Chapter 1.3 of

this part.

Generally the light sources are made up as

panels with a construction similar to that shown

in Figure 68.

Figure 68

A section through an electroluminescent panel.




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Figure 69

System section through OLED (organicLED) module.

Figure 70

An electroluminescent nightlight in operation

uses 0.08W at 230V, lit diameter 59mm.




The EL panel is made up of the following components:

• The lower conductor carries one side of the electrical supply into the light source.In older types of panel this conductor may have been a sheet of metal, but in the newer flexible panels

it is generally some type of foil.

• The phosphor layer contains the phosphor used to generate the light together with a medium,

usually some form of plastic resin, used to keep the grains of phosphor apart from one another.

• The top conductor is made of a transparent material that conducts electricity to the top surface

of the phosphor layer.

• The top layer of the device is a transparent medium. In older devices this layer is usually made of glass,

but in more modern units it is likely to be a flexible transparent film.

EL panels are not a particularly efficient light source. Typically they have efficacies of a few lumens per watt.

The light output of an EL panel is not that great, typically less than 300 lumens per square metre.

There are many applications for EL panels as it is relatively easy to cut them to shape and size so they can

be used for signage and to backlight displays in electronic equipment.

Figure 71

Spectrum of a blue/green electroluminescent light source (similar to the one seen in the above image).

Peak wavelength is at 492 nm (blue/green) in comparison with daylight.

Daylight OLED




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2.12 Plasma Lamp

Plasma lamps are a type of gas discharge lamp

energized by radio frequency (RF) power.

High-efficiency plasma (HEP) lamps have been

introduced to the general lighting market.

Plasma lamps with an internal phosphor

coating are called external electrode fluorescent

lamps (EEFL); these external electrodes or

terminal conductors which provide modern

plasma lamps are a family of light sources that

generate light by exciting plasma inside a

closed transparent burner or bulb using radio

frequency (RF) power. Typically, such lamps use

a noble gas or a mixture of these gases and

additional materials such as metal halides,

sodium, mercury or sulfur. In modern plasma

lamps, a waveguide is used to constrain and

focus the electrical field into the plasma.

In operation, the gas is ionized, and free elec-

trons, accelerated by the electrical field, collide

with gas and metal atoms. Some atomic elec-

trons circling around the gas and metal atoms

are excited by these collisions, bringing them to

a higher energy state. When the electron falls

back to its original state, it emits a photon,

resulting in visible light or ultraviolet radiation,

depending on the fill materials.

Figure 72

Inside the back of the lamp, a diffuse yet highly reflective material is used to reflect all of this light to the forward direction

in a lambertian pattern. The colour of the light is tailored by the fill chemistry inside the lamp to provide a naturally white

light with good colour rendering.




Function; short-cut description:

Step 1

An RF circuit is established by connecting an RF power amplifier to a ceramic resonator known as the ‘puck’.

In the centre of the puck is a sealed quartz lamp that contains metal halide materials and other gases.

Step 2

The puck, driven by the power amplifier, creates a standing wave confined within its walls. The electric field is

strongest at the centre of the lamp, which causes ionization of the gases, creating a glow.

Step 3

The ionized gas in turn heats up and evaporates the metal halide materials forming an intense plasma column

within the lamp. This plasma column is cantered within the quartz envelope and radiates light very efficiently.

In essence plasma lighting consists of a discharge lamp without electrodes, where the power is transferred from

outside the lamp enclosure via high frequency electromagnetic radiation. It is a lighting technique that has been

around in different forms for many years.

The first commercial plasma lamp was an ultraviolet curing lamp with a bulb filled with argon and mercury vapour.

That lamp led to the development of the sulphur lamp, a bulb filled with argon and sulphur that is bombarded with

microwaves through a hollow waveguide. The bulb had to be spun rapidly to prevent it burning through.

Sulphur lamps, though relatively efficient, have had a number of drawbacks, chiefly:

• Limited life – magnetrons had limited lives.

• Large size

• Heat – the sulphur burnt through the bulb wall unless they were rotated rapidly.

• High power demand – They could not sustain a plasma in powers under 1000W.

2.12.1 Limited LifeIn the past, the life of the plasma lamps was limited by the magnetron used to generate the microwaves.

Solid state RF chips can be used and give long lives. However, using solid-state chips to generate RF is currently

an order of magnitude more expensive than using a magnetron and so only appropriate for high value lighting

niches. It has recently been shown that it is possible to extend the life of magnetrons to over 40,000 hours,

making ‘low-cost’ plasma lamps possible.




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2.12.2 Size

Recently, a system was developed that concentrated radio frequency waves into a dielectric

waveguide made of ceramic, which energized light-emitting plasma in a bulb positioned inside.

This system, for the first time, permitted an extremely compact yet bright electrodeless lamp.

2.12.3 Heat and Power

The use of a high-dielectric waveguide allowed the sustaining of plasmas at much lower powers,

down to 100 W in some instances. It also allowed the use of conventional gas-discharge lamp fill

materials which removed the need to spin the bulb. The only issue with the ceramic waveguide was

that much of the light generated by the plasma was trapped inside the opaque ceramic waveguide.

This was until the optically clear quartz waveguide was invented, which appears to resolve this issue.

2.12.4 High-Efficiency Plasma (HEP)

High-efficiency plasma lighting is the class of plasma lamps that have reached system efficiencies

of 90 lumens, until now. Lamps in this class are potentially one of the most energy-efficient light

sources for outdoor, commercial and industrial lighting. This is due not only to their high system

efficiency but also to the small light source they present enabling very high luminaire efficacy.

The ‘system efficiency’ for a High Efficiency Plasma lamp is given by the last three variables, that is,

it excludes the luminaire efficacy. Though plasma lamps do not have ballast, they have an RF power

supply that fulfils the equivalent function. In electrodeless lamps, the inclusion of the electrical losses,

or ‘ballast factor’, in lumens per watt claimed can be particularly significant as conversion of

electrical power to radio frequency (RF) power can be a highly inefficient process, depending on

the type used.

Many modern plasma lamps have very small light sources, far smaller than HID bulbs or fluorescent

tubes, leading to much higher luminaire efficacies also. High intensity discharge lamps have typical

luminaire efficacies of 55%, and fluorescent lamps of 70%. Plasma lamps typically have luminaire

efficacies they can reach 90%.

2.12.5 System Efficiency

System efficiency of over 100 lumens per Watt is claimed with a usable system life of up to

40,000 hours and low lumen depreciation during life. The system is scalable from 70 watts

up to 5 kW; the lamp can be produced in mercury free versions and apparently can be easily

recycled at the end of life.




2.12.6 CRI

The claimed CRI is in the 90 – 95 range and as it

dims the colour remains white. As the lamp dims the

CRI is said to remain constant. The colour consi-

stency from lamp to lamp is also claimed to be very

good but without seeing a whole row of pendants

or floodlights using the source it is not possible

to be sure about this yet. The light quality is very

usable for general commercial, sports and industrial

applications and large retail spaces. Figure 73

Plasma lamp 23,000 Lumens per light emitting plasma quartz

bulb size approx. 0.7mm x 0.7mm.

Figure 74

High Efficiency Plasma (HEP) technology is a new and unique genre of electrodeless, RF driven lighting.

Figure 75

NOTE 1 It must be considered that there are still some very important drawbacks too:

The tiny light source with such a high power limits low-light requirement lighting applications, increases potential

glare issues, if left uncontrolled and/or shielded.

NOTE 2 The systems have many restrictions like dimming limitations, testing proof regarding useful life and lumen

stability, high investment costs, the range is limited to a small group of manufacturers which makes it difficult to

achieve a competition on the market.




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Figure 76

Plasma lighting architecture consists of two fundamental parts:

• Emitter: A quartz lamp embedded in a ceramic resonator • Radio Frequency (RF) Driver: A solid-state RF generator and micro-controller

Figure 77

Other manufacturers are providing similar light sources and common use luminaires.

3.0 Electric Light Source Characteristics

There are a number of key properties of lamps that need to be considered when choosing which lamp

is right for a particular application. The following Chapters list these properties.

3.1 Luminous Flux

In any lighting application the amount of light that is needed is a key decision that has to be made.From this it is then possible to work out how many lamps of given rating are needed. There are

lamps with lumen outputs less than 1 lumen through to lamps with outputs in excess of 200,000

lumens. In most applications, it is the average maintained illuminance that is important so it is

important to consider the lumen maintenance through life at the same time as the initial luminous

flux.

3.2 Power Demand

It is important in any lighting scheme to know what the total power demand is going to be so

that the electrical infrastructure can be correctly designed. The power consumed by the lamp isimportant. However with many lamp types it is important also to consider the impact of the control

gear as well. In most cases it will be the total circuit watts that are important rather than the lamp

wattage.




One further complication with some lamp types is

that the voltage and current waveforms are not

exactly in phase with one another. Thus the volts

multiplied by the amps in the circuit may be higher

than the watts. The power factor of the circuit is

defined by the following equation:

Most high wattage lamp circuits are designed to have

a power factor greater than 0.85. The other factor

that may affect the sizing of the cables that supply a

lighting installation is the current required during the

run-up of the lamps. With some types of lamp this

can be over double the nominal running current.

When using lighting controls the power demand is

more difficult to predict as the power consumed may

be reduced at times when full output is not required

from the lamp.

3.3 Luminous Efficacy

Luminous efficacy is usually expressed in terms of

lumens per watt. Many lamp manufacturers produce

lumens per watt Figures for their lamps. However,

for discharge lamps and other lamps requiring some

form of control gear, these Figures may be misleading

as they refer to the power consumed in the lamp only

and do not consider the power lost in the control

gear. All the values provided in this Chapter for

efficacy are based on total circuit watts. Efficacy is aprimary concern when selecting a lamp. In general, if

a range of lamps is suitable for a particular installation

then it is the most efficient that should be used.

NOTE 1 Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well

a light source produces visible light. It is the ratio of

luminous flux to power. Depending on context, the

power can be either the radiant flux of the source’s

output, or it can be the total power (electric power,

chemical energy, or others) consumed by the source.

Which sense of the term is intended must usually be

inferred from the context; sometimes the technical

data of the manufacturers are not clear in this matter.

The former sense is sometimes called luminous

efficacy of radiation, and the latter luminous efficacy

of a source.

NOTE 2 Not all wavelengths of light are equally

visible, or equally effective at stimulating human

vision, due to the spectral sensitivity of the human

eye; radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts of

the spectrum is useless for illumination. The overall

luminous efficacy of a source is the product of how

well it converts energy to electromagnetic radiation,

and how well the emitted radiation is detected by the

human eye.

NOTE 3 In lighting design, ‘efficacy’ refers to the

amount of light (luminous flux) produced by a lamp

(a lamp or other light source), usually measured in

lumens, as a ratio of the amount of power consu-

med to produce it, usually measured in watts.

This is not to be confused with efficiency which

is always a dimensionless ratio of output divided by input which for lighting relates to the watts of

visible power as a fraction of the power consumed

in watts.

power factor=ampsvolts

watts




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3.4 Lumen Maintenance

The light output of most lamps decreases as

the lamps get older. With some relatively short

life lamps this is not a problem as they fail

before the light output has fallen significantly.

See Chapter L / 2.3 for further details of the

lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF).

3.5 Life

It is normal when considering the life of a lamp

to talk about the percentage of lamps that will

survive after a certain number of hours of ope-

ration. This value is known as the lamp survival

factor (LSF). See Chapter L / 2.4 for further

details. Other factors in a particular installation

may affect the life of the lamp used. These

factors include the switching frequency, the

supply voltage, the ambient temperature and

presence of vibration. It is often the case that

the combined effect of the number of lamp

failures coupled with the reduced lumen out-

put of the lamps makes it necessary to replace

the lamps in an installation. Sometimes lamp

makers quote an economic service life for

lamps, this generally is the point where the

LSF multiplied by the LLMF falls below 0.7.

NOTE 1 For LED lighting the LLMF may differ

in many ways; therefore it is mandatory to

get all parameters of the used LED from the manufacturer, in order to accurately determine

the LLMF.

3.6 Colour Properties

The colour of the light produced by a lamp is

generally described by two parameters; the

correlated colour temperature and the CIE

general colour rendering index. These two

terms are described in Chapter A / 2.9 and

2.10 respectively. For most applications there

is a minimum requirement for the colour ren-

dering properties of the lamps used and the

correlated colour temperature of the source is

generally chosen for the atmosphere that the

lighting is designed to produce.

3.7 Run-up Time

When a lamp is switched on it takes a certain

amount of time to reach full light output. The

usual measure used to assess run-up time is

the time that it takes for a lamp to reach 80%

of its full output. For a GLS lamp this might be

a fraction of a second, while for low pressure

sodium this could be as much as 20 minutes.

For some applications such as road lighting

the run-up time is not very important.

However, for some facilities, like emergency

and/or security lighting of tunnels, sports, etc.

it is very important.

3.8 Other Factors

There are also many other factors that

impact upon the use of lamps in a particularapplication. These factors include the

following:




• Dimming:

It is not possible to dim all lamp types and some types may be only dimmed down to a given percentage of

their output. Dimming for some lamps may require the use of special control gear.

• Ambient Temperature:

Not all lamps will run at a given temperature. For example some compact fluorescent lamps are not suitable for

outdoor use as they will not start if they are too cold.

• Disposal of Lamps:

Lamps may contain hazardous substances such as lead, sodium and mercury. This may mean with particular

lamps particular procedures have to be followed when disposing of the lamps. Under the WEEE Directive of the

European Commission it is the responsibility of the lamp manufacturer to provide the means of recycling used

lamps. Check local EMSA laws and regulations for more information about the recycling of lamps in the Abu Dhabi.

Figure 78

A typical restricted burning position symbol.

• Lamp Size:

Some lamps are too large for certain applications, whilst some small lamps may produce too high a luminance

for others.

• Burning Position:

Not all lamps may be used in all orientations, for some discharge lamps, lamp manufacturers produce diagrams

similar to Figure 78 to show which burning positions are permitted.




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3.9 Summary of Lamp Characteristics

Summary of the key characteristics of the main lamp families:

Table 5

Summary of lamp characteristics.




4.0 Other Types of Lighting

4.1 Flames

Historically flames were the first form of artificial

lighting. They are occasionally still used to create a

particular atmosphere, but they are not considered

as major sources of artificial light, as most energy

emitted is heat.

4.2 Candle

It is said that the ancient Egyptians invented the

candle. They made candles by soaking reeds in

molten tallow (animal fat). However this was not the

candle as we know it today as it had no wick as such.

It appears that the Romans made the first true candle

with a wick, but it still used tallow rather than the later

wax as the fuel source. See Figure 80.

4.3 Oil

The oil-lamp has been around for a very long time.

Some of the earliest examples are hollowed out

stones that were filled with oil and these may be

70,000 years old. There are examples of earthenware

lamps made by all the ancient civilisations. In Europe

the most common oils used in these lamps were olive

and colza. The wick was generally made out of bark,

moss or plant fibres. See Figure 81, 82.

Figure 79

Flames

Figure 80

Candles

Figure 82

‘Modern’ Oil-lamp

Figure 81

Ancient Oil-lamp




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4.4 Gas

Gas lighting only became possible during the industrial revolution. During the 1780s several inventors

had been working with the flammable gas that is produced when coal is made into coke and they

realised that it could be used for lighting. The problem was that it became necessary to set up a whole

infrastructure of pipes to supply the gas to where it was needed. See Figure 83.

In 1813 a company was set up in London to supply gas and by 1815 there were 26 miles of gas

pipe installed. The first gas light burners were little more than small openings at the end of a gas pipe.

Over a period of time the shape of the burners evolved so that each unit would produce more light.

However, a major improvement in performance was achieved in 1887 with the invention of the gas

mantle. The gas mantle is a cube of fabric, impregnated with thorium and cerium oxides.

When the lamp is lit, the fabric burns away and it is leaving a brittle mesh of oxides.

As study made recently showed that in

Europe approximately 70,000 Gas Street

Lanterns are still in use. Some more will be

newly introduced. These lighting systems

are mainly used for historical parts of cities

and city centres of old towns. Contrary to

most people’s assumption; gas lighting

with a mantle produces a quite cool

blue/green hued white light and not a

warm light one sees from flames or

candles.

Figure 83

Gas street lighting lantern.




Chapter D

Luminaires




L u m i n a i r e s




1.0 Basic Requirements

A luminaire is the apparatus containing the light source.

A luminaire is designed to: connect the light source

to the electricity supply, protect the light source from

mechanical damage and control the distribution of

light be efficient to withstand the expected conditions

of use and to be safe when used in the recommended

manner. To meet these design objectives it is neces-

sary to consider the electrical, mechanical, optical,

thermal and acoustic aspects of luminaires.

2.0 Electrical

2.1 Electrical Wiring

The internal wiring of a luminaire has to be capable

of handling the electrical current and the thermal

conditions in the luminaire. The cross sectional area

of the wire will determine the maximum allowable

current. IEC 598 specifies a minimum cross section

of 0.5 mm2 although this may be reduced to 0.4 mm2

where space is severely restricted. In any case, local

requirements and technical descriptions of tenders

are to be followed.

The wire itself can be solid or stranded. Solid wire is

easier to hold in position and to strip, making it simpler

to install in a luminaire. However, solid wire is not

suitable for luminaires that are subject to vibration

or for luminaires that may be frequently adjusted.

For such luminaires, stranded wire is better.Both types of wire are covered with insulating

material. The choice of insulation material is largely

determined by its heat resistance. The wiring of a

luminaire has to be capable of withstanding not only

the air temperatures inside the luminaire but also

the surface temperatures of components that the

wiring may contact, such as lamps, control gear and

lamp holders. PVC insulation that is heat resistant up

to 90 °C, 105 °C and 115 °C is available. Where

higher temperatures may be experienced, silicon

rubber (170 to 200 °C) and PTFE (250 °C) insulation

may be used. Additional thermal insulation can be

achieved by covering the electrical insulation with a

glass fibre sleeve.

Connection to the electricity supply:

There are three approaches commonly used to

connect a luminaire to the electricity supply; the

connection block, automatic connection and

through wiring. The most common method is via a

connection block within the luminaire. To prevent the

connection being accidentally broken, the supply

wire should pass through a cable clamp before

reaching the connection block.

2.2 Earthing

Metal parts of Class 1 luminaires (see Chapter D /

7.4.3 / Table 16 and 17) that are accessible when

the luminaire is installed or open for maintenance or

that may become live if the insulation fails should be

permanently connected to an earth terminal. The

wire used for earthing should be at least 2.5 mm 2

in cross section. Local standards and norms to be

followed as required.

3.0 Mechanical

The mechanical integrity of a luminaire depends on

the materials used and the quality of its construction.




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3.1 Materials

In general the materials are to be chosen based

on local requirements, climatic conditions at

the place of installation, ground and irrigation

conditions (in-ground luminaires) and expected

pollution of dirt (chemicals, salt, sand, etc.).

3.1.1 Steel

Many lighting luminaires are made from ready-

painted sheet steel, painted in different colours.

Where corrosion is a problem, galvanised sheet

steel is used. Where a very durable paint finish is

required, enamelling or powder coating is used.

3.1.2 Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is rarely used for luminaire

bodies but it is widely used for many small,

unpainted luminaire components that have

to remain free from corrosion.

Only certain grades of stainless steel are

suitable for external use for luminaires and

unless specifically stated in client briefs or

specifications, marine-grade (316) stainless

steel should be used only.

3.1.3 Aluminium Sheet

Aluminium sheet is mainly used for reflectors

in luminaires. It can have good reflection

properties and the physical strength to form

stable reflectors of the desired form.

3.1.4 Cast Aluminium –

Extruded Aluminium

Cast aluminium is widely used for housings

of different outdoor luminaires. Such housings

are light in weight and can be used in damp

or corrosive atmospheres without any further

treatment. Provided that the correct grade of

aluminium alloy has been used and this alloy

has the correct limits or copper or other

elements as set out in a client’s brief or

specification.

3.1.5 Plastics, PVC, Acrylic, etc.

There are many different forms of plastic used

in luminaires, either for complete housings or

components. These plastics differ in their

transparency, strength, toughness, sensitivity

to UV radiation and heat resistance.

3.1.6 Glass

Three types of glass are used in luminaires:

soda lime glass, borosilicate glass, and very

high resistance glass. Soda lime glass is used

where there are no special heat resistance

demands. Where high heat resistance,

chemical stability and resistance to heat

shock are required, borosilicate glass is used.

High resistance glass has the advantage that

it can deliver high heat resistance, high thermal

shock resistance and great physical strength

even in thin sheets.

3.1.7 CeramicsSome components of luminaires that produce

very high temperatures are made of ceramics.




4.0 Construction

All luminaires should be designed to withstand the

rigours of transport to the site, installation and pro-

longed use. Generally, exterior luminaires need to be

more substantial than those designed for interior use.

Some luminaires are designed to resist the ingress of

foreign objects, dust and moisture. Such luminaires

have a transparent front cover and all points of

access to the luminaire have a seal. Front covers are

usually made of glass or plastic. Where there is a risk

of physical impact, as in a sports hall, glass or acrylic

front covers need to be covered with a wire screen.

If a polycarbonate front cover is used, (minimum IK07)

no such screen is necessary. As for the seals, these

come in various forms from a simple felt seal to

convoluted notched rubber seals. The effectiveness

of these seals is quantified by the IP classification

system and the IK classification of impact energy

(see Chapter D / 7.4.2 / Tables 14 and 15).

5.0 Optical Control

Optical control of the light output from a light source

is achieved by some combination of reflectors,

refractors, diffusers, baffles or filters. Several types of

reflectors are used in luminaires; specular, semi-

specular and mattor diffuse. Specular reflectors are

used when a precise light distribution is required.

The shape of the reflector and its position relative to

the light source determine the light distribution.

The most common shapes for reflectors are circular,parabolic and elliptical.

5.1 Reflectors

A circular reflector with a point light source at its

focus will produce a light distribution of the type

shown in Figure 84, reflections from some parts of

the reflector being almost parallel while those from

parts of the reflector away from the axis are divergent.

This type of circular reflector is used in cylindrical

form for wall grazing using tubular incandescent

and fluorescent light sources.

Figure 84

The light distribution from a circular reflector with a point light

source at its focus.





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A circular reflector with a point light source at

its centre of curvature produces a light distri-

bution of the type shown in Figure 85. This

type of reflector is widely used in projection

systems and spotlights to increase the amount

of light delivered to the associated lens system.

A parabolic reflector with a point light source

at its focus produces a parallel beam of

reflected light (Figure 86). Moving the light

source in front or behind the point of focus

will cause the beam to converge or diverge.

The parabolic reflector is widely used in

spotlight design either exactly, when the

reflector is smooth, or approximately, when

the reflector is facetted.

Figure 85

The light distribution from a circular reflector with a point light

source at its centre of curvature.

Figure 86

The light distribution from a parabolic reflector with a

point light source at its focus. The beam intensity will be

greater at the centre than at the edge — compare

cones aFb and AFB.

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An elliptical reflector with a point light source at one focus will ensure that the reflected rays all

pass through the second focus (Figure 87) Elliptical reflectors in trough form are widely used for tubular

fluorescent luminaires.

Figure 87

Elliptical reflectors showing the change in light distribution as the point light source is moved relative to the first focus ( F).

Spread reflectors are deliberately distorted specular reflectors. They can be circular, parabolic or elliptical in cross

section and spherical or cylindrical in form. The distortion takes the form of modulating the specular surface of the

reflector by hammering (peening) to produce a regular array of dimples, or by etching or brushing the surface.

The advantage of this distortion is that it smears out variations in light distribution caused by inaccuracies in the

manufacture of the reflector and the size of the light source. Spread reflectors are used where a well-defined but

even light distribution is required.

Diffuse reflectors are the opposite of specular reflectors. Unlike a specular reflector, the shape of a diffuse reflector

has only a small effect on the light distribution. Diffuse reflectors are used where there is a need to redirect light

with a very wide beam.

Asymmetrical and symmetrical lighting are two different principles of lighting. Asymmetrical light distribution is a

feature where the advanced reflector system directs the light sideways into a specific direction. Symmetrical light

distribution, however, spreads the light equally in all directions.

Many different materials are used in reflectors. Typical values of reflectance for these materials are given in Table 6.




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Table 6

Typical reflectance values for materials used in reflectors according

to DIN 5036-3 or ASTM-E 1651.

NOTE 1 Specular reflection is used to provide efficient and controlled light distribution,

depending on design of luminaire and reflector, glare control might be required, surface is

polished or similar to a mirror.

NOTE 2 Spread surface means semi-specular or brushed surface, directional- or omni-directional

properties. Light distribution is less controllable as with specular reflection, depending on design of

luminaire and reflector, glare control might be less important.

NOTE 3 Diffuse reflection is based on ‘lambertian surface’ (lambert’s law) and means the light

distribution is only controlled by adjustment of the diffuse reflector in connection with the light

source. This type is mainly used for semi-direct lighting effects. It is the less efficient way of light

distribution control. The diffuse reflector may produce non-controllable glare, depending on

placement, design and point of view.

Reflector type Material Reflectance

Specular(1) Commercial grade

aluminium

0.70 – 0.78

Specular(1) Aluminium with super

purity coating

0.80 – 0.95

Specular(1) Aluminium with silver

coating

0.90

Specular(1) Glass or plastic with

aluminium coating

0.85 – 0.90

Spread(2) Peened aluminium 0.90 – 0.95

Spread(2) Etched aluminium 0.82 – 0.87

Spread(2) Brushed aluminium 0.84 – 0.94

Spread(2) Satin chromium 0.60 – 0.78

Spread(2) Aluminium painted steel 0.60 – 0.70

Diffuse(3) White paint on steel Up to 0.84

Diffuse(3) Glossy white plastic Up to 0.90




5.2 Refractors

Refractors control light distribution by turning the

incident light ray through a desired angle following

Snell’s Law. This can be done using either prisms or

lenses. For luminaires using large area light sources,

such as a fluorescent lamp, multiple prisms are

moulded in a transparent material, usually acrylic or

polycarbonate plastic. The number, location, angle of

incidence and shape of the different types of prism

determine the light distribution. For luminaires using

a point light source a lens can be used. The position

and shape of the lens determines the light distribu-

tion.

NOTE 1 By using LED technology the topic of

refractors became a much more important issue in

comparison to common lamp technology refractors.

Developments in this field are very fast and the

different manufacturers are using different combi-

nations of lenses, reflectors, refractors and diffusers

to optimise the light distribution, homogenous colour-

mixing, to get rid of glare problems or to improve the

efficiency of LED luminaires.

5.3 Diffusers

Diffusers are transparent materials that scatter light

in all directions. They provide no control of light

distribution but do serve to reduce the brightness

of the luminaire. Diffusers are commonly made of

materials that maximise light scatter and minimiseabsorption, such as opal glass or plastic.

NOTE 1 By using LED technology the topic of

refractors became a much more important issue in

comparison to common lamp technology refractors.

Developments in this field are very fast and the

different manufacturers are using different combi-

nations of lenses, reflectors, refractors and diffusors

to optimise the light distribution, homogenous colour-

mixing, to get rid of glare problems or efficiency of

LED luminaires.

5.4 Baffles

Baffles can have three functions; to hide the light

source from common viewing angles, to reduce

the amount of spill light, and to control the light

distribution. The extent to which the light source is

hidden from view is quantified by two angles, the

shielding angle and its complementary, the cut-off

angle. The shielding angle is the angle between the

horizontal and the direction at which the light source

ceases to be visible.

A common example of a baffle being used to hide

the light source is the diffusely reflecting louvre. This

louvre can take a wide variety of forms, lamellae,

egg-crate, concentric rings and honeycomb depen-

ding on the shape and size of the luminaire, for out-

door it is usually made of a black diffusely reflecting

material. If the purpose is primarily to reduce spill

light, the material used for the louvre will be of low

reflectance, and mostly black. In addition to louvres,

spill light can be controlled by the use of low reflec-

tance baffles, called barn doors (See NOTE 1) and

mounted on the luminaire (Figures 88, 89, 90).

NOTE 1 It is not usual to have barn doors used

at outdoor lighting applications – the wind can

easily create problems and will not allow for stable

adjustment.




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Figure 88

Standard Floodlight

Figure 89Floodlight with lamella baffle

Figure 90

Floodlight with simple anti-glare shield




5.5 Louvres

If the purpose is to hide the light source and also to control the light distribution, the louvre is made from a

specularly reflecting material and shaped so as to direct light downwards and hence increase the shielding angle.

As a general rule, the finer the louvre and hence the more the light source is hidden, the lower will be the light

output ratio of the luminaire (see Chapter D / 5.6).

Figure 91 Source visible

An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the

light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector

system- power OFF.

Figure 92 Source visible



system- power ON.

Figure 93 Source invisible



system- power OFF.

Figure 94 Source invisible



system- power ON.

NOTE 1 Depending on the position of the viewer the luminaire will be actively glare controlled (Figure 94)

or will not have any glare control (Figure 89, 91).




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5.6 Filters

For display and decorative lighting it is sometimes required to change the colour of light emitted

by a luminaire. This can be done by the use of filters, either absorption or interference.

Absorption filters are usually made of plastic or glass. They absorb the unwanted wavelengths and

thereby raise their temperature. Plastic absorption filters are likely to change their properties if they

get too hot. The transmittance of absorption filters is limited. Typical transmittances for different

colour filters are:

Filter Colour Transmittance Factor Result/Light

Red 20% 5 100%

Green 15% 6.5 100%

Blue 5% 20 100%

Amber 50% 2 100%

Yellow 80% 1.25 100%

Orange 40% 2.5 100%

Purple 25% 4 100%

Pink 15 6.5 100%

Table 7

Factors for calculation of light loss through filters.

NOTE 1 Above Figures are approximate and will depend on material and quality of filters and

manufacturer. Manufacturer to provide exact information about light transmittance factors of filter

used, for approval.

NOTE 2 Coloured light through filters is not designed to achieve same light levels as under white

light! The main point is to consider the environmental lighting conditions and to design the coloured

light to achieve effects, this may require to avoid white light near to coloured light effects, to allow

effects created with minimum power input.

Another type of filter is the interference filter. Interference filters are more expensive and more exact

than absorption filters and do not absorb the unwanted wavelengths. Rather, they split the light into

two beams, one transmitted and one reflected; of two different colours (hence the name dichroic

filters).




NOTE 3 It is recommended to use instead of filters ‘coloured’ lamps wherever possible, to improve the system efficacy.

NOTE 4 It is recommended to use only glass filters, if possible, interference or ‘dichroic’ filters instead of

PVC-filters, to avoid problems caused through colour-shift (because of aging) and/or damaged filters

(aging and heat absorption). Any filter technique will require more maintenance effort in comparison to coloured

lamps or RGB-LED sources.

NOTE 5 Coloured light can never be taken as an ‘efficient’ light in comparison to white light. This is as well valid

for LED coloured light (RGB, RGBW, RGBAW, etc.).

5.7 Luminaire Efficiency

The efficiency of a luminaire is quantified by its ‘Light Output Ratio’ (LOR). This is the ratio of the total light output

of a luminaire to the total light output of the light sources used in the luminaire when operating outside the luminaire.

LOR is sometimes split into upward and downward components; this happens most of the time in the case of

indoor applications. LOR measures the efficiency of the luminaire in the sense that it quantifies how much of the

light emitted by the light source escapes from the luminaire. LOR does not measure the efficiency of a lighting

installation. Light output ratio is defined as the ratio of luminous flux emitted by the luminaire divided by the flux

emitted by the bare lamps in free air. This means that for temperature sensitive lamps the LOR is a function of the

increase in temperature of a lamp within the luminaire as well as the optical efficiency of the luminaire, especially

applicable to LED fixtures.

NOTE 1 LOR (Light Output Ratio), according to DIN/EN 13032/2, the LOR is described as ‘the ratio of the

luminous flux of the luminaire to the lumens of the lamps used’

NOTE 2 In realities the light output ratio is a Figure that shows how much light gets lost inside the luminaire.

It is abbreviated to LOR, and sometimes subdivided into ULOR (Upper Light Output Ratio) or DLOR (Downward

Light Output Ratio) – i.e. what percent shines upwards, and what percent, down. It is calculated by dividing the

total light output from the luminaire (in lumens), by the total lamp output (also in lumens) to get a percent.For the ULOR and DLOR, it is the same, but with the light that comes from the upper and lower halves of

the luminaire. See Figure 95.

LOR = DOLR + ULOR

LampOutput

re LightfixtuOutput LOR




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NOTE 3 For outdoor Lighting applications it must be considered that ULOR is a ‘not wanted’ emission

of light due to light pollution mitigating standards, and may be only used in outdoor applications below

covered sites, e.g. car-shade structures, pedestrian underpasses, gazebos, tents, etc.

NOTE 4 Some manufacturers are claiming phenomenal LOR up to 99%.

This is because the manufacturer is being misleading with the definition of ‘lamp’

and classifying it as most of the luminaire. In fairness, it is hard to apply the term ‘LOR’ to LED

fittings because the light source and luminaire are so interlinked. The term is more

meaningful with future-proof luminaires where the LEDs come on small replaceable

modules.

Luminaire Efficacy Rating (LER) is the single Figure of merit the National Electrical Manufacturers

Association has defined to help address problems with lighting manufacturers’ efficiency claims

and is designed to allow robust comparison between lighting types. It is given by the product of luminaire efficiency (EFF) times total rated lamp output in lumens (TLL) times ballast factor (BF),

divided by the input power in watts (IP):

LER = EFF × TLL × BF / IP

Figure 95

Light distribution of typical direct/indirect

luminaire.




5.8 Thermal

All luminaires increase in temperature when in

operation. The internal temperature of the luminaire

can affect the efficiency of some light sources and

the associated control gear. These changes in

efficiency contribute to the light output ratio of the

luminaire. The external surface temperature of a

luminaire may also pose a fire hazard if mounted on

a flammable surface (see Chapter D / 7.4.6).

NOTE1 Please refer to Abu Dhabi DMA Roadway &

Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway

Project Compliance Checklist Tables; exact Figures

for temperature ratings of LEDs, drivers, ballasts and

ambient climatic conditions are given.

5.9 Environmental

Luminaires may contain a variety of materials and

some of these could be hazardous to the environ-

ment when the luminaire is disposed of at the end of

life. To stop environmental pollution there are local

regulations, for more information refer to ESMA,

ESTIDAMA, etc. It is required that all luminaires are

recycled at the end of life and are not just thrown

away. To ensure that this occurs, luminaire suppliers

are required to make provision for the collection and

recycling of old luminaires in the future. Materials

such as lead, mercury, cadmium and polybrominated

biphenyls are all toxic and therefore professional

recycling and/or disposal is mandatory. Abu Dhabilocal laws and standards are to be followed in all

aspects. Lamps, luminaires, parts of luminaires,

drivers, and ballasts should not be placed along

with normal waste, special treatment is required.

6.0 Luminaire Types

The lighting industry produces many thousands of

different luminaires. Given below are brief outlines of

the main types of luminaire used in exterior lighting.

Details of any specific luminaire are best obtained

from the manufacturers.

6.1 Exterior Lighting

6.1.1 Road Lighting Luminaires

Road lighting luminaires used for lighting traffic routes

are designed to deliver light toa road so that the

surface is seen to be of uniform luminance and

objects on the road can be seen in silhouette. The

light distribution is therefore dependent on the posi-

tion of the luminaire relative to the road. Most road

lighting luminaires are mounted on columns placed

at regular intervals at the side of the road or between

crash barriers in the median. For conflict areas and

subsidiary roads (see Chapter G / 3.5.4 and following)

the luminaires are designed with a wide light distri-

bution so as to give a uniform illuminance across the

road. The light sources used in road lighting luminaires

are typically low pressure sodium, high pressure

sodium or metal halide, but LED has become more

and more important for Road lighting and statutory

under the DMA Lighting Specifications. Road lighting

luminaires are often provided with adjustable lamp

holders and/or reflectors so as to allow the light

distribution to be optimised for the light source androad layout. Two broad classes of road lighting

luminaire are semi-cutoff and full-cutoff (see Chapter

G / 3.2 / Table 28) these classes reflecting a different

balance between luminaire efficiency and the control




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of glare. Road lighting luminaires need protec-

tion against dust and moisture and so are

classified according to the IP system

(see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Table 12 and 13).

They are almost always fitted with a photo-

electric control package, or controlled through

a central control system. Figure 96 shows a

selection of Abu Dhabi road lighting luminaires.

Figure 96

Examples of typical road lighting luminaires Abu Dhabi.

6.1.2 Post-Top Luminaires

Post top luminaires are a form of road lighting

luminaire but unlike the road lighting luminaires

described above, which are intended for the

lighting of high speed traffic routes, post topluminaires are intended for urban areas, where

pedestrians are considered as important as

drivers and the decorative aspect of the lumi-

naire is as important as the functional. Post

top luminaires are available with either rotatio-

nally symmetric or road lighting light distri-

butions, so that the same luminaire can be

used to light both roads and open pedestrian

areas in a city. Post top luminaires take manydifferent forms, some mimicking traditional

styles for historic areas, while others represent

the latest design trends. Because of their use

in urban areas, low pressure sodium light sour-




ces are not used in post top luminaires, the most com-

mon light sources being high pressure sodium, metal

halide, compact fluorescent lamps and lately LED.

Post top luminaires need protection against dust and

moisture and so are classified according to the IP

system (see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Tables 12 and 13).

Because of their relatively low mounting heights, post

top lanterns are often constructed of materials that

resist attacks by vandals. They are almost always

fitted with a photoelectric control package or control-

led through centralised control systems. The most

common problem with post top luminaires is glare.

This problem can be avoided if there is no direct view

of the light source. Figure 97 shows a selection of

post top luminaires used in Abu Dhabi.

Figure 97

Examples of typical post top luminaires in Abu Dhabi.




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6.1.3 Secondary Reflector Luminaires

Secondary reflector luminaires are designed

for use in pedestrianised places such as city

squares and parks. In this luminaire, light is

directed up from the light source in or on the

column and then distributed from a large sur-

face at the top of the column. By changing the

area and tilt of the reflecting surface, the light

distribution can be altered. Secondary reflector

luminaires are inevitably inefficient compared

to post top luminaires, but they do not cause

glare, are not prone to deliberate or accidental

damage and can provide a pleasing ambi-

ence. For examples of secondary reflector

luminaires see Figures 98 and 99.

6.2 Floodlights

Floodlights can be used on urban ground for

public sports lighting, to wash a large surface

with light (advertising) or to pick out a specificfeature of a building. Floodlights vary enor-

mously in their size, power and light distribu-

tion. The smallest floodlights consist LED or

20 W metal halide lamp with different reflectors

and accessories. The largest consist of a high

intensity discharge lamp with power in the

kilowatt range and a carefully shaped reflector.

The light distribution of a floodlight can be ro-

tationally symmetric, symmetrical about one

axis or asymmetrical about one axis. This dis-

tribution is usually classified as narrow, me-

dium or wide beam. The light sources used in

public ground floodlights should be high pres-

sure sodium, metal halide, but today more and

more LED especially when having local manual

or coinoperated switching where instant acti-

vation is essential. Floodlights need protection

against dust and moisture and so are classi-

fied according to the IP system (see Chapter D

/ 7.4.1 / Tables 12 and 13) and are often soundly

constructed of materials that resist attacks by

vandals. Filters mounted in front of the flood-

light can be used to change the light colour; in

some cases coloured lamps may give a good

alternative to filters or to colour changing LED.

From case to case it must be checked for which

types of metal halide lamps a replacement with

coloured lamps is possible. Barn door baffles

mounted on the floodlight can be used to mo-

dify the beam shape. Care is necessary when

using floodlights to avoid glare to passers-by

and especially to nearby residents. Figure 100

shows a floodlight with vandal proof cover.

Figure 98

Symmetrical light

distribution-fixed.

Figure 100

Typical playground vandal proof standard

asymmetric flood light for metal halide lamp.

Figure 99

Asymmetrical light

distribution-adjustable..




Figure 101

Examples of wall mounted luminaires used in Abu Dhabi.

6.3 Wall-mounted Luminaires

As their name suggests, wall mounted luminaires are

designed to be mounted on walls (surface or reces-

sed) so as to provide a low level of illumination in the

nearby area. They are widely used for security and

amenity lighting. The light distribution is usually wide

and is achieved by a combination of reflecting and

refracting elements. The light sources used in wall

mounted luminaires are usually low wattage low

pressure sodium, high pressure sodium, compact

fluorescent, metal halide or LED. Wall mounted lumi-

naires need protection against dust and moisture and

so are classified according to the IP and IK system

(see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Tables 12,13 and 7.4.2 /

Tables 14 and 15). Because of their relatively low

mounting heights, they should be solidly constructed

of materials that resist attacks by vandals. The most

common problem experienced with wall mounted

luminaires is glare. This problem is much reduced if

there is no direct view of the light source. Figure 101

shows a selection of wall mounted luminaires.




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6.4 In-Ground (Above-Ground)

Up-Lights, Directional Lights

For some design needs, in-ground or above-

ground uplighters may be applicable. They

could be used as tree up-lights, installed either

in ground recessing housings (mostly they are

part of the light fixture) or as above-ground

up-lighters on site-made base or on spike,

fixed in the soil.

By using in-ground fixtures in the UAE, the

quality of the housings and the materials used

becomes a main topic. Irrigation water can

destroy some cast aluminium composition

materials very fast. All these in-ground

luminaires require a proper drainage,

regardless of which IP5X or 6X rating they

have. Only the IP 68 rating would allow a

fixture to be all the time under water.

In case of on-site made base plate or on spike

mounting, then the problem of drainage is ob-

solete. Nevertheless the material topic is of the

same importance as with in-ground fixtures,

due to not well controlled or maintained

irrigation systems.

During the installation process, the availability

of aiming possibilities and/or the lighting

colours ‘white’ or ‘RGB’ are parameters tobe considered.

For orientation purposes ground mounted

with directional lights (so called ‘path-lights’

or ‘way-markers’) could be used in some

designs. These in-ground lights are available in

many shapes and with many different effects

and/or light distributions. It is to be considered

that such orientation lights could reach the re-

quired lighting levels, but the uniformity will not

be as per standards, if unless a mass of such

fixtures will are used with very small distances

between the fixtures. The width of the path-

way must be considered to be a limitation

when applying such installations.

All of the above systems require a very detailed

design process and a clear on-going commu-

nication with the client.

For all types of in-ground fixtures, it is recom-

mended to use them only in cases where there

is no other way of lighting available, especially

if it is required to replace lamps. The previous

past experience shows that maintenance of

in-ground luminaires is not being undertaken

correctly and breaching the IP resistance plus

diminishing the project lighting quality is mostly

a big problem in all installations worldwide.

On one side, there is the problem of the

lighting maintenance, plus on the other side,

there is the question of possible damage by

cars, people, transportation of materials and,

including, maintenance of other related areas,

as such may occur.

One more topic concerns the ’aiming’ of

such in-ground or above-ground fixtures.

Past experience shows that for most of the

time, the design is not fully carried out up




to the last point, as required for best practice, and

this means that, on-site aiming and locking, or during

site installation, the contractors are not able to apply

the aiming as required to optimize the lighting.

As a result of the previously described facts, there is

a high risk that glare and/or light pollution may occur.

See Figure 102.

Figure 102

Samples of in-ground and above-Ground lights used in Abu Dhabi.

NOTE 1 Above-ground lights should be placed with care and in view to size of task. Additionally it should be

considered that especially above-ground lights can cause glare and light pollution.




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7.0 Certification and Classification

7.1 Certification

The principal EU Directives for electrical products

are the Electro-Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) Di-

rective and the Low Voltage (LV) Directive, sum-

marised for lighting products in Table 8. The

EMC Directive and the LV Directive both require

products put on the UAE market to be safe:

Compatibility being designated by the CE mark.

Products complying with specified Euronorm

(EN) safety standards are presumed to comply.

EN standards are based upon existing internatio-

nal standards, e.g. an IEC standard. For a list of

current EN standards relevant to lighting pro-

ducts see Tables 9 and 10 (EMC and Safety),

and Table 11 (Performance). In most instances,

there is an equivalent British Standard (BS),

known as a BS EN. For established products a

compatible BS standard may still be used, but

preference should be given to the EN standards.

Electrical EN standards are issued by the EU

sponsored organisation, CENELEC (see Figure

103). These standards are type tests, and

manufacturers are required to associate them

with controls for conformity of production.

Parallel to all the EU Standards and Certification

procedures for lighting products and lighting

parts, assemblies the US Standards known as

UL Standards (Underwriters Laboratories TM ) are

developed in a similar way. The listings and Ta-

bles below will show the main topics of both to

allow for orientation in view to lighting products

used for street-, tunnel- and public realm lighting.

All the standards and certifications needed for a

project are to be seen in close connection with

the client’s demands and/or the DMA tender

procedures and requirements.

7.2 European (EU) Standards and

Safety Trade Marks

The Table 8 shows the different European

directives to allow proper certification of lighting

and lighting components:

Table 8

EU directives and lighting products.

ENC Directive

from 1st of January 1996

Applies to: see Table 9

LV Directive

from 1st of January 1997

Applies to:

Luminaires, Lighting Components, Lamps

EN Standards

See Table 9

EN Safety Standards

See Table 10

NOTE 1 Use local Standards like ESMA 38-2012, 13-2013, 21-2013, etc. for specification in addition

to international ones.




Responsibility for compliance of a product with the Directives and with the specified EN standards rests on

the person putting the product on the EU market, usually the manufacturer. Governmental authorities will

require additional independent test certificates from case to case. In any case local government (DMA) have

introduced new standards like the Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council’s exterior LED Luminaire

Certification Scheme, ESMA’s Lighting Regulations, ESTIDAMA, etc. These local standards and certification

requirements will prevail in all matters.

Figure 103

CENELEC Logo

Table 9

EU Directives for lighting products and materials, ballasts.

Notes for Tables 8, 10 and 11:

M = CE-mark obligatory (LV Directive)

S = ENEC mark optional (safety standard only available)

SP = ENEC mark optional (to safety standard and performance standard)

V= Older standard, still valid

n/a = Not applicable

Registered Mark of CENELEC –indicating a permanent conformitywith standards for electrical safety





LightingHandbook

NOTE 1

Associated standards:

BS EN 40 Lighting columns; BS EN 60730–2–3 Thermal protectors for ballasts.

NOTE 2 The EN standards are based on IEC standards, and their numbers are the

IEC numbers plus 60,000; for example EN 60570 = IEC 570.

BS EN standards have the EN number:

like BS EN 60598–2 is linked to BS EN 60598–1

The EMC and LV Directives, in conjunction with the CE Marking Directive, require compliant

products to be accompanied by the CE-mark. CE represents Conformity European (be careful,

because especially this certification is often fake when produced in Eastern- or Far Eastern Markets.

The CE-mark should preferably be on both product and packaging. Responsibility for marking rests

on the person putting the product on the EU market.

The CE-Mark

The CE mark is not to be seen as the safest way for getting a certified product, especially since some

manufacturers are putting fake CE marks on their products. It is important to note that CE-marks on

components do not imply that a luminaire complies. The luminaire as a whole must comply and carry

the CE-mark. Further, if a luminaire is modified for use in the EU (e.g. with emergency lighting) the

modifier takes over responsibility and must make a new CE mark. A lighting product outside the LV

Directive (e.g. an ELV product) comes under the General Products Safety Directive.

Figure 104CE Mark

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Figure 105

ENEC Mark

XX

NOTE 1 Table 10:

‘X’ identifies luminaire types as follows: 1 General purpose, 2 Recessed, 4 Portable,

5 Floodlights, 6 With transformer, 7 Portable – garden, 8 Hand lamps, 9 Photo –

amateur, 17 Stage and studio, 18 Swimming pools, 19 Air-handling and 20 Lighting chains.

Due to the fact that the ENEC mark is to be applied by an independent certification body, it is advisable to look

for ENEC certification together with the CE mark. The ENEC mark indicates independent confirmation that the

product complies with all relevant EN safety standards and, where available, EN performance standards.

NOTE 1 The ENEC mark is not applicable to lamps or emergency luminaires. The ENEC mark is not obligatory.

Testing and approval are carried out by national Certification Bodies, e.g. in the UK by BSI. The XX in the diagram

is replaced by a number from 01 to 17 (European Country Code), e.g. 12 for the UK. The ENEC mark of each of

the Certification Bodies is valid throughout the EU. Again, it is important to note that ENEC marks on components

do not imply that a luminaire has an ENEC mark. Furthermore, if a luminaire is modified, than the modifier must

remove the ENEC mark.




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Table 10

EN Safety standards for lighting products (CE mark and LV Directive).




Table 11

EN Performance standards and lighting products.

7.3 United States of America (US) Standards and Safety Trade Marks

Additionally to all EU Certifications, the US has introduced an independent testing procedure

which is very similar in all topics to the EU ones. It is known as UL (Underwriters Laboratories TM)

standards and testing procedure requirements.

Figure 106

UL Standards trade mark logo.




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Following UL Standards are applicable for lighting products and assemblies:

• ANSI/UL 153

• ANSI/UL 1598

• ANSI/UL 8750

7.3.1 The ANSI/UL 153 Standard

Covers portable electric luminaires:

• These requirements cover portable luminaires and subassemblies whose primary

function is task or ambient illumination.


Covers following main topics:

• Table of contents

• Body

• Scope

• Reference publications

• Definitions

• General requirements

• Mechanical construction

• Electrical construction

• Incandescent luminaires

• HID luminaires -

• Surface-mounted luminaires -

supplementary requirements

• Miscellaneous luminaires

• Environmental location luminaires -

supplementary requirements• Normal temperature tests

• Abnormal temperature tests

• Mechanical tests

• Electrical tests

• Factory production tests

• Test procedures and apparatus

• Marking

• ANNEX A (normative) Standards for

Components

• Annex B (CAN) (normative) Markings -

French Translations

• Annex C (MEX) (normative) Markings -

Spanish translations

• Annex D (normative) Pictograms

• Annex E (informative) Metric Conversion

Information

• Annex F (CAN) (normative)Printed Circuit

Boards

• Annex G (normative) Luminaires for use withself-ballasted compact fluorescent (CFL) or

self-ballasted light emitting diode (LED)

• Annex H (CAN) (normative) LUMINAIRES

FOR USE IN RECREATIONAL VEHICLES





Covers Light Emitting Diode (LED) Equipment for Use in Lighting Products:

• Scope

• These requirements cover LED equipment that is an integral part of a luminaire or other lighting equipment

and which operates in the visible light spectrum between 400 - 700 nm. These requirements also cover the

component parts of light emitting diode (LED) equipment, including LED drivers, controllers, arrays, modules,

and packages as defined within this standard.

• These lighting products are intended for installation on branch circuits up to 600 V nominal or less and for

connection to isolated (non-utility connected) power sources such as generators, batteries, fuel cells, solar cells,

and the like.

• LED equipment which is utilized in lighting products that comply with the endproduct standards as listed below:

a) Portable Electric Luminaires, UL 153,

b) Underwater Luminaires and Submersible Junction Boxes, UL 676,

c) Emergency Lighting and Power Equipment, UL 924,

d) Luminaires, UL 1598,

e) Low Voltage Landscape Lighting Systems, UL 1838,

f) Self-Ballasted Lamps and Lamp Adapters, UL 1993,

g) Luminous Egress Path Marking Systems, UL 1994, and

h) Low Voltage Lighting Systems, UL 2108.

NOTE 1 These above listings are not intended to reflect all standards for all kind of lighting, ballasts, drivers, etc. it

shows only some the main topics related to this handbook.




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7.4 International used Standards and Safety Trade Marks

7.4.1 Operating Conditions (IP-Rating)

The International Protection (IP) system classifies luminaires according to the degree of protection

provided against the ingress of foreign bodies, dust and moisture. The degree of protection is

indicated by the letters IP followed by two numbers. The first number indicates the degree of

protection against the ingress of foreign bodies and dust. The second indicates the protection

against the ingress of moisture. Table 12 shows the degree of protection indicated by each number.

Using Table 12 it can be seen that as an example a luminaire classified as IP55 is dust protected

and able to withstand water jets. See Table 13 for more information about IP rating.

Table 12

IP classification of luminaires according to the degree of protection against foreign bodies, dust and moisture.




Table 13

IP rating including details of testing procedures.





LightingHandbook

7.4.2 IK Code and Impact Energy

The European standard EN 62262 - the equivalent of international standard IEC 62262 (2002) -

relates to IK ratings. This is an international numeric classification for the degrees of protection

provided by enclosures for electrical equipment against external mechanical impacts. It provides a

means of specifying the capacity of an enclosure to protect its contents from external impacts.

EN 62262 specifies the way enclosures should be mounted when tests are carried out, the

atmospheric conditions that should prevail, the number of impacts (5) and their (even) distribution,

and the size, style, material, dimensions etc. of the various types of hammer designed to produce

the energy levels required. See Table 14 and 15 below:

Table 14

IK Code for protection.

Table 15

IK Code System test characteristics.

* not protected according to the standard

1. R100 Rockwell hardness according to ISO 2039/2

2. Fc 490-2, Rockwell hardness according to ISO 1052

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7.4.3 Electrical Protection

Luminaires are also classified according to the protection they provide against electric shock.

Table 16 shows the luminaire classes in the IEC classification..

Table 16

The classification of luminaires according to the degree of electrical protection.

IEC voltage range AC DC defining risk

High voltage (supply system) > 1000 Vrms > 1500 V electrical arcing

Low voltage (supply system) 50–1000 Vrms 120–1500 V electrical shock Extra-low voltage (supply syst.) < 50 Vrms < 120 V low risk

NOTE1 ‘Extra-Low-Saftey-Voltage’ means ELV, see Table 17:

Table 17

ELV standards




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7.4.4 Separated or Safety Extra-Low Voltage (SELV)

IEC defines a SELV system as ‘an electrical system in which the voltage cannot exceed ELV under

normal conditions, and under single-fault conditions, including earth faults in other circuits’.

There exists some confusion regarding the origin of the acronym: ‘SELV’ stands for ‘separated

extra-low voltage’ in installation standards (e.g., BS 7671) and for ‘safety extra-low voltage’ in

appliance standards (e.g., BS EN 60335).

A SELV circuit must have:

Protective-separation (i.e., double insulation, reinforced insulation or protective screening) from

all circuits other than SELV and PELV (i.e., all circuits that might carry higher voltages), simple

separation from other SELV systems, from PELV systems and from earth (ground).

The safety of a SELV circuit is provided by

• The extra-low voltage.

• The low risk of accidental contact with a higher voltage.

• The lack of a return path through earth (ground) that electric current could take in case of

contact with a human body.

The design of a SELV circuit typically involves an isolating transformer, guaranteed minimum

distances between conductors and electrical insulation barriers. The electrical connectors of

SELV circuits should be designed such that they do not mate with connectors commonly used

for non-SELV circuits.

Figure 107

SELV Logo




7.4.5 Class II Insulation

A ‘Class II’ or double-insulated electrical appliance is one which has been designed in such a way that it does not

require a safety connection to electrical earth (ground).

The basic requirement is that no single failure can result in dangerous voltage becoming exposed so that it

might cause an electric shock and that this is achieved without relying on an earthed metal casing. This is usually

achieved at least in part by having two layers of insulating material surrounding live parts or by using reinforced

insulation.

In Europe, a double-insulated appliance must be labelled Class II, double-insulated, or bear the double-insulation

symbol (a square inside another square).

Figure 108

Logo for Class II insulation products.




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7.4.6 Flammability

The temperature of a luminaire may limit the surfaces on which it can be mounted. If the surface is

non-combustible, then any luminaire may be mounted on it. But when the surface is either normally

flammable or readily flammable, restrictions may apply. A normally flammable surface is one having

an ignition temperature of at least 200 °C and that will not deform or weaken at this temperature.

A readily flammable surface is one that cannot be classified as normally flammable or non-

combustible. Readily flammable materials are not suitable for direct mounting of luminaires.

The IEC recommends a two part classification system. For luminaires suitable for direct mounting

only on non-combustible surfaces, a warning notice may be required. For luminaires suitable for

direct mounting on normally flammable surfaces a symbol consisting of a letter F inside an inverted

triangle is required.

Figure 109

Different marks for fire-safety rating

testing for US-market and EuropeUSA Europe

NOTE 1 In order to ensure all testing and safety is present and

correct, it is mandatory to check all certification and test

sheets, to ensure ESMA requirements have been met or

request fixtures are compliant with the technical criteria of the

DMA Lighting Specifications and/or (if external LED luminaires)

are ADQCC certified and marked. (www.qcc.abudhabi.ae)




7.5 ADQCC and ESMA

7.5.1 Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC)

The Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC) was established by law No. 3 of 2009,

issued by His Highness Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, President of the UAE.

For more info please refer to: http://www.qcc.abudhabi.ae

ADQCC is responsible for the development of Abu Dhabi Emirate’s Quality Infrastructure, which enables

industry and regulators to ensure that products, systems and personnel can be tested and certified to UAE

and International Standards.

Products certified by ADQCC receive the Abu Dhabi Trustmark. The Trustmark is designed to communicate that a

product or system conforms to various safety and performance standards that are set by Abu Dhabi regulators.

7.5.1.1 Abu Dhabi Certification Scheme for LED Exterior Lighting Fixtures (Luminaires)

The LED Exterior Lighting Fixture Certification Scheme, developed through consultation with regulators and

industry, enables suppliers of LED exterior lighting fixtures to obtain voluntary certification of products that meet

quality criteria designed to satisfy the standards or equivalent outlined by the Department of Municipal Affairs.

The scheme has been specified for 11 types of light fixtures to ensure their safety, performance and energy

efficiency. Relevant municipalities or the Department of Transport may impose further requirements not specified

within this certification scheme, for example regarding, aspects of design, manufacturing, installation,

calculations of road lighting contribution, in order to qualify products for use in projects.




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7.5.1.2 Conformity Certificate

Products that achieve certification, through formal evaluation against the scheme criteria,

will be granted a Certificate of Conformity and licensed to bear the Abu Dhabi

"Trustmark for Environmental Performance" in product promotion and merchandising.

The Certificate of Conformity enables developers to present evidence of meeting standards as

specified for Abu Dhabi's built environment.

Figure 110

Trust mark environmental performance

The Trustmark indicates that select products meet Abu Dhabi specifications and, if required, UAE

standards. The Quality and Conformity Council's market surveillance inspectors actively ensure that

the integrity of the Trustmark is maintained through market sampling and testing of products bearing

the Trustmark.

7.5.2 ESMA

Emirates Authority for Standardization & Metrology, the national authority responsible for UAE standards.

The Emirates Conformity Assessment Scheme is a certification program enforced by ESMA for

regulated products. Under this scheme, products are evaluated based on requirements and

standards set by the program. As a result of the evaluation, a Certificate of Conformity is generatedto act as evidence of compliance. Mainly covering lamps the standard came into force in 2014 and

will increasingly be implemented from 2015 onwards for all relevant products being sold in the UAE.




7.5.2.1 Scope

The regulation covers non-directional lamps, luminaires and control gears traded and

use in UAE that include the following:

• Incandescent lamps ≥ 16W (watts)

• Linear fluorescent lamps (excluding energy efficiency and functionality requirements); i.e. just safety is covered

• Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)

• Halogen lamps

• Light emitting diode (LED) lamps

• Control gears for general lighting purposes

• Luminaires for general lighting purposes. (only Electrical Safety Requirements apply)

General exemptions for lamps, luminaires and control gears are listed in Annex 1 of the ESMA Standard.

7.5.2.2 Emirates Quality Mark

A quality mark granted by ESMA indicating that the given product complies with the requirements stated in the

accredited standard.

Figure 111

Emirates Quality Mark Logo

Additionally a certificate is issued by ESMA to the given product ensuring that the product complies the

requirements of this scheme.




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7.5.2.3 Energy Efficiency Label

Documents issued by ESMA show the stars classification for lighting products according to their

efficiency in energy consumption, up to a maximum five stars.

Figure 112

Emirates Quality Mark Logo

NOTE 1 In order to ensure all testing and safety is present and correct, it is mandatory to check all

certification and test sheets, to ensure ESMA requirements have been met or request fixtures are

compliant with the technical criteria of the DMA lighting specifications and/or (if external LED

luminaires) are ADQCC certified and marked.




8.0 Road Lighting Luminaires

8.1 Luminous Intensity Distribution

Road lighting luminaires have traditionally been

classified as full-cutoff or semi-cutoff, accor-

ding to their luminous intensity distribution.

BS EN 13201: Part 2: 2003 has introduced

a finer classification designed to give better

control of disability glare and obtrusive light.

This classification uses the maximum luminous

intensity per 1000 lamp lumens at different

angles from the downward vertical in any di-

rection as a criterion.

Table 18 shows the limits based on EU Stan-

dards for each of the six classes (G levels) and

their relationship to the traditional semi-cutoff

and full-cutoff terms:

Table 18

BS EN 13201: Part 2: 2003 road lighting luminaire classification.

NOTE 1 The ‘G’-Classes are to be found in manufacturer’s data sheets or catalogues, in case missing the

manufacturer to provide the correct classification.





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The US Standards for road lighting are covered under by RP-08-00 which is valid for lighting

designs developed for Abu Dhabi areas.

The Classification of street lighting fixtures analogue to the EU ones above is covered by the

TM-15-07(-11) Standard as shown in the following Tables and explanations:

As shown in the addendum A to IESNA TM-15-07(-11); backlight, up-light, and glare (BUG) Ratings

should be shown in data sheets or on products as follows in Tables 19, 20, 21, 22. In no sufficient

info is provided, the manufacturer to provide accurate info about back-light, up-light and glare.

The following back-light, up-light, and glare ratings may be used to evaluate luminaire optical

performance related to light trespass, sky glow, and high angle brightness control. These ratings are

based on zonal lumen calculations for secondary solid angles defined in TM-15-07(-11) standard.

The zonal lumen thresholds listed in the following three Tables are based on data from photometric

testing procedures approved by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) for outdoor luminaires.

Table 19 (A-1)

Back-light ratings (maximum zonal lumens).

Table 20 (A-2)

Up-light ratings (maximum zonal lumens).

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Table 21 (A-3)

Glare ratings (maximum zonal lumens).

For explanation of capital letter codes (e.g. UH, UL, etc.) shown in Tables 19, 20, 21 and 22 see Figure 110.

Notes to Tables 19 (A-1), 20 (A-2) and 21( A-3):

NOTE 1 Any one rating is determined by the maximum rating obtained for that Table. For example,

if the BH zone is rated B1, the BM zone is rated B2, and the BL zone is rated B1, then the backlight rating

for the luminaire is B2.

NOTE 2 To determine BUG ratings, the photometric test data must include data in the upper hemisphere unless

no light is emitted above 90 degrees vertical (for example, if the luminaire has a flat lens and opaque sides),

per the IES Testing Procedures Committee recommendations.

NOTE 3 It is recommended that the photometric test density include values at least every 2.5 degrees vertically.

If a photometric test does not include data points every 2.5 degrees vertically, the BUG ratings shall be

determined based on appropriate interpolation.





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NOTE 4 A ‘quadrilateral symmetric’ luminaire (see Figure 110) shall meet one of the following

definitions:

• A Type V luminaire is one with a distribution that has circular symmetry, defined by the IESNA as being essentially the same at all lateral angles around the luminaire.

• A Type VS luminaire is one where the zonal lumens for each of the eight horizontal octants(0-45, 45-90, 90-135, 135-180, 180-225, 225-270, 270315, 315-360) are within ±10 percent

of the average zonal lumens of all octants

‘BUG’ Rating example for a 250-watt MH area luminaire, Type IV forward throw optical distribution

(see Figure 110):

Table 22

Example of BUG rating for sample luminaire shown in Figure 110.

Figure 113

250-watt MH area luminaire, Type IV forward throw optical distribution.

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Based on the photometric test data, the sample luminaire (Figure 110) has the following zonal lumen distribution:

• Back-light Rating:Determine the lowest rating where the lumens for all of the secondary solid angles do not exceed the

threshold lumens from Table 19 (A-1). In this example the backlight rating would be B2 based on the BL

lumen limit.

• Up-light Rating:Determine the lowest rating where the lumens for all of the secondary solid angles do not exceed the

threshold lumens from Table 20 (A-2). In this example the uplight rating would be U1 based on the FVH and

BVH lumen limits.

• Glare Rating:Determine the lowest rating where the lumens for all of the secondary solid angles do not exceed the

threshold lumens from Table 21 (A-3) for a Type IV distribution. In this example, the glare rating would beG2 based on the FH lumen limit.

Therefore, the BUG rating for this sample luminaire type IV would be: B2 U1 G2

Figure 114

Light distribution sections of a type IV light for BUG rating process.




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Chapter E

Electrics




E l e c t r i c s




1.0 Control Gear

A wide range of lamps and LED requires control gear of some kind to ensure correct running and, in some cases,

starting of the lamp. With discharge lamps it is the job of the control gear to limit the current through the lamp

whereas with some incandescent lamps the gear is there to reduce the voltage. Some low voltage tungsten

lamps need units to supply them with the correct voltage and LEDs need electronics to limit the current going

through them.

1.1 Ballasts for Discharge Light Sources – General Principles

The control gear of discharge lamps has to perform a number of functions:

• Limit and stabilises the lamp current: Due to the negative resistance characteristic of gas discharge lamps

(see Chapter C / 1.2) it is necessary to control the current in the lamp circuit.

• Ensure that the lamp continues to operate despite the mains voltage falling to zero at the end of each half cycle.

• Provide the correct condition for the ignition of the lamp: This generally requires the gear to provide a high

voltage and in the case of fluorescent lamps requires a heating current to be passed through the electrodes.

As well as these basic functions, the control gear may also have the following additional requirements:

• Ensure a high power factor.

• Limit the harmonic distortion in the mains current.

• Limit any electromagnetic interference (EMI) produced by the lamp and ballast.

• Limit the short-circuit and run up currents to protect the lamp electrodes and to help the supply wiring system.

• Keep the lamp current and voltage within the specified limits for the lamp during mains voltage fluctuations.

With electromagnetic control gear several separate control components may be needed; these may include

ballasts, starters, igniters, capacitors and filter-coils, power supply units, drivers, etc.

When electronic control gear is used, it is common to integrate all the components into one package.

The details of the various circuits used are discussed in the following Chapters.





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1.1.1 Electromagnetic Control Gear for Fluorescent Light Sources

Choke coils used to be the most common type of current limiting device used with linear and

compact fluorescent lamps. The most common circuit is the switch start, see Figure 112..

Figure 115

Schematic diagram of a fluorescent lamp operated using a choke ballast and a switch start.

The choke ballast is made from a large num-

ber of windings of copper on a laminated iron

core. It works on the self-inductance principle

and is designed so that impedance of the

choke limits the current through the circuit to

the correct value for a given lamp and supply

voltages. A range of ballasts is available for

different lamps and different voltages. Also the

ballast design has to be changed if it is to

operate at a different mains supply frequency.

To start the lamp it is common to use a glow

starter. The glow starter switch consists of one

or two bi-metallic strips enclosed in a glass

tube containing a noble gas. The glow starter

is connected across the lamp so it is possiblefor a current to pass through the ballast,

through the electrode at one end of the lamp,

through the electrode at the other end of the

lamp and back to neutral.

When the mains voltage is first applied to the

lamp circuit, the total mains voltage appears

across the electrodes of the starter and this

initiates a glow discharge. This discharge

heats the bi-metallic elements within the

starter and as the electrodes heat up they

bend towards each other until eventually they

touch. While the electrodes are touching the

current passing through the lamp electrodes

pre-heats them. While the electrodes in the

starter are touching there is no glow discharge

and so the electrodes cool and separate.

At the moment that the electrodes come apartthe current through the ballast is interrupted

causing a voltage peak across the lamp.

Note 1 The glow starter does not always create the conditions for the lamp to start and sometimes

the starting cycle has to be repeated a number of times.

E l e c t r i c s




Figure 116

The heat from the discharge in the starter causes the bi-metallic electrodes to bend together.

Figure 117

The bi-metallic electrodes touch and a current flows through the circuit preheating the electrodes of the lamp.

Figure 118

The electrodes cool and separate, causing a voltage peak which ignites the lamp.

In addition to the ballast and the starter most fluorescent lamps circuits have a capacitor connected across

the supply terminals to ensure a high power factor for the circuit.

Figures 116 to 118 illustrate the starting process:




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LightingHandbook

1.1.2 Electromagnetic Control Gear for HID Light Sources

There are a number of different types of circuits used for high intensity discharge (HID) lamps which

vary according to the type of lamp and its requirements for starting.

The most common type of ballast used is a choke or inductive ballast in series with the lamp.

The choke, which is a coil of copper wire wound on a laminated iron core, limits the current through

the lamp. Figure 119 shows a typical circuit using a choke.

Figure 119

Schematic diagram of a HID lamp circuit using a choke.

This type of circuit is used for all high intensity discharge lamps apart from the low pressure sodium

lamp. The low pressure sodium lamp has a long run-up during which time the voltage across the

lamp needs to be greater than normal mains voltage; this has given rise to a number of circuits for

running the lamp that provide the necessary voltage.




1.1.3 Low Pressure Sodium Lamp

The most common of these circuits is the autoleak transformer (Figure 120).

The autoleak transformer works like an autotransformer increasing the supply voltage, but by careful design of the

secondary winding it can also act as a choke to control the current through the lamp.

Figure 120

Schematic diagram of a low pressure sodium lamp circuit using an autoleak transformer.

Figure 121

A semi-parallel ignition system.

1.1.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamp

Most high pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps require a high voltage pulse to start the arc in the lamp.

This is usually provided by an electronic ignitor. There are several types of ignitor circuits, the two most common

are the semi-parallel and the superimposed pulse type (Figures 121 and 122).

Figure 122

A superimposed ignition system.




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The semi-parallel ignitor relies on the tapped ballast coil to generate the ignition pulse whereas

the superimposed type ignitor has its own coil to generate the pulse. The semi-parallel has many

advantages in that it consumes no power when the lamp is running, it is cheaper and lighter but,

as it relies on the ballast, it may only be used with the ballast for which it has been specifically

designed.

Ignitors sometimes have other features built-in such as self-stopping ignitors that will not continually

try to restrike a lamp that has come to the end of its life. There are also some that are designed to

produce extra high voltages that can restrike hot lamps.

1.1.5 Electronic Control Gear for Fluorescent Light Sources

Operating fluorescent lamps at high frequency has a number of advantages (see Chapter C / 2.3)

and most modern control gears are now of this type. Most electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps

are integrated into a single package that performs a number of functions.

These functions are:

• A low pass filter: this limits the amount of harmonic distortion caused by the ballast.

• Also controls the amount of radio frequency interference, protects the ballast against high voltage

mains peaks and limits the inrush current.

• The rectifier: This converts the AC power from the mains supply into DC.

• A buffer capacitor: This stores the charge from each mains cycle thus providing a steady voltage

to the circuits that provide the power to the lamps.

• The HF power oscillator takes the steady DC voltage from the buffer capacitor and using

semi-conductor switches controlled by the ballast controller creates a high frequency

square wave.

• The output of the power oscillator is fed through a small HF coil that acts as a stabilisation

coil to the lamp.

Figure 123 shows the main components in typical HF fluorescent lamp ballast.




Figure 123

A circuit diagram of an electronic ballast for two fluorescent lamps.

In some ballasts the electronics that control the power oscillator can vary the frequency at which the power

oscillator runs; as the frequency increases the current passing through the coils decreases and thus it is possible

to dim the lamps. Some types of ballast have a 0 to 10 volt input that is used to regulate the output while

some have digital interfaces. See Chapter E / 2.0 for further information on controls.

1.1.6 Electronic Control Gear for HID Light Sources

Making electronic control gear for HID light sources is a complex process. There are many different lamp types

each with different electrical requirements and a limited range of frequencies in which they can be operated.

Also many lamp types do not show a significant gain in efficiency when operated on high frequencies. For these

reasons electronic control gear has been developed more slowly for HID lamps than for fluorescent lamps.

However, it is possible to gain a number of benefits from electronic gear for HID lamps. These include:

• Increased lamp life.

• Elimination of visible flicker.

• Better system efficacy.• Less sensitivity to mains voltage or temperature fluctuations.

• The possibility of dimming with some lamp types.

Not all these benefits are possible for all lamp types and all control gear combinations. However, the availability

and quality of electronic gear available for HID lamps is rapidly increasing.




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Figure 124

A circuit diagram for a transformer.

As well as reducing the voltage the transformer also isolates the lamp supply from the mains.

This means that even under a fault condition the voltage in the secondary circuit will not rise

significantly above the nominal output voltage and so it will always be safe to touch the conductors

on the low voltage side.

Most modern transformers for halogen lamps involve electronics. They usually contain high

frequency oscillators to permit the use of smaller transformers that have smaller power losses.With the introduction of electronics it is possible to introduce additional features such as constant

voltage output and soft starting of the lamps.

1.1.7 Iron-Core Transformers for Low-Voltage Light Sources

Many tungsten halogen lamps are designed to run on low voltages the most common of which is

12 volts. Thus they need a device to reduce the supply voltage. The traditional way to do this was

by using a transformer. Figure 124 shows the various currents and voltages in a transformer and

gives the approximate relationship between the voltages, currents and the number of turns in the

primary and secondary coils and all low-wattage lamp sizes are covered today and increasing into

the larger wattages.





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1.1.9 Drivers for LEDs

LEDs need to be run at a controlled current to ensure proper operation. To provide this drivers are

used. Most drivers take mains power and provide a constant current output. However, it is possible

to control some drivers so that the output current is varied and so that the LED may be dimmed.

In more complex systems it is possible to dim three different channels separately, so that when red,

green and blue LEDs are used together it is possible to make colour changes. Most LED drivers can

maintain their constant current output over a range of voltages so it is often possible to connect a

number of LEDs in series on one driver.

Figure 126

System sketch of LED with current constant driver on 1-10V dimming.

Figure 127

System sketch of LED with voltage constant driver on DALI dimming.

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2.0 Lighting Controls

2.1 Options for Control

There are a number of factors that need to be

considered in any control system; these are the

inputs to the system, how the system controls the

lighting equipment and what the control process is,

that decides how a particular inputs will impact on

the light setting.

Thus for a control system to work it must have:

• Input devices: Such as switches, presence

detectors, timers and photocells.

• Control processes: These may consist of a simple

wiring network through to a computer based

control system.

• Controlled luminaires: The system may control

luminaires in a number of ways, from simply

switching them on and off to dimming the lamp

and in more complex systems causing movement

and colour changes.

2.2 Input Devices

2.2.1 Manual Inputs

These vary from simple switches used to turn the

lights on, through dimmer switches and remote con-

trol units that interface to a control system, to lighting

control desks that are used in theatres. The point of these units is to allow people to control the lighting

and care is always needed in the application of such

devices to ensure that users of the system can

readily understand the function of any such control.

2.2.2 Presence Detectors

Most presence detectors are based on passive infra-

red (PIR) detectors; however some devices are

based on microwave or ultrasonic technology. PIR

devices monitor changes in the amount of infra-red

radiation that they are receiving. The movement of

people within an area will be detected by them and

this can be signalled to a control system. Thus, if a

device detects the presence of a person this can be

used to signal the control system to switch the lights

on, but if the device has not detected anybody for

some time this can be used to signal that there is

nobody there and that the lights can be turned off.

2.2.3 Timers

Most computerised control systems have timers built

in so that they can turn the lighting on and off at

particular times. However, there are also a large

number of time switches available that can turn

lamps on an off at given times. There are also timers

used for exterior lighting that change the time that

they switch at throughout the year so that the lamps

are always switched at dawn and dusk.

2.2.4 Photocells

There are many different types of photocell used to

control lighting. The simplest to use are those that

switch on at one illuminance value and switch off at

another; these are commonly used to turn exterior

lights on at dusk and off at dawn, by thresholdadjustment and in some cases additional with time-

period selection. Some photocells communicate the

illuminance value to the central control system, which

uses the information to adjust the lighting in some




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way. Some photocells are mounted on

constructions with shields around them so

that they only receive light reflected from the

surface nearby. This makes them act like

luminance meters and, provided the

reflectance of the surface remains constant,

they can be set up to follow the illuminance

of that surface.

2.2.5 Advanced Lighting Control

Systems

Some new advance lighting control systems

can help to control 24-hour, 7-days a year

thousands of light points. In combination with

astronomical timers it is possible to dim and

to take care about threshold adjustments

when used in conjunction with computerised

control stations. Additional manual override

can be provided in case of emergency or if

maintenance is on-going.

In case of new systems a centralized solution

may be implemented as this requires less

equipment and may allow for a simpler instal-

lation than a pole-based standalone solution.

Figure 128 shows a simple system sketch of

a centralised lighting control system.

Depending on the system and the manu-

facturer the control signals can be distributed

through a power bus system (signal is modu-lated on the power-cables supplying the

cabinets and lights) or through IP addresses

with IP interfaces at each pole or if simpler

systems are applied at the control cabinets.

Such solutions could have following features:

• Central control

• Complete monitoring

• Dimming

• Remote metering

• Power quality metering

• Voltage stabilization

• Control room installation

Following Cost Savings could be achieved:

A centralised lighting control solution that can

perfectly combine cost saving and less emis-

sion without compromising quality and safety

issues. Energy and cost savings may result

from:

• Dimming at off-peak traffic hours

• Reduced maintenance costs

• Burn hour optimization

• Accurate switch on/off

• Real-time control

• Load balancing and Load shedding

• Area-specific settings

• Fast reaction to special traffic or weather

conditions




Additional Benefits may be caused by implementing centralised Lighting Controls:

• Control cabinet fault monitoring

• Automated reading of digital power meters in control cabinets

• Burn hour reports for proactive bulb change

• High up-time and immediate fault rectification

• One central photocell ensuring uniformity

• Improved quality of light

• Simplified maintenance

• Reducing the costs and CO2 emissions

• Get rid of increasing electricity costs

• Follow CO2 reduction requirements

• Learn about growing electricity demands

• Ease planning of infrastructure

Figure 128

System elements of a centralised lighting control system.




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2.3 Control Processes and Systems

2.3.1 0-10V or 1-10V Dimming Systems

0-10 V is one of the earliest and simplest elec-

tronic lighting control signalling systems; sim-

ply put, the control signal is a DC voltage that

varies between zero and ten volts. The con-

trolled lighting should scale its output so that

at 10 V, the controlled light should be at 100%

of its potential output, and at 0 V it should at

0% output (i.e. ‘Off’). Dimming devices may be

designed to respond in various patterns to the

intermediate voltages, giving output curves

that are linear for: voltage output, actual light

output, power output, or perceived light

output.

For dimmable fluorescent lamps, where it

operates instead at 1-10 V, where 1 V is

minimum of approximately 5 to 10% of the

lumen package and a separate switching relay

is required to turn the luminaires off.

For the entire analogue dimming systems it is

mandatory that cabling and connections are

done in a high quality, otherwise problems of

connections may cause different light levels

or flickering. In fact that these systems are

operate at a very low voltage the cable length

and voltage drop must be considered to allow

optimum signal performance.

Figure 129

1-10V Dimming without relay.

Figure 130

1-10V Dimming with relay.




In the case of simple control systems these are generally configured as some form of automated switching in the

power supply to a luminaire or group of luminaires. However, more complex systems are generally configured as a

network of devices including luminaires, sensors and control inputs. In most systems the devices are physically

connected using some form of cabled network but, in principle, devices can be controlled using wireless or

infrared communication.

There are several systems in common use for lighting systems and care needs to be taken to specify the

correct type for each component in the system. Two of the most common systems available are DALI

(Digital A ddressable Lighting Interface) and DMX 512 (Digital Multiple x ).

The basic specification for DALI systems is contained in BS EN 60929: 2006:

AC-supplied electronic ballasts for tubular fluorescent lamps — Performance requirements.

The DALI system is largely used for lighting systems in buildings but has been extended so that it can be used

more widely. It controls luminaires via the ballast used to control the lamps. The system is designed to run multiple

luminaires on one circuit but there are devices that can control a series of different DALI clusters thus making it

possible to control all the lights in a large building.

2.3.2 DSI / DALI Lighting Control / Dimming System Description

Based on IEC 60929 and IEC 62386 as these are technical standards for network based systems that control

lighting in building automation, they were established as a successor of 0-10 V lighting control systems, and as

an open standard alternative to Digital Signal Interface (DSI), on which it is based.

IEC 60929 is the first version of the standard and will be withdrawn by the 23rd June 2014. Members of the AG

DALI are allowed to use the Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) trademark on devices that are compliant

with the current standard.

Each lighting device is assigned a unique static address in the numeric range from 0 to 63, making possible up to

64 devices in a standalone system. Alternatively, DALI can be used as a subsystem via DALI gateways to address

more than 64 devices.

Data is transferred between controller and devices by means of an asynchronous, half-duplex, serial protocol over

a two-wire bus, with a fixed data transfer rate of 1200 bit/s.




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DALI requires a single pair of wires to form the bus for communication to all devices on a single

DALI network. The network can be arranged in a bus or star topology, or a combination of these.

The DALI System is not classified as SELV (Separated Extra Low Voltage) and therefore may be run

next to the mains cables or within a multicore cable that includes mains power.

The DALI data is transmitted using manchester-encoding and has a high signal to noise ratio which

enables reliable communications in the presence of a large amount of electrical noise. DALI employs

a diode bridge in the interface circuitry so that devices can be wired without regard for polarity.

Figure 131

DALI Dimming system diagram.

2.3.3 DMX 512 or DMX 512-A Lighting Control System Description

DMX 512 was designed to control lights and other equipment in the entertainment industry.

In a typical spotlight that has its aiming controlled, three channels may be used, one to dim the

luminaire and one for each axis of rotation. The system has traditionally been used in theatres but

is increasingly being used in architectural feature lighting where the lighting equipment is more

complex.

DMX 512-A is the current standard and is maintained by ESTA (Entertainment Service and

Technology Association). The DMX 512 signal is a set of 512 separate intensity levels (Channels)

that are constantly being updated.




One DMX link of 512 channels is defined as a

universe; typical theatrical control consoles have

multiple universe outputs. Each Level has 256 steps

divided over a range of 0(zero) to 100 percent.

The DMX 512 follows the RS-485 standard (similar

to QS digital link).

Since 1998 the Entertainment Services and Techno-

logy Association (ESTA) started a permanent revision

process to develop the standard as an ANSI stan-

dard. The resulting revised standard, known officially

as ‘Entertainment Technology—USITT DMX512-A;

‘Asynchronous Serial Digital Data Transmission Stan-

dard’ for Controlling Lighting Equipment and Acces-

sories, was approved by the American National

Standards Institute (ANSI). It was revised recently and

now is the current standard known as ‘E1.11 - 2008,

USITT DMX512-A’, or just ‘DMX512-A’.

Connectors

DMX512 1990 specifies that where connectors

are used, the data link shall use fivepin XLR style

electrical connectors (XLR-5), with female connectors

used on transmitting (OUT) ports and male connec-

tors on receiving ports.

The use of a 3-pin XLR connector is specifically

prohibited.

DMX512-A (ANSI E1.11-2008) allows the use of

eight-pin modular (8P8C, or ‘RJ-45’) connectors for

fixed installations where regular plugging and unplug-

ging of equipment is not required.

XLR-5 pinout

1. Signal Common

2. Data 1- (Primary Data Link)

3. Data 1+ (Primary Data Link)

4. Data 2- (Optional Secondary Data Link)

5. Data 2+ (Optional Secondary Data Link)

XLR-3 pinout

1. Ground

2. Data 1- (Primary Data Link)

3. Data 1+ (Primary Data Link)

NOTE 1 This connector is prohibited by ANSI - E1.11

standard; DMX+ and DMX- are often swapped.

RJ-45 pinout

1. Data 1+

2. Data 1-

3. Data 2+

4. Not Assigned

5. Not Assigned

6. Data 2-

7. Signal Common (0 V) for Data 1

8. Signal Common (0 V) for Data 2

NOTE 2 The 8P8C modular connector pinout

matches the conductor pairing scheme used by

Category 5 (Cat5) twisted pair patch cables.The avoidance of pins 4 and 5 helps to prevent

equipment damage, if the cabling is accidentally

plugged into a single-line public switched telephone

network phone 2.3.3 DMX 512 or now DMX




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2.3.4 LON (Local Operating Network)

Lighting Control Systems

LON is a networking platform specifically

created to address the needs of control appli-

cations. The platform is built on a protocol for

networking devices over media such as twi-

sted pair, power-lines, fiber-optics, and RF

(radio frequency). It is used for automation of

lighting to serve cities, governments with bet-

ter control of their streetand public realm

lighting; this may include feed-back from the

lights about their operation status or failures

as they are happening.

The communications protocol (known as

LonTalk) is specified by ANSI and accepted

as a standard for control networking known

as ANSI/CEA-709.1-B; and under EN 14908

(European building automation standard).

The protocol is also one of several data

link/physical layers of the BACnet

ASHRAE/ANSI standard for building

automation. ‘Building automation’ does not

only mean ‘inside buildings’, such systems

are now very common and in different areas

of applications based upon specific controls.

Figure 132

DMX Dimming system sample.




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Chapter F

Applications




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1.0 Lighting Design

1.1 Objectives and Constraints

Lighting design can have many different objectives.

Ideally, these objectives are determined by the client

and the designer in collaboration and cover both

outcomes and costs (Figure 133).

The most common objective for a lighting installation

is to allow the users of a space to carry out their work

quickly and accurately, without discomfort. However,

this is a rather limited view of what a lighting installa-

tion can achieve. For traffic routes, the objective of

lighting is to facilitate the safe and rapid movement of

vehicles after dark. For urban areas where people

and traffic may come into conflict, safety is the pri-

mary concern although the appearance of people

and buildings is also important. In areas where crime

is rampant, lighting can be used to enhance security.

Sport facilities are lit at night to encourage their use.

Businesses use lighting to promote their brand and

attract customers. Most lighting installations have to

serve multiple functions. When designing lighting it is

always desirable to identify all the functions that the

lighting is expected to fulfil.

As for constraints, an important aspect of lighting

design is the need to minimise the amount of

electricity consumed, for both financial and

environmental reasons. It is also necessary to

consider the sustainability of the lighting equipment.

This means using materials that can be easily repla-

ced and considering to what extent the equipment

can be recycled at the end of its life. The financial

costs, particularly the capital cost, are always an

important constraint. No one wants to pay more for

something than is absolutely necessary so the

designer needs to be able to justify the proposal in

terms of value for money..

Figure 133

Objectives, outcomes and costs.




Figure 134

Poor colour rendering produced by sodium lamps; approx. RA 40 depending on manufacturer and type.

1.4 Visual Function

This aspect is related to the lighting required for carrying out tasks without discomfort. Chapter B has shown

how the illuminance incident on the task will affect the level of achievable visual performance. Recommended

illuminances for different areas and applications are given in the ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting

Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’.

Such values apply most of the time to the specific area and do not necessarily need to apply to the whole area.

The traditional way of lighting an exterior place or exterior area has been by the provision of a regular array of

luminaires. For this approach, the average maintained illuminance uniformity is recommended. This approach has

the benefit that the different areas and situations can be carried-out on the horizontal plane anywhere in the urban

environment.

In some cases there may be a need to have a colour recognition element. In such cases it will be necessary to

use lamps with a high general colour rendering index (CRI). For such areas it will be appropriate to use lamps

with up to CRI ≥80 for some applications.




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Figure 135

Good colour rendering approx. RA 70 through LED luminaires with newest technique.

The human visual system can adapt to a wide range of luminances but it can only cope with a

limited luminance range at any single adaptation state. When this range is exceeded, glare will

occur. If a field of view contains bright elements that cause glare, it is likely that they will affect

performance or at least cause stress and fatigue which in turn will cause problems.

To avoid this, luminaires that have limited luminances within the normal fields of view relative to the

adaptation level should be used. Glare limits for different areas and applications are given in the local

norms and standards. For more details please refer to Chapter G / 2.0 and Chapter G / 3.0 and

following pages for samples calculations of different typical streets and areas.



Visual interest of light; non-uniformityLow => => => => => => => => => High

Leisure

Commercial

Industrial

High => => => => => => => => => LowVisual lightness (brightness)


Figure 136

Sample of glare from high pole luminaire which is used to

light the road but supplies high level of light to the pedestrian

underpass area.

1.5 Visual Amenity

There is no doubt that lighting can add visual amenity

to a space, which can give pleasure to the occupants,

but whether this provides a tangible increased perfor-

mance benefit is uncertain.

Figure 137

Map showing the possible locations of three application

areas on a schematic diagram linking subjective impressions

of visual interest and visual lightness.

Studies have shown that people respond to the

lit appearance of a space on two independent

dimensions:

• visual lightness

• visual interest

Visual lightness describes the overall lightness of the

space, which is related to the average luminance of

vertical surfaces. Visual interest refers to the non-

uniformity of the illumination pattern or the degree

of ‘light and shade’.

People prefer some modulation in the light pattern

rather than an even pattern of illumination, and is it

the magnitude of the modulation depending on the

application. There is some evidence that visual

lightness and visual interest are inversely correlated

(Figure 137).

Industrial

Commercial

Leisure




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Although variation in the light pattern is desirable, it has to be seen as meaningful in terms of the

application and the architecture or landscape. To provide patches of light in an uncoordinated way

for no reason other than to provide light variation would be a poor design solution. Acceptable

examples could be highlighting seating areas, walkways in a sensitive way or playgrounds and

gates, to allow visitors/users proper orientation and understanding of the space.

Figure 138

Patches of light in well balanced lighting environment.

There are two further principles of visual amenity that need to be considered and these are in the

colour rendering and colour appearance of lighting. The required colour rendering will depend on

the functions the lighting is designed to fulfil. Where good colour discrimination is required,

light sources with a CIE general colour rendering index of at least 80 should be used.

Where a natural appearance is required for people and objects, light sources with a CIE general

colour rendering index of at least 60 and preferably higher should be used.




Figure 139

Good colour rendering in a well-balanced lighting environment, technical street lighting luminaires are part of the overall design approach,

and the buildings are lit through hidden, glare free flood lights.

As for colour appearance, a light source with a correlated colour temperature (CCT) of +/- 3000K will appear

warm and, one with +/- 5300K, it will appear cool (see Chapter A / 2.9). Where, on this scale from warm to cool,

the colour appearance should be, will depend on the nature of the space or area. The designer and the client

should be, aware of the names and types applied in such a design; light source descriptions and data can be

misleading and differ among manufacturers. It is mandatory to apply correct light colour and colour rendering

during implementation and maintenance.





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Figure 140

Two types of colour of light are used within the same space; in this case to mark a conflict zone in the front part of the picture.

4000K

3000K

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1.6 Lighting and Architectural Integration

All elements of a lighting installation contribute to the architecture or the exterior design of a space, area,

street and/or facility. Understanding the use of space will be important when deciding what sort of lighting

is to be employed. The dimensions, finishes, texture and colour of the materials forming the space and the

appearance of the luminaires, lit and unlit, should be considered if the desired atmosphere is to be achieved.

Figures 141, 142

Lighting as integrated element of architecture and space.




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1.7 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability

It is the responsibility of the lighting profession

to use energy as efficiently as possible but at

the same time to provide lit environments that

enable people to operate effectively and com-

fortably.

Energy use involves two components:

• The power demand of the equipment

• Its hours of use.

The lighting industry has worked hard to deve-

lop equipment that has reduced the demand

for electricity for lighting by producing more

efficient light sources and their related control

circuits, as well as more efficient luminaires.

Then there are design options to be con-

sidered, such as the use of area/ambient

lighting rather than a blanket provision of light

by a regular array of the space.

The savings for the area/ambient approach

have been estimated to be up to 50%.

Good energy efficient lighting design is not just

about equipment; it is also about the use of

lighting. There are many examples where

lighting is left on when it is not required. This

may be because there are inadequate lighting

controls (for example: sensors of tunnels or

streets are not working or are not well adju-

sted) or because people are not present

(parks and other facilities are left on until early

morning without use, as they are closed and

lit) and therefore the lighting is unnecessary.

This aspect of lighting design and ownership

needs a dramatic change in attitude to

improve the energy efficiency of all lighting in-

stallations. This requires changes as to how

the lighting is controlled both manually and

automatically as well as how lighting is

provided in terms of the distribution of light,

particularly with respect to the daylighting

availability in some cases. It is also necessary

for the lighting industry and its customers to

use equipment that is sustainable.

This means that the used materials should

whenever possible, come from renewable

sources and that at the end of its life, the

redundant equipment can be disposed of

safely with most of the base materials being

recycled.



Figures 144, 145

Damaged glass globe above street, pedestrian walkway.


1.8 Maintenance

It must be recognised that electric light within an

installation will depreciate with time. To minimise the

effect of this a maintenance programme will need to

be designed and implemented. The maintenance

programme will also affect the lighting design and

the designer will need to state the maintenance

programme on which the design has been based,

otherwise, there could be problems when a client is

comparing different design proposals. It will also be

important for the client to be provided with a

maintenance schedule so that they know what will

need to be done. Chapter L discusses the various

factors that need to be considered when developing

a maintenance program for outdoor installations. It is

mandatory to apply the correct maintenance factors

in all light calculations and designs.

See Figures from 143 onwards as samples of long

term poor maintenance undertakings.

Figure143

Damaged street light if left unresolved can be potentially

dangerous as well as not performing its task which is an additional

risk for car drivers and pedestrians.





LightingHandbook

Figures 146, 147

Post top lanterns which are damaged by wind may cause danger for nearby pedestrians, loose elements could fall down.

Figures 148, 149, 150Figure 148: The in-ground light is not performing as it was designed, replacement would be required.

Figure 149: The electrical circuit looks like still in use and may cause fatalities in case someone may touch it.

Figure 150: In fact of poor quality or maintenance humidity is shown inside this path luminaire.

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Figures 151, 152

Figure 151: Bollard showing dirt and wildlife inside an IP rated environment.

Figure 152: The luminaire is filled with sand and not performing anymore as designed. A replacement would be required.

The above samples are found in Abu Dhabi city, all the fixtures are in use and/or the circuits switched on during

the night. The maintenance gets more and more difficult for a client as more luminaires are installed. Therefore it is

advised to design carefully and not to use more luminaires than needed. This will ease the maintenance efforts

of the client dramatically.




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1.9 Lighting Costs

Costs are always a major concern for any

project and it is important to consider these

before any work is undertaken. Both the capi-

tal cost and the running, or operational, costs

must be considered at the outset. If the two

cost elements are not considered together in

terms of life cycle costing, then a solution

which has a low capital cost but a high

operational cost could be more costly overall

than an installation with a more expensive

capital cost but a low operating cost.

A conflict of interests may arise if the two cost

elements are paid for from different budgets

or organisations. Here the designer needs to

present a balanced view of the options to

enable the clients to decide on the best

approach. The capital costs include the cost

of the design process, the equipment and the

installation process, both physical and electri-

cal. It also includes the commissioning and

testing of the installation. Allowance must also

be made for any builder’s work that forms part

of the lighting installation. Any other costs that

are particular to the lighting design need to be

included. It is important that the capital cost is

agreed upon an early stage if a lot of time is

not to be wasted. The operational costs

include the cost of the electricity consumed,

which comprises items such as network char-ges, maximum demand charges and electricity

unit costs. They will also include the cost of

maintenance, which comprises cleaning and

relamping throughout the life of the installation.

In some cases charges may have to be

budgeted for the disposal of redundant

equipment although this may be borne by

the supplier or manufacturer.

2.0 Photopic or Mesopic Vision

The photometric quantities used to characte-

rise lighting are all based on photopic vision

(see Chapter B / 2.2 and following). This

makes sense for interior lighting where the

luminances are usually high enough to ensure

the visual system is operating in the photopic

state but there may be problems for exterior

lighting. This is because for adaptation

luminances below about 2-3 cd/m2 (this means

approx. 15-50 lux) peripheral vision is opera-

ting in the mesopic state (see Chapter B /

2.2.3) and exterior lighting sometimes pro-

duces luminances below this level.

This is a problem because the spectral sensiti-

vity of the peripheral retina changes continually

during mesopic vision depending on the adap-

tation luminance, the peak sensitivity moving

from the 555 nm to 507 nm as the adaptation

luminance decreases to the scotopic state.

There is no CIE mesopic observer and, there-

fore no system of mesopic photometry. In this

situation, the simplest approach to ensuringgood mesopic vision in exterior lighting is to

use a light source with a scotopic/photopic

(S/P) ratio greater than 1.5. Such light sources

provide stimulation to both the cone and rod

photoreceptors of the retina.




The ratio of scotopic luminance (or lumens) versus photopic luminance in a lamp is called the ‘S/P ratio’, which is

a multiplier that determines the apparent visual brightness of a light source as well as how much light a lamp

emits that is useful to the human eye, referred to as visually effective lumens ( VELs ).

See Figure 153 for examples of light sources with S/P greater than 1.5:

Figure 153

Examples of lamps with different S/P ratio, this diagram is valid for all lamps including LED, the higher the Kelvin rating

(colour temperature, e.g. > 4000°K) the better.

Scotopic and Photopic Ratios:

Generally, lamps with high S/P ratios provide sharper vision both outdoors and indoors. So, a 200-watt magnetic

induction lamp would appear just as bright as, or brighter than a sodium vapour or metal halide of twice the wattage.

In the mesopic region the spectral sensitivity of the human visual system is not constant, but changes with lightlevel. This is due to the changing contribution of the rods and cones on the retina. Thus, we need not only one

mesopic spectral sensitivity function, but instead several functions, together with a defined procedure for using

these functions in a photometric measurement system.




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The new mesopic system describes spectral

luminous efficiency, Vmes(λ ), in the mesopic

region as a linear combination of the photopic

spectral luminous efficiency function, V(λ ), and

the scotopic spectral luminous efficiency

function, V’(λ ).

For applying the mesopic photometry, the

S/P-ratio of the light source, derived from

its spectral data, is needed as input value.

This is the ratio of the luminous output

evaluated according to the scotopic V’(λ ),

to the luminous output evaluated according

to the photopic V(λ ). The higher the S/P-ratio

the higher the luminous efficacy of the light

source in terms of the mesopic design.

The use of mesopic dimensioning changes

the luminous output and consequently the

luminous efficacy orders of lamps. Many of

the ‘white light’ sources currently used for

applications such as road lighting have S/P-

ratios between about 0,65 (high pressure

sodium, for example) and 2,50 (certain metal

halide lamps, for example).

The S/P-ratios of warm white LEDs are around

1.15 and those of cool white LEDs around

2.15, depending on their CRI. The use of the

new mesopic system to calculate the effectiveluminance of these white light sources results

in significant changes in their apparent efficacy.

Due to their fast development, LEDs are

increasingly penetrating the lighting markets.

LEDs offer new solutions to various mesopic

applications, too, not least because of the

possibilities of producing light sources with

varying spectral properties. Depending on the

LED spectra, their ranking on a luminous

efficiency scale may be subject to significant

changes if mesopic luminous efficiency

functions are used instead of the photopic.

A CIE system for mesopic photometry will

give manufacturers foundations on which

to develop LEDs that are optimised for low

light level applications. Consequently, the

coming CIE publication on mesopic photo-

metry may also have a major impact on the

evolution and adoption of LEDs as the future

light sources.

As mesopic dimensioning favours ‘white’ light

sources with high S/P-ratio, the extra benefits

from using the mesopic design are good

colour rendering characteristics of the lighting.

This is expected to further pave way for the

use of white LEDs in outdoor lighting.

The use of mesopic photometry will promote

the development of mesopically optimised

lighting products. It will give the manufacturersfoundations on which to develop light sources

that are optimised for low light level applications.




This will result in better energy efficiency and visual

effectiveness in outdoor lighting conditions. The

accuracy of photometric instrumentation used in

mesopic applications can be increased by taking into

account the actual spectral sensitivity at these levels.

Industry and users should be strongly motivated to

use a photometric method that is valid and functio-

nally relevant.

It must be highlighted that the whole visual environ-

ment is often full of different lighting and lighted ad-

vertising affecting the people’s eyes, means SP ratios

are to be applied very carefully.

For example, the roads are affected very often by over-

loaded lighting scenarios, as people (drivers and, in

different ways, pedestrians) are subjected to headlights,

brake lights, indicators, dashboard lighting, shop-fronts

and many other sources overlaying the lighting from

street fixtures. A visual environment which is often mo-

ving, with the observer also moving at the same time.

Only when all lights applied are designed, placed, in-

stalled and maintained as they should be, the lighting

environment may become a simpler and nicer, more

efficient substance. See Figures 154, 155, 156 to learn

about overly bright light levels and very high light

pollution because S/P ratios and use of luminaires is

not always are controlled as it should be.

Figure 154

Birds-eye view of Abu Dhabi; S/P ratios below and above 1.5 are applied to the scene.

S/P ratio

above 1.5

S/P ratio

below 1.5




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Figure 155

Shop lighting with moving Cold-Cathode effects

and 400W MH lamps without housing, no IP rating

and without any protection against UV-Radiation.

NOTE 1 Such lighting is with high S/P ratios, but in full conflict with other, more safety relevant

lighting issues for cars or traffic lights and it causes a high level of light pollution.

NOTE 2 As per the manufacturers data sheets for such lamps; it is strictly forbidden to use such

lamps outside luminaires, or without UV-protection glass!

Figure 156

Recent street lighting in Abu Dhabi with S/P ratio below 0.5, the decorative lighting has a S/P ratio above 1.5.




3.0 Light Trespass and Skyglow

Light can be considered a form of pollution. This

is implied by the inclusion of light as a statutory

nuisance as described in local standards like

‘Abu Dhabi Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Speci-

fications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist

Tables’, ‘Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual’,

‘Abu Dhabi UPC Manuals’ or ESTIDAMA, etc.

Exterior lighting is the major source of light pollution.

Complaints about light pollution from exterior lighting

can be divided into two categories, light trespass and

skyglow.

Light trespass is local in that it is associated with

complaints from individuals in a specific location.

The classic case of light trespass is a complaint

about light from a road lighting luminaire entering a

bedroom window and keeping the occupant awake.

Light trespass can be avoided by the careful selec-

tion, positioning, aiming and shielding of luminaires

and by operating a curfew system where lighting is

only available during specified times, all solutions

applied should be within latest ESTIDAMA require-

ments.

The Institution of Lighting Professionals (ILP) has

produced general guidance, which is used in this

handbook to cover this item for all Abu Dhabi Public

Realm areas as follows:

The maximum vertical illuminance that should be

allowed to fall on windows, the maximum luminous

intensity of any obtrusive light source and a maxi-

mum allowed building luminance for floodlighting is

summarised in the Tables below.

These limits are different for different environmental

zones. The idea behind environmental zones is that

some locations are more sensitive to light pollution

than others. Table 23 shows the four environmental

zones identified by the CIE and how they are in line

with local standards like the Abu Dhabi Urban Street

Design Manual.

The limits recommended for Abu Dhabi for limiting

light trespass are given in Table 23.

The environmental zoning system of the CIE and

referenced to local Abu Dhabi environmental zones

as follows:




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Table 23

Environmental zones

Environmental zone:

E1 => Areas with intrinsically dark landscapes: National Parks, areas of outstanding natural beauty (where roads are usually unlit)

NOTE - E1 This area is not used in the Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual.

E2 => Areas of ‘low district brightness’: outer urban and rural residential areas

(where roads are lit to residential road standard)

NOTE - E2 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Residential / Emirati Neighbourhood’.

E3 => Areas of ‘middle district brightness’: generally urban residential areas

(where roads are lit to traffic route standard)

NOTE - E3 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Residential / Emirati Neighbourhood’ when

mixed with some ‘Commercial’ areas.E4 => Areas of ‘high district brightness’: generally, urban areas having mixed recreational and

commercial land use with high night-time activity

NOTE - E4 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Town’, ‘City’, ‘Commercial’ and ‘Industrial’.

Table 24

Environmental zones - levels illuminance and luminance.

Maximum vertical illuminance on windows, maximum luminous intensity for obtrusive luminaires and

maximum building luminance produced by floodlighting, for four environmental zones (Table 24):

NOTE 1 For Abu Dhabi "curfew" means 24:00hours unless stated otherwise in

Estidama or other client's documentation.




The values in Table 24 are for general guidance only

and may need to be adjusted for specific circum-

stances; in any case the requirements of ESTIDAMA

take precedence. For example, the criteria given

under zone E1 would not preclude the installation

of lighting to meet health and safety requirements.

As for the maximum building luminance, this is

given to avoid over-lighting but should be adjusted

according to the general district brightness.

Skyglow is more diffuse than light trespass in that

it can affect people over great distances. Skyglow

is caused by the multiple scattering of light in the at-

mosphere, resulting in a diffuse distribution of lumi-

nance. The problem this causes is that it reduces the

luminance contrast of all the features of the night sky

thereby reducing the number of stars and other

astronomical phenomena that can be seen. Skyglow

has two components, one natural and one due to

human activity. Natural Skyglow is light from the

moon, planets and stars that is scattered by interpla-

netary dust, and by air molecules, dust particles,

water vapour and aerosols in the Earth’s atmosphere,

and light produced by a chemical reaction of the

upper atmosphere with ultra-violet radiation from the

sun. The luminance of the natural Skyglow at zenith

is of the order of 0.0002 cd/m2 (meaning approx.

0.004 lux)*. The contribution of human activity is

produced by light traversing the atmosphere and

being scattered by dust and aerosols in the atmo-

sphere.

Skyglow can be reduced by limiting the amount of

light used for exterior lighting, by using full-cutoff lu-

minaires that have no upward component (see Chap-

ter D / Table 18) and by adopting a curfew in which

the exterior lighting is either extinguished or reduced

to a lower level when there are few people using it.

For each environmental zone the maximum installed

upward light output ratio of the luminaires used

should be limited as shown in Table 25. Again, this

is general guidance only and may need to be

overturned in specific circumstances.

* Lux level is indicative and only applied to show relation of figures described.

Table 25

Environmental Zone Maximum upward light output ratio (%)

E1 => 0

E2 => 5

E3 => 15

E4 => 25

Maximum installed upward light output ratio; luminous flux emitted above the horizontal plane as a percentage of

the total luminous flux emitted by the luminaire




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Figure 157 shows simple systems sketches of the street lighting luminaires that will help to reduce

the light trespass and Skyglow.

Figure 157

Luminaire systems

Figure 158 shows the principles of light distributed from a street lighting luminaire to the illuminated

surface and its associated light reflections (distributions of light reflected by surfaces).

Figure 158

Light distribution and associated reflections of distributed light.




4.0 Basic Design Decisions

4.1 Choice of Electric Lighting System

The selection of the luminaire, light source and control system to be used is an important one, if electricity is not

to be wasted and an efficient lighting installation achieved. The first choice to be made will be to determine the

technique to be employed.

For exteriors, the techniques, in order of decreasing energy consumption, can be

sometimes simply categorised as:

• General system:

Providing a uniform illuminance over the whole area/space as required.

• Localised system:

Using luminaires located adjacent to places of interest to provide the illuminance for safety or use,

whilst the overall ambient lighting is provided by the spill light from other luminaires nearby.

Figure 159

Location where spill light from the high mast pole lighting supports the decorative lighting of a pedestrian underpass.





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NOTE 1 Lighting design should be carried out every time under consideration of available light

levels, to allow lowest energy and investment for new installations.

Figure 160

Location where the shadows of a person are produced by adjacent street and flood lighting. The spill l ight of these invisible flood lighting

(in the back) and, street lighting luminaires providing 98% of the illuminance level on the pavement. The wall mounted luminaires are only

for decorative use.

Shadows caused by spill light from adjacent luminaires

For exteriors, a general system is the usual choice where the provision of the required light levels on

different areas like streets, walkways, cycle routes, parks, etc., is to be carried out but much greater

degrees of non-uniformity are acceptable where the function of the lighting is essentially decorative.

The second decision to be made will be the choice of the light source and the luminaire.

The characteristics of available light sources and luminaire types are set out in Chapters C and D

respectively. It is important to appreciate that light sources differ in their luminous efficacy, life, colour

properties, run-up and restrike times and in their ability to be dimmed. Luminaires differ in the

distribution of light and the efficiency with which they emit the light produced by the light source.

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The third choice to be made is the type of control system. Switching luminaires used to be the only viable

approach to take, but now, with high frequency electronic dimmable ballasts dramatically reducing in price,

dimming is a realistic option in some cases. For exterior today especially with LED and also some cases with

fixtures with fluorescent light sources, dimming can be used to reduce energy consumption even when daylight is

absent. This is due to the fact that all lighting is designed for average maintained illuminance, which provides

more light to start with, than is required. For exteriors, switching and dimming can be used to match the

lighting to the patterns of use, for example a supermarket car park does not need to be completely lit at 3 a.m.

Experience has shown that any users at that hour will likely park near the entrance.

There are basically two different forms of lighting control systems: analogue and digital (see Chapter E / 2.0):

• Analogue systems typically use a 1–10 volt protocol providing continuously variable dimming,

not recommended for exterior installations; because of the fact that it is an old technology and switch off

must be provided by additional power relays.

• The digital systems most widely used are DALI and DMX 512(-A) (see Chapter E / 2.3). Both of these systems

provide continuously variable dimming. The advantages of digital over analogue control are many, one of the

most important being the ability to monitor an installation through a two-way communication capability.

This transfer of information makes preventative maintenance and energy monitoring possible, additionally it is

possible to make a ‘zero’ setting, having the fixtures on ‘zero energy’ mode, but in standby. Making them ‘off’

power would sometimes, depending on the system used, require a separate switching module. During design

attention must be put on the fact that ‘power off’ may cause problems during re-start because some fixtures

may not be able to get their addresses as needed/wanted. This problem could be resolved by to choosing the

right fixtures (for example with manual address element) or by programming so that all fixtures in groups are

governed by DALI which instant addresses during every start-up phase.

Control systems can provide the possibility of individual or group addressing, zoning and scene setting.

The recording of energy consumption is also highly desirable if the installation is to provide the information for

monitoring required by the authorities.

Some control systems allow remote monitoring via the internet. This can be of great benefit to cities, governments

with large areas. By monitoring centrally in a region or area, preventative maintenance can be undertaken such as

the anticipation of bulk lamp replacement from the hours-run data.





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4.2 Integration

Integration of a lighting installation takes four forms:

• Integration within the space, architecture, landscaping, exterior design, use of space.

• Integration with other services.

• Integration with daylight; on/off execution of exterior installations.

• Integration with the surroundings.

4.2.1 Integration within the Space

A lighting installation can be visible and express the exterior design or it can disappear into the

background with only its effect being seen. Both approaches rely heavily on attention to detail,

specifically, attention to the appearance of the luminaire, lit and unlit, it is necessary for a design

that is intended to express the exterior design, while attention to the designer’s details is required,

during execution, if the intention is to hide the luminaires.

Figure 161

Lights found well integrated in the space, considering the use of space.

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Figure 162

Lights found which are not well integrated; the green area is overloaded with different types of luminaires,

some of them surplus to requirements.

NOTE 1 The big flood lights mounted on poles are aimed to light the flag,

for safety reasons they must be out of reach.

NOTE 2 Low grade buildings do not require any façade lighting.

NOTE 3 Maintenance issues are covered in Chapter L of this handbook.





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The other aspects of the space, what can inter-

act with the lighting are the reflectances and

colours of the exterior décor and surroun-

dings. Large areas of low reflectance or widely

open spaces reduce the amount of inter-re-

flected light. If interreflected light is planned to

make a significant contribution to the amount

of light delivered, large areas of high reflectance

surfaces or covered areas are needed. As

for surface colour, the extent to which they

interact with the lighting depends on the

saturation of the colour and the area it covers.

Large areas of saturated colour can distort the

colour of the light delivered. However, spaces

without any colour elements can be very

uninteresting. The use of saturated colours

over small areas provides some interest

without distorting the lighting.

4.2.2 Integration with the Surroundings

For exterior lighting, the lighting of the

surrounding area has an impact on the

perception of the brightness of the installation.

The same installation in rural and urban

settings will look very bright in the former

and very dim in the latter. This means that

the maintained illuminance selected needs

to be matched to the illuminances of the

surroundings if the expected appearance

is to be achieved.

Figure 163

Lighting and surroundings are not balanced, due to the glare of the high mast street lighting, the nearby wall mounted ones are not

able to provide the light as needed or as it should be to reach a ‘pleasant’ environment.

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NOTE 1 The camera lens shows in this case, the real impression; and the human eye will add some information

required in previous visits during day and night. Therefore, the pedestrians are able to move around safely.

But the environment is not as pleasant as it should be in order to enjoy the place and the panorama.

4.2.3 Integration with other Services

Especially in outdoor areas, the coordination with all in-ground and sometimes above-ground services as well is

very important. Services like irrigation, storm-water, drainage of grounds in connection with drainage of in-ground

fixtures, power cabling, foundations of planters, or heavily used pedestrian routes (for example glare of inground

lights, surface temperature of in-ground lights, risk-factors of in-ground lights if they are not flush with surface for

pedestrians, children and/or cycle riders), etc. are to be considered and the design shall reflect their interaction

and the required coordination thereof.

Figure 164

Floor mounted pathway lights placed in a way that causes danger for bicycle riding children or elderly people walking along to the bench.




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Creating a landscape design, in general, requi-

res the overlay all of the previously mentioned

parameters. The aim of achieving a harmonious

view together with an attractive landscape de-

sign including all functions will requires compro-

mise.

4.2.4 Integration with Daylight

Daylight is only in some parts of the exterior

lighting design, a matter for which integration or

coordination is possible; like street tunnels en-

trances and exits, pedestrian underpasses or un-

derground car-park facilities entrances and exits.

One of the very important topics, besides provi-

ding the right light levels and other technical pa-

rameters as per local standards, are the controls

of such lighting systems. These controls should

be able to provide artificial light levels in correla-

tion with the daylight levels outside. This means

the people, drivers and/or cyclists should have

no fear when walking or driving into a ‘dark’ hole

or when approaching a street tunnel which may

cause problems of adaption for the eyes of the

driver. All tunnel lighting is therefore designed

with adaption zones and brightness manage-

ment to make sure that in relation to the daylight

the internal lighting of the tunnel is well balanced.

The control elements (sensors) are shall be pla-

ced in safe areas, where no problems are cau-sed for the function or for the programming be-

cause of vandalism or planting. Control elements

(daylight sensors) are to be placed carefully to

make sure operation of sensors and tunnel light

will follow the designed parameters. If such sen-

sors are not working correctly, which could be

caused by shadows of buildings or trees nearby,

the tunnel lighting will service a wrong set-up

and supply higher light levels as required.

This may result on one side in huge additional

amounts of energy costs, but more important is

the fact that the safety of the tunnel is not any-

more guaranteed. Additionally the maintenance

may require more efforts and additional costs.

If daylight sensors in connection with astronomi-

cal-time controllers are used for example to light

up pedestrian underpasses, during day and

night times, reductions on energy bills may be

achieved.

Automatic photo-electric controls can be used

to switch-control electric lighting in response to

daylight. Figure 165 shows the percentage of a

normal year during which the luminaires would

be off, as a function of the orientation-weighted

daylight factor and of the illuminance at which

the luminaires are control-switched; known as

the ‘design’ illuminance. These curves assume

that ‘on’ and ‘off’ switching will occur at the

same illuminance levels. Where this is not the

case, and the luminaires are switched-off at an

illuminance level considerably greater than that

at which they are switched -on, the mean of

the two illuminances should be taken as the

‘design’ illuminance. Such scenarios are to bedeveloped with care and by applying all parame-

ters which are important to allowing the maxi-

mum reduction of energy and maintenance but

at the same time to providing maximum safety

to the users.



Figure 166

The percentage of the normal year that electric lighting will be switched-off, for different ‘design’ illuminances, assuming a top-up

photoelectric dimming system is applied and controlled through an orientation weighted daylight sensor.


Figure 165

The percentage of the working year in which that electric lighting will be switched-off; plotted against orientation-weighted daylight factor for

different ‘design’ illuminances, assuming only an on/off photo-electric switching system.

Automatic photoelectric controls can also be used to dim the electric lighting in response to daylight. Figure 166

shows the percentage of a normal year during which the luminaires would have to be switched-off in order to

ensure that the energy saving obtainable by continuous photo-electric dimming to be achieved. It applies to

Project Lighting Management Systems (PLMS) that can control down to 10 percent light output or less. This

could be achieved by most of the luminaires with tube fluorescent and with all LED light sources.




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4.3 Equal and Approved

One problem that frequently affects lighting designs is the substitution with a cheaper luminaire of

the one specified in the original design. Such substitutions are usually made if a project undergoes a

value engineering process. Sometimes, substitutions are justified, sometimes they are not.

The key in determining if a substitution is justified, is a review carried out by the original designer

and/or a fully qualified and experienced third-party to determine if the substitute luminaire is the

same as the originally specified luminaire and approved according to the relevant standards,

i.e. if it is equal and approved. The factors to be considered in the review are the photometric

characteristics, the construction and the aesthetics of the substitute luminaire. In addition, attention

should be paid to the electrical characteristics, conformity to the relevant standards and the impact

on maintenance. Further details of these elements of the review can be found in the ‘DMA Roadway

& Public Realm Lighting Specifications’.




Chapter G

Road Lighting





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1.0 Road – Public Realm Classification

Road lighting is generally divided into three classes; traffic routes where the needs of the driver are dominant,

subsidiary roads where the lighting is primarily intended for the pedestrian and the cyclist, and urban centres,

where the lighting is designed to do what can be done for public safety and security, while also providing an

attractive night-time environment. The photometric recommendations for all types of road and public realm

lighting in Abu Dhabi are given in this document. Additionally local standards like the ‘Abu Dhabi Urban Street

Design Manual’ to be seen as an global guideline, meaning light levels may differ in the latest local standards

from ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’

in latest version issued which will take precedence.

1.1 Lighting for Traffic Routes

Lighting for traffic routes is lighting designed primarily to meet the requirements of the driver of a motorised

vehicle. Road lighting recommendations identify three distinct situations:

• Traffic routes where motorised vehicles are dominant and move without conflict.

• The edges of roads where pedestrians and cyclists may be at risk, and conflict.

• Areas where streams of motorised vehicles intersect with each other or with pedestrians and cyclists.

2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial

2.1 Short-Cut Tutorial for DIALux 4.12.0.1- for Standard Street Lighting Calculations

This Tutorial is intended to explain the basic features of the lighting calculation program ‘DIALux’ and how to

design a simple ‘Typical Road with Luminaires’, starting from designing the road to achieving the final luminance

results.

NOTE 1 The lighting calculation program Relux will help to work out results in a similar way. Both programs

(DIALux and Relux) are quite similar in quality of results and in technical, programming and support features.

NOTE 2 The designer should only use luminaires of which light distribution files in formats (*ldt, *uld, *ies)

are available. It is highly recommended to use only luminaires from trusted manufacturers.



Figure 167

To begin, please choose ‘New Standard Street’- see Figure 168.


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Please start DIALux - see Figure 167.

Figure 168

Select ‘Street 1’ in the Project Tree. Under the ‘General’ tab above the Project Tree, whereby the

Standard can be selected on which the lighting calculation will be based. The two options are:

• the European Standard CIE 140 / EN 13201

• the US Standard IESNA RP-8-00 (to be used for Abu Dhabi)




Figure 169

For this tutorial, please select IESNA RP-8-00 - see Figure 169.

Figure 170

The default maintenance factor for exterior installations in DIALux is 0.57.

NOTE 1 This value needs to be discussed and confirmed by the client. Other maintenance factors are only possible

by reaching an agreement, and must correspond to a specific maintenance plan, as basic input of the design!

Under the „Maintenance plan method’ tab of ‘Street 1’ whereby the ‘Maintenance Factor’ can be specified -

see Figure 170.




Figure 172

NOTE 1 This value needs to be discussed and confirmed by the client. Other reflection factors are possible -

the exact information about the surface material and quality of reflection should be obtained, in order to use the

actual design parameters of the project.

In the Project Tree, expand the folder ‘Roadway 1’, by clicking the ‘+’ sign next to it. By selecting ‘Valuation Field

Roadway 1’, which may specify the evaluation class according to the design parameters - see Figure 173.

Figure 173




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Figure 174

In this tutorial example the road will be categorised as a ‘Local high pedestrian conflict’,

which is comparable to a ‘Street’ as described in ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting

Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’.

Under the ‘Calculation Grid’ tab, above the Project Tree, you may choose the Illuminance Class may

be chosen from the drop-down menu. Please choose ‘Local High Ped. Confl.’ - see Figure 174.

The next step is to specify the evaluation method according to IESNA RP-8-00. For standard roads,

the ‘Luminance Method’ is recommended, and is also the default in DIALux (the second drop-down

menu of the ‘Illuminance Class’) - see Figure 175




Figure 175

Right-click ‘Street 1’ in the Project Tree, and choose ‘Insert Street Arrangement’ from the menu - see Figure 176.

Figure 176

The options for the street arrangement appear above the Project Tree. The first tab is called ‘Luminaire’ and

shows the type of luminaire to be used. The luminaire calculation files must be imported in DIALux before they are

available in the drop-down menu of this tab. Different ‘Luminaire Calculation Files’ are available from the different

manufacturers websites or through DIALux Plugins - see Figure 177.




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Figure 177

The ‘Pole / Boom’ tab shows different options of the boom (bracket) and the pole arrangement to

be selected - see Figure 178.

Figure 178

NOTE 1 It is important to specify the ‘Distance Pole to Roadway’, the ‘Mounting Height’

of the Luminaire and the „Pole Distance’.




Figure 179

Please click ‘Insert’ to select the configured luminaire arrangement. Right-click ‘Street 1’ and choose

‘3D Standard View’ from the pop-up menu - see Figure 180 and Figure 181.

Under the ‘Arrangement’ tab, the typical pole arrangement may be chosen:

• Single row on the bottom placed.

• Double row opposing.

• Etc.

See Figure 179.




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Figure 180

Figure 181




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Figure 184

Figure 185

After the program has completed calculation data may be selected as should be extracted and

printed as PDF file – see Figure 185. At the bottom of the project tree, click on the ‘Output’ tab.

In the Output Project Tree, expand ‘Street1’, then ‘Valuation Fields’ and then ‘Valuation Fields

Roadway 1’ under it. By double-clicking on the first sheet, ‘Results overview’, the results will appear.




Figure 186

In this example the requirements are met – see Figure 186.

NOTE 1 Please note, that however the value for Lav is 1.11 cd/m² instead of 0.6 cd/m², as per the DMA Lighting

Specifications.

NOTE 2 The aim is, to try, to get as close as possible to the given values of the applicable standards, to design the

lighting as efficient as possible.

NOTE 3 All needed safety is implemented by using correct parameters for design of road, luminaires and poles,

including maintenance factor. This means that there is no need to ‘over-design’ or to provide more luminance as the

values required by the DMA Lighting Specifications. This will only cause higher investment costs, higher energy and

running costs!

NOTE 4 In this case (sample calculation of tutorial) the value of 1.11 cd/m² in comparison to the required value of

0.6 cd/m² would end up with approximately 75% higher cost in all aspects, as described under NOTE 3!

NOTE 5 The ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist

Tables’ requirements for ‘Streets’ asks for:

• Average maintained luminance Lav = 0.6 cd/m²

• Uniformity ratio u0 = Lmin/Lav = 0.4

NOTE 6 The ‘RP-8-00 method’ will not show the uniformity ratio, therefore the sheet with

‘Isolines (L, IESNA RP-8-00)’ will be helpful – see Figures 187, 189.





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Figure 187

In this example calculation Lmin = 0.65 cd/m² and Lav = 1.11 cd/m²; This means that u0 = Lmin/Lav = 0.59.

In order to achieve a more efficient result in this example, the pole distance is to be increased.

By applying a pole distance of 28m it is possible to fulfil all the requirements (see Figure 188)

without having values which are much higher than the standard ones – see Figure 189.

Figure 188

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Figure 189

In developing the skills, different configurations and situations can be calculated, as it is explained under the

following paragraphs in this handbook.

3.0 Lighting Recommendations for Traffic Routes

The primary function of the lighting of traffic routes is to make other vehicles on the road visible. Road lighting

does this by producing a difference between the luminance of the vehicle and the luminance of its immediate

background, the road surface. This difference is achieved by increasing the luminance of the road surface

above that of the vehicle so that the vehicle is seen in silhouette against the road surface.

3.1 Design Criteria used to define Lighting for Traffic Routes

Average Road Surface Luminance:

The luminance of the road surface averaged (maintained) over the carriageway (cd/m2 ).

3.1.1 Overall Luminance Uniformity (U0 ) means Lmin /Lav

The ratio of the lowest luminance (maintained) at any point on the carriageway to the average luminance

of the carriageway.




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3.1.2 Longitudinal Luminance Uniformity (U\)

The ratio of the lowest to the highest luminance (maintained) found along a line along the centre of a

driving lane. For the whole carriageway, this is the lowest longitudinal luminance uniformity found for

the driving lanes of the carriageway.

3.1.3 Threshold Increment

A measure of the loss of visibility caused by disability glare from the road lighting luminaires.

Quantitatively, percentage threshold increment is given by the expression

TI = 65 (Lv / L0.8 )where:

Lv = equivalent veiling luminance (cd/m2

) (see Chapter B / 2.11)L = average road surface luminance – maintained – (cd/m2 )

3.1.4 Surround Ratio

The average illuminance (maintained) just outside the edge of the carriageway in proportion to the

average illuminance just inside the edge of the carriageway.

Traffic routes are divided generally into different classes. The different classes normally are based on

the type of road, the average daily traffic flow (ADT), the speed of vehicles, the type of vehicles in the

traffic and the frequency of conflict areas and pedestrians. Table 26 specifies the different classes

and identifies the recommend lighting criteria for Abu Dhabi. Details of the recommended lighting

criteria for dry roads are given in Table 27 (IESNA standard adopted, see notes below).

These are the lighting criteria adopted for Abu Dhabi as given in the ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm

Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’. The aim of this table is

to understand that the values given specifically as adapted to the needs of Abu Dhabi road and

traffic safety.




For all Tables 26 to Table 27 following notes are to be considered:

(1) ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’

comprise the strict standard for all values given within this Handbook.

(2) Lighting classes are adopted to fit into the Abu Dhabi standards.

(3) Lighting Class ME2 is to be adopted as per DMA Lighting Specifications either to 1.3 cd/m2 or 1.5 cd/m2,

this means either approximately 20 lux or 25 lux, see item (6).

(4) Lighting Class ME4a is to be adopted as per DMA Lighting Specifications to 1.0 cd/m2,

this means approximately 15 lux, see item (6).

(5) DMA Lighting Specifications are not referring to ‘S’-classes, the ‘Surrounding Factor’ for all areas near or

beside streets should be approximately 0.5 (50%) of the relevant street illuminance, depending on the location.

Outside cities a maximum width of the adjacent area is to be confirmed, to allow sustainable design.

The designer must obtain approval by the client for all values used in the design.

(6) Lighting calculations with results given as luminance values (cd/m2 ); as output of lighting calculation

programs e.g. DIALux are only possible for straight standard streets, this is valid for all types of streets as per

DMA Lighting Specifications. For all other areas, like conflict zones, curvy roads, pedestrian crossings, etc.

the results out of the different calculation programs are given as illuminance values (Lux). Therefore the tables

are sometimes fitted with approximate illuminance values to show correlation between luminance and

illuminance values. These values are not to be understood as strictly correct mathematically, and are only

applied for a better understanding of the relationship between the different units.




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3.2 Lighting Classes for Traffic Routes

Road classification as per DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specification and

Roadway Compliance Checklist Tables (1):

Table 26

Lighting recommendations for traffic routes.




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Luminaire classes to control the disability glare:

Table 28

Luminaire classes for the control of disability glare.

NOTE 1 The higher the ‘G’-class the better! Luminaires with low G-classes should not be used in

general for street lighting.

3.3 Samples of Street Lighting Calculations

The following street lighting calculations are developed based on latest DMA LightingSpecifications for street and public realm lighting.

The following street lighting calculations are done by using the DIALux lighting calculation software in

latest version. The tutorial (see Chapter G / 2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial) shows the exact

way how to set up and calculate all the samples shown in this part of the handbook.

The sample street lighting calculations are divided into following parts:

The samples below are the basic input for design and layout of the all streets including bends

and conflict zones as follows:

• Typical Highway

• Typical Boulevard

• Typical Avenue

• Typical Street




NOTE 1 It is to be considered that these ‘typical’ street lighting calculations are done to determine the luminance in

cd/m², the pole spacing, the set-back of poles, the pole height, the length of the bracket used, the power of

luminaires and the light distribution.

NOTE 2 To receive results in cd/m² the street lighting calculation must be done on a straight piece.

NOTE 3 All other types or combinations, like conflict zones, sidewalks and landscaping zones will show results

only as illuminance in lux (lx).

NOTE 4 All street lighting calculations are to be done based on confirmed factors for:

• Maintenance

• Type of source – Discharge (MH) or LED

• CRI

• Colour of light (K)




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3.3.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Highway Layout

Figure 191

3D false-colour rendering of a typical highway street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.

Figure 190

3D Rendering of a typical highway street lighting layout.




3.3.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Boulevard Layout

Table 29

Table of results for a typical highway lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in cd/m².

Figure 192

3D Rendering of a typical boulevard street lighting layout.





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Figure 193

3D false-colour rendering of a typical boulevard street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.

Table 30

Table of results for a typical boulevard street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,

results provided by DIALux in cd/m².

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3.3.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Avenue Layout

Figure 194

3D Rendering of a typical

avenue street lighting layout.

Figure 1953D false-colour rendering of

a typical avenue street

lighting layout, including

approximate lux (lx) levels

shown by different colours.




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Table 31

Table of results for a typical avenue street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,

results provided by DIALux in cd/m².

3.3.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Street Layout

Figure 196

3D Rendering of a typical street lighting layout.




Figure 197

3D false-colour rendering of a typical street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx)

levels shown by different colours.

Table 32

Table of results for a typical street l ighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in cd/m².




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3.3.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a curvy Street Layout

Figure 199

3D false-colour rendering of a curvy street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.

Figure 198

3D Rendering of a curvy street lighting layout.




Table 33

Table of results for a curvy street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in lx.

3.4 Lighting Recommendations for Areas

adjacent to the Carriageway

People and objects adjacent to the carriageway need

to be seen by the driver. Such locations include

unmade verges, footways and cycle paths and the

emergency lanes of motorways. For all traffic routes

other than heavily used footways and cycle tracks

and the emergency lanes of motorways, lighting of

the area adjacent to the carriageway should conform

to the surround ratio of at least 0.5, means 50% of

street luminance or illuminance values, if no othercarriage way is adjacent with its own given values.

For traffic routes with heavily trafficked footways and

cycle tracks an appropriate lighting criterion should

be selected. Which criterion is selected will depend

on the lighting class used for the carriageway.

To ensure adequate illuminance uniformity, the actual

maintained average horizontal illuminance should not

be more than 1.5 times greater than the minimum

maintained average horizontal illuminance.

Emergency lanes on motorways should be lit to

lighting class ME5 (see Table 27).

3.5 Lighting Recommendations

for Conflict Areas

A conflict area is one in which traffic flows merge or

cross, e.g. at intersections or roundabouts, or where

vehicles and other road users are in close proximity,

e.g. on a shopping street or at a pedestrian crossing.

Lighting for conflict areas is intended for drivers

rather than pedestrians. The criteria used to definelighting for conflict areas are based on the illuminance

on the road surface rather than road surface lumi-

nance. This is because drivers’ viewing distances

may be less than the 60m assumed for traffic routes

and there are likely to be multiple directions of view.

The criteria used for the lighting of conflict areas are:

3.5.1 Average Road Surface Illuminance

The illuminance (maintained) of the road surface

averaged over the carriageway (lx).




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3.5.2 Overall Illuminance Uniformity (U0 )

The ratio of the lowest illuminance (maintained) at any point on the carriageway to the average

illuminance (maintained) of the carriageway.

The recommendations for the lighting class for conflict areas are given in ‘DMA Roadway & Public

Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’. These recom-

mendations can be applied to all parts of the conflict area or only to the carriageway when separate

recommendations are used for pedestrians or cyclists.

The lighting recommendations for crosswalks are given with 30 lx, conflict areas are

to reach 2.0 cd/m2. The uniformity should stay with U0 0.4 for both.

A specific form of conflict area is the pedestrian crossing. Where a pedestrian crossing is close to a

junction it is treated simply as part of the conflict area but where it occurs in isolation there are two

possibilities for lighting.

• To use the normal lighting of the traffic route with the crossing positioned at the midpoint between

luminaires.

• Or to use additional local lighting. The local lighting approach is recommended when the traffic

routes are lit to less than lighting class ME3 (see Table 27) or the crossing is located on a bend,

on the brow of a hill or where the relative positions of the crossing and road lighting luminaires

cannot be coordinated. The local lighting should illuminate the crossing to a higher illuminance

than is provided on the roads approaching the crossing. The suitable lighting class for horizontal

illuminance one step higher as the one used for the street. The local lighting should have strong

vertical component to ensure that pedestrians are positively illuminated but care must be taken

to control glare towards drivers (Chapter G / 3.1 / Table 28).




3.6 Samples of typical Conflict Area Lighting Calculations

3.6.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Two Lane Roundabout Layout

Figure 200

3D Rendering of a typical two

lane roundabout street lighting

layout.

Figure 201

3D false-colour rendering of a

typical two lane roundabout

street lighting layout, including

approximate lux (lx) levels shown

by different colours.




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Table 34

Table of results for a typical two lane roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,

results provided by DIALux in lx.

3.6.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical

One Lane Roundabout Layout

Figure 202

3D Rendering of a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout.




Figure 203

3D false-colour rendering of a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.

Table 35

Table of results for a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,





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3.6.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Street (mini)

Roundabout Layout

Figure 204

3D Rendering of a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout.




Figure 205

3D false-colour rendering of a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.

Table 36

Table of results for a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,





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3.6.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Junction of

Boulevard / Boulevard Layout

Figure 206

3D Rendering of a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout.




Figure 207

3D false-colour rendering of a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.

Table 37

Table of results for a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,





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3.6.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Junction of

Street / Street Layout

Figure 208

3D Rendering of a typical junction of street/street lighting layout.




Figure 209

3D false-colour rendering of a typical junction of street/street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.

Table 38

Table of results for a typical junction of street/street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,





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3.7 Coordination

It is obviously important that the lighting of conflict areas should be coordinated with that of the

traffic routes. Where two traffic routes, which are lit to different classes lead into the same conflict

area, the match should be made to the higher traffic route class.

3.8 Traffic Route Lighting Design Fundamentals

The design process for traffic route lighting consists of the following stages:

3.8.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition of relevant Area

The lighting class of the carriageway is selected (Chapter G / Table 26 and 27). The nature and

extent of adjacent areas and any conflict areas are identified and the lighting approach to be used

chosen. The compatible lighting classes for adjacent areas and conflict areas are selected.

Please see also recent applicable local DMA Lighting Specifications for detailed information about

selection lighting classes for all areas.

3.8.2 Collection of Preliminary Data

The following data is required before calculation can start:

• Mounting height

• Luminaire type and optic setting

• Lamp type

• Initial luminous flux of lamp

• IP rating of luminaire

• Cleaning interval planned for luminaire

• Pollution category for location

• Luminaire maintenance factor

• Lamp replacement interval

• Lamp lumen maintenance factor at replacement interval

• Maintenance factor

• Luminaire tilt

•Width of carriageway

• Width of driving lane

• Width of adjacent areas

• Luminaire transverse position relative to the calculation grid

• Luminaire arrangement

• other client specific data.




The emphasis given to maintenance factors in this list arises from the fact that the lighting recommendations are

made in terms of minimum maintained average values. Table 39 sets out typical luminaire maintenance factors to

be applied for different locations, luminaires and cleaning intervals. In this table, high pollution generally occurs in

the centre of large urban areas and heavy industrial areas; medium pollution occurs in semi-urban, residential and

light industrial areas while low pollution occurs in rural areas Luminaires are classified by the protection against

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