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Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 10, Number 4, October

1972, pp. 383-398 (Article)

DOI: 10.1353/hph.2008.1718

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The Happy Philosopher

A Counterexample

to P lato s Proof*

S IM O N H A R O N S O N

T H E P A S T F E W Y EA RS h a v e s e e n a r e n e w e d i n t e r e st i n t h e m a i n a r g u m e n t o f P l a t o ' s

Republic

c o n c e r n i n g th e r e la t i o n s h i p o f ju s t ic e a n d h a p p i n e s s . P r o f e s s o r S a c h s

r e o p e n e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n i w i t h h i s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t i n t h e Republic P l a t o e m p l o y s ( a t

l e as t ) t w o d i ff e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f j u s ti c e . S a c h s w e n t o n t o c h a r g e t h a t S o c r a t e s ,

b y f a il i n g to c o n n e c t t h e s e tw o s e n s e s o f j u s ti c e , c o m m i t s t h e f a l l a c y o f i r r e le v a n c e ,

f o r w h e r e a s T h r a s y m a c h u s , G l a u c o n , e t a l. h a v e c h a l l e n g e d S o c r a t e s t o p r o v e t h a t

t h e v u l g a r l y j u s t m a n is h a p p y , a ll t h a t S o c r a t e s d o e s in fa c t s h o w i s t h a t th e

P l a t o n i c a l l y ju s t m a n is h a p p y . A n u m b e r o f r e p li e s 2 w e r e s o o n f o r t h c o m i n g ,

a t t e m p t i n g t o s h o w e i th e r t h a t t h e a ll e g e d f ai lu r e is m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a n r e a l , o r

t h a t S a c h s h a d m i s c o n s t r u e d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e o r ig i n a l c h a ll e n g e , o r t h a t P l a t o n e v e r

p a r t i c u l a r l y c a r e d t o v i n d i c a t e t h e v u l g a r m o r a l i t y o f t h e m a n y . R e c e n t l y P r o -

f e s s o r V l a s t o s h a s e n t e r e d t h e d e b a t e 3 w i t h h is a t t e m p t s a t c l a r if y i n g P l a t o ' s t w o

d e f i n i t i o n s o f j u st ic e a n d p r o v i d i n g a n a r g u m e n t a t i v e b r i d g e b e t w e e n th e m .

I n w h a t f o l lo w s I a p p r o a c h t h e p r o b l e m f r o m a s o m e w h a t d i f fe r e n t d i r ec t io n .

W h i l e i n th i s e s s a y I r e a c h t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n a s d i d S a c h s , i . e. , t h a t P l a t o

f a i l e d t o m e e t t h e ch a l l en g e o f p r o v i n g t h a t t h e j u s t m a n is h a p p i e r t h a n t h e

u n j u s t m a n , m y a r g u m e n t n e i t h e r d e a ls e x p l ic i tl y w i t h S a c h s ' a l l eg a t io n s n o r d o e s

i ts v a l i d i ty d e p e n d o n w h a t p o s i t i o n o n e t a k e s i n t h e S a c h s c o n t r o v e r s y . 4 Q u i t e

* I a m m u c h i n d e b t e d t o m e m b e r s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P h i l o s o p h y D e p a r t m e n t

and to a reader for thi s Journal, wh ose va luable c ri ti ci sms of an ear l ie r d raf t of this pape r

led me to correc t cer ta in mis takes and to f i l l cer ta in gaps in my argument .

1 A Fa l l acy i n P l a t o ' s Republic, Philosophical Review, LX X II (Apr i l 1963) , 141-158 .

2 See Dem os , A Fa l l acy in P l a t o ' s Republic? Philosophical Review, LXXII I (1964) ,

395-398; W eingartner , V ulg ar Jus t ice and Pla tonic Jus t ice ,

Philosophy and Phenomeno-

logical Research,

XX V (1964) , 248-252; Schi ll er , Jus t M en an d Jus t Ac t s i n P l a t o ' s

Republic, Journal of the History o] Philosophy, VI

(1968) , 1-14; Alan Gewir th ' s paper

C o m m e n t s o n ' A F a l l a c y i n P l a t o ' s Republic' (unpubl i shed) .

a T h e A r g u m e n t i n t h e Republic t ha t ' Jus t i c e Pays ' , Journal of Philosophy, L X V

(Nov . 7, 1968) , 665-674 , he rea f te r r e fe r red t o a s JP ; Jus t i c e and Psychi c Ha r m on y i n t he

Republic, Journal of Philosophy, LX V I (Aug. 21 , 1969) , 505-521 , he rea f t e r r e fe r red t o a s

PsH.

4 My own view, for which I do not a rgue here , i s tha t Sachs i s correc t in hi s f i rs t charge

tha t So cra tes fa il s to successful ly dem on st ra te tha t a l l Pla ton ica l ly jus t m en are a l so vulgar ly

[ 8 ]

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384 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

a p a r t f r o m w h a t e v e r p r o b l e m s a r e p o s e d b y a n y f a ll a c y , l a c u n a , o r o v e r s i g h t

e x i s t i n g i n P l a t o ' s a r g u m e n t , t h e t h e s i s o f t h i s p a p e r i s t h a t t h e

R e p u b l i c

i s o p e n t o

a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l c r it ic i sm . I a r g u e t h a t c e r ta i n e l e m e n t s i n P l a t o ' s t h e o r y ,

e l e m e n t s e s s e n t i a l to h i s d e s c r i p ti o n o f th e i d e a l c i t y , t e n d b o t h t o u n d e r m i n e

P l a t o ' s o w n a r g u m e n t a n d i n f a c t t o s t r e n g t h e n T h r a s y m a c h u s ' p o s i t i o n . B r i e f l y ,

I w a n t t o a r g u e w h a t m a y a t f ir s t s o u n d p a r a d o x i c a l , n a m e l y t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r -

r u l e r is h i m s e l f a c o u n t e r e x a m p l e t o t h e t he s is t h a t m a x i m a l h a p p i n e s s i s c o m -

p a t i b l e w i t h j u s ti c e. I s u b m i t t h a t i n h i s p o r t r a y a l o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r - r u l e r P l a t o

l e ts s li p t h e s t a r t li n g a d m i s s i o n t h a t b y c o m m i t t i n g a n i n j u s ti c e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r

w i ll b e h a p p i e r t h a n i f h e d i d n o t c o m m i t o n e . I s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s d i l e m m a o f t h e

p h i l o s o p h e r i n t h e i d e a ll y ju s t c i t y w e l l il l u s tr a t e s t h e t h r u s t o f T h r a s y m a c h u s '

c l a i m t h a t o n e m u s t c h o o s e b e t w e e n o n e ' s o w n h a p p i n e s s a n d t h a t o f o n e ' s f e ll o w

c i t i z e n s .

I b e g i n b y s u m m a r i z i n g w h a t P l a t o m e a n s b y ' j u s t ic e ' i n th e R e p u b l i c a n d i n

w h a t s e n s e i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o d i f fe r e n t k i n d s o r c o n c e p t i o n s o f

j u s ti c e. I th e n e x a m i n e t h e c h a l l e n g e w h i c h T h r a s y m a c h u s , G l a u c o n , a n d

A d i m a n t u s p o s e , a n d i n d i c a t e w h a t S o c r a t e s m u s t s h o w t o m e e t t h i s c h a l l e n g e .

F i n a l l y I a r g u e t h a t i n a c r u c i a l p a s s a g e S o c r a t e s h i m s e l f p r o v i d e s a c o u n t e r -

e x a m p l e w h i c h u n d e r c u t s h is o w n c a s e , a n d w h i c h t o a n e x t e n t v i n d i c a te s T h r a s y -

m a c h u s ' o r i g i n a l c l a i m .

I . JUSTICE

F o r P l a t o t h e r e i s o n l y o n e i d e a ( o r F o r m ) o f ju s t ic e . A s a F o r m , o r u n i v e r s a l ,

i t w i ll b e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n b y m a n y t h i n g s in t h e w o r l d ; t h u s t h e r e w i l l b e m a n y

d i f f e r e n t i n s t a n c e s o f j u s t i c e . F o r e a c h o f t h e v a r i o u s i n s t a n t i a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , a

f o r m a l s t a t e m e n t o f w h a t t h e j u st i c e o f t h a t t h in g c o n s i s ts i n w o u l d a m o u n t t o t h e

s a m e ~ 6 7 o g , o r d e f i n i t i o n , o f j u s t i c e, s

' J u s t i c e ' , a s P l a t o u s e s i t , i s a t e r m w h o s e p r i m a r y a p p l i c a t i o n i s t o g r o u p s o r

c o m m u n i t i e s , t o w h o l e s w h i c h h a v e p a r t s . P l a t o g e n e r a l ly s e e m s t o l i m i t h is

u s e o f th e t e r m s o a s to a p p l y i t m a i n l y t o h u m a n g r o u p s , o r t o i n d iv i d u a l h u m a n s

c o n s i d e r e d a s c o m m u n i t i e s o f p s y c h i c p a r t s ; in a d d i t i o n t o s p e a k i n g o f ju s t m e n

a n d j u s t c i t i e s , h e m e n t i o n s t h e j u s t i c e a n d i n j u s t i c e o f s u c h a s s o c i a t i o n s a s a c l a n ,

a n a r m y , a n d e v e n a b a n d o f r o b b e r s o r p i r a t e s ( 3 5 1 c- e ). 6 S o c r a t e s m a k e s i t c le a r

t h a t , w h a t e v e r d if f e re n t w h o l e / p a r t h e i s t a l k i n g a b o u t , i t i s n e v e r t h e l e ss th e

s a m e c o n c e p t i o n ( F o r m ) o f j u s t i c e t h a t i s s a i d to a p p l y ( 3 6 8 d , 4 3 5 a - e , 4 42 d ) .

just, see n. 16 in[ra but that Sachs is wro ng in expecting Socrates to pro ve that his con-

ception of the just m an applies to-- i s exemplif ied by --e ver y man w ho is jus t according to the

vulga r conc eption (Sachs, p. 153). Socrates does not take this latter position; som e men are

vulg arly just m erely by habit, accident, o r right opinion, a nd they are not guaranteed

m axim al happiness. Cf. Gew irth, op . c i t .

5 Cf.

M e n o

72-73.

6 While Pla to does not do so , one could see how he m ight apply his concept of

justice to, say, a family or an empire. By extending the term slightly, we can understand

how Plato might even apply ' jus t ice ' analogical ly to non-hum an who les as well,

e . g . t o a n

artificial product such as a watch, or even to the universe taken as a whole. Cf. Gorg . 508a.

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T H E H A P P Y P H I L O S O P H E R 3 85

A w h o l e is s a i d to b e j u s t w h e n a l l o f it s p a r t s a r e f u n c t i o n i n g i n a c e r t a i n w a y .

W h e n P l a t o s p e c if ie s w h a t t hi s w a y i s, w e s e e t h a t ' j u s t i c e ' is f o r h i m a n a v o w e d l y

n o r m a t i v e t e rm . F o r ju s t i c e is s a i d t o o b t a i n w h e n e a c h p a r t i s m i n d i n g i ts o w n

b u s i n e s s, w h e n e a c h p a r t p e r f o r m s t h a t f u n c t i o n i n t h e w h o l e f o r w h i c h i t s n a t u r e

b e s t s u i ts i t ( 4 3 3 a b ) . I t i s i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h a t a w h o l e a c h i e v e s i t s b e s t i n t e r e s ts ,

b y a ll t h e p a r t s c o o p e r a t i n g t o g e t h e r i n t h e c o m m o n e n t e r p r i s e o f t h e w h o l e

( 35 1 c) . A w h o l e a c c o m p l i s h e s w h a t e v e r i t a c c o m p l i s h e s b e c a u s e o f th e j u s ti c e t h a t

o b t a i n s a m o n g i t s p a r t s ( 3 5 1 c . 3 5 1 e, 3 5 2 c) . W h e n j u s t ic e o b t a i n s a m o n g t h e p a r t s ,

t h e w h o l e a c h i e v e s i ts g o o d ; 7 c o n v e r s e l y , w h e n s o m e w h o l e i s i n f a c t g o o d ,

j u s ti c e ( as w e l l a s t h e o t h e r v i r t u e s ) w i l l b e p r e s e n t i n i t. S o c r a t e s m a k e s t h is

p o i n t e x p l i ci t w h e n h e a r g u e s t h a t i f t h e c i t y is p e r f e c t l y g o o d ( z e ~ c % ~ ty a0 ~lV ,)

t h e n i t i s p l a i n t h a t i t i s w i s e , c o u r a g e o u s , m o d e r a t e , a n d j u s t ( 4 2 7 e) . S o c r a t e s

a v o w s t h a t t h is c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a th i n g ' s b e i n g j u s t a n d i ts a t ta i n i n g i ts o w n

g o o d w a s a s s u m e d f r o m t h e s ta r t: w e f o u n d e d o n e [ a c i ty ] a s b e s t w e c o u l d ,

k n o w i n g f u l l w e l l t h a t j u st ic e w o u l d b e in a g o o d o n e ( 4 3 4 d e) . s

I s h a ll n o t u n d e r t a k e i n th i s p a p e r t o a n a l y z e P l a t o ' s f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i c a ti o n o f

g o o d a n d h a p p y . 9 I t is c l e a r t h a t i n t h e

R e p u b l i c

t h e r e q u e s t t o s h o w t h a t

j u s ti c e i s a g o o d i n i ts e lf ( 3 6 6 e ) i s t a k e n t o b e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e r e q u e s t t o s h o w

t h a t t h e j u s t l i f e i s h a p p i e r t h a n t h e u n j u s t l i f e ( 3 4 4 a , 3 5 2 d ) . I n c r u c i a l p a s s a g e s

S o c r a te s u se s th e te r m s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y : a t o n e m o m e n t h e s p e a k s o f h a v i n g

f o u n d e d t h e c i t y t o b e a s g o o d a s p o s s ib l e ( 4 2 7 e, 4 3 4 e ) ; a t t h e n e x t h e u n -

h e s i ta t in g l y r e c al ls h a v i n g f o u n d e d t h e c i ty t o b e a s h a p p y a s p o s s i b le ( 4 2 0 b -e ,

4 6 6 a) . T h e j u d g m e n t in B o o k I X S o c r a te s ca l l s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e g o o d l if e

a n d t h e b a d o n e ( 5 7 8c ) , a n d t h e n i m m e d i a t e l y g o e s o n t o d e c id e th i s q u e s t i o n

i n t e r m s o f h a p p i n e s s a n d w r e t c h e d n e s s. F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f th i s p a p e r I s h a l l

r 'Just ice ' is also variously identified in the R e p u b l i c with what i s 'benef ic ia l ' , 'prof i table ' ,

' ga i nfu l ' , ' advant ageous ' . C f . R e p . 336d and 337bc; 339b; 348c.

s As Ro bi nson po i n t s ou t , Plato's Earl ier Dialect ic . 2nd edi t ion, pp. 211-212, thi s

a s sumpt i on begs t he i mpor t an t ques t i on o f whe t he r j ust ic e i s a good . This , how eve r , is no t

a s damagi ng a s mi ght a t f ir st s eem, for P l a t o goes on t o check h i s de fi ni ti on aga i ns t com m on

usage (433b-e; 442e-443a).

9 Cf . Sachs

op. cit.

p. 142 n. 5; Vlas tos JP, p. 665, 'g o o d ' i s an el lipsi s for 'go od fo r the

jus t m an h imsel f ' , i .e ., a cont r ibu t ion to hi s well -be ing or hap piness

( e udai moni a) ;

Gul l ey ' s

discussion of Socra tes ' psycho logica l eudaim onism ,

The Phi l osophy o f Soc ra t e s

( L o n d o n :

Ma cmi l lan, 1968 ) , esp. pp. 77, 87; Versenyi , Soc ra t i c Humani sm (New Haven: Ya l e , 1963) ,

pp. 79-82;

S y m p o s i u m

204-205 where happiness i s sa id to consis t in the possess ion of the

good .

I am unce r t a in whe t he r P l a t o want s (1) t o s i mpl y i den t ify happi ness wi t h good ness ,

o r (2) t o say t ha t happi ness i s some t h i ng wh i ch i s o t he r than goo dness bu t whi ch i n -

var iably accom panies it , I f the la t te r, then i t i s incu m ben t up on P la to to expla in this

connect ion.

Fo r P l a t o , good ness o r be i ng a goo d X i s o f t en ra t he r f a r r emo ved f rom our sense of

m ora l ly good . A t t imes in the dia logues i t i s a lmo st equiv a lent to a funct ion al or ins t ru-

men t a l s ense of ' good ' , i .e ., be i ng a g oo d spec imen of t ha t k i nd of t h i ng , pe r form i ng

we l l t he func t i on t ha t t h i s sor t o f t h i ng i s supposed t o do- -hence t he P l a t on i c no t i on t ha t

goodn ess l ies in rea liz ing wha t one i s na tur a l ly sui ted to d o, and tha t an exce llence i s

logica l ly con nected to be ing go od , i .e ., perform ing wel l. Pla to regu lar ly uses e~3 np~t rxe tv

to effec t the transi t ion fro m doin g wel l ( i . e. , funct ion ing wel l) to fa r ing wel l ( i . e ., l iving

wel l or happi ly) (Re p . 353e ) . P l a t o i s f r equent l y fau l t ed for equ i voca t i ng a t t h is po i n t , b u t

i f goo dne ss mean s fun ct iona l ly go od, and i f happiness i s ident if ied wi th be ing goo d,

P l a t o is s aved f rom mu ch of th is c ri ti ci sm. Cf . Tha ye r , P l a t o : t he Th eory and L angu age of

Func t i on , Philosophical Quarterly, X IV , 57 (Oct. 1964) , 303-318.

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386 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

a s s u m e t h i s i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y b e t w e e n " g o o d " a n d " h a p p y . " T h u s t h e l o g i c a l

c o n n e c t i o n e x p l a i n e d a b o v e b e t w e e n a w h o l e ' s b e i n g j u s t a n d b e i n g g o o d w i l l

a l s o h o l d b e t w e e n a w h o l e ' s b e i n g j u s t a n d b e i n g h a p p y ; S o c r a t es s a y s as m u c h

a t 4 20 b : " I n f o u n d i n g t h e c i t y w e a r e n o t l o o k i n g t o th e e x c e p t i o n a l h a p p i n e s s o f

a n y o n e g r o u p a m o n g u s , b u t , a s f a r a s p o s s ib l e , t h a t o f t h e c i t y a s a w h o l e . W e

s u p p o s e d w e w o u l d f i n d j u s t i c e m o s t i n s u c h a c i t y ( m y i t al i c s) . T h u s , o n P l a t o ' s

u s e o f ' j u s t i c e ' , i t i s n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e t h a t a w h o l e w h i c h i s j u s t i s h a p p i e r t h a n

a s im i l a r w h o l e w h o s e p a r t s a r e n o t w o r k i n g i n s u c h a j u s t m a n n e r .

I t i s p r e c i s e l y t h is f a c t , t h a t f o r P l a t o a j u s t 9 ( w h e r e a 9 i s a " w h o l e " a s

d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ) c a n n o t b u t b e h a p p i e r t h a n a n u n j u s t @ , t h a t e x p l a i n s w h y t h e

m a i n a r g u m e n t o f th e R e p u b l i c t a k e s t h e c o u r s e it d o e s . F o r P l a t o , o n e c a n d o u b t

w h e t h e r a j u s t q b i s h a p p i e r o n l y i f o n e d o e s n o t s e e c l e a r l y w h a t b e i n g j u s t

c o n s is t s in ; i f o n e s a w " w h a t j u s t ic e i s , " t h e r e w o u l d b e n o q u e s t i o n ( 3 5 4 b c) .

T h i s i s s i m p l y a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f S o c r a t e s ' f r e q u e n t i n s i st e n c e o n t h e p r i o r i t y

o f t h e " w h a t i s X " q u e s ti o n ; o n c e o n e k n o w s t h e n a t u r e o f X , o n e w i ll k n o w o r

" s e e m o s t c l e a r l y " (4 4 5 b 7 ) w h e t h e r X i s g o o d o r b a d , t e a c h a b l e o r n o t , s h a m e f u l

o r n o b l e , e t c . x ~ T h u s t h e m a i n a r g u m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c , w h i c h o c c u p i e s B o o k s I I -

I V a n d r e s u m e s i n V I I I a n d I X , c o n si st s a l m o s t e n t ir e ly in l a y i n g o u t t he n a t u r e o f

j u s t i c e / i n j u s t i c e - - o r m o r e p r e c i s e ly , th e j u s ti c e /i n j u st i c e o f c i ti e s a n d m e n . T h a t

i s w h y , o n c e t h e s e " n a t u r e s " a r e l a i d o u t , t h e r e i s n o n e e d f o r f u r t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t

a r g u m e n t a s t o w h i c h i s h a p p i e r ; G l a u c o n a n d S o c r a t es a g r e e t h a t f u r t h e r i n q u i r y

w o u l d b e " a b s u r d " ( 4 4 5 a b ) s i n c e " t h e s e q u a l i t i e s h a v e m a n i f e s t e d t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s

i n o u r d e s c r i p t i o n . " T h e o n l y r e a s o n t h a t S o c r a t e s d e l a y s th i s j u d g m e n t a t t h e

e n d o f B o o k I V i s t h a t , h a v i n g a t t a i n e d a g o o d v a n t a g e p o i n t , h e f e e ls h e m i g h t a s

w e l l m a k e g o o d u s e o f i t ( 4 4 5 b ) - - t h e r e a r e v a r io u s f o r m s o f v i c e a n d d e g e n e r at i o n

t h a t a r e " w o r t h l o o k i n g a t . " B u t o n c e t h i s " l a y i n g o u t " o f t h e d e g e n e r a t e n a t u r e s

i s c o m p l e t e d ( 5 7 6 b ) , t h e f i n a l j u d g m e n t i s q u i c k l y c o n c l u d e d ; i t c o n s i s t s i n s i m p l y

s p e l li n g o u t w h a t w e s ee w h e n w e v i e w t h e c i ty o r m a n " a s a w h o l e " a n d l o o k

i n t o i ts i n t e r n a l w o r k i n g s . 11 T h e a n s w e r , G l a u c o n s t a te s , is " c l e a r t o e v e r y o n e . "

I f t h is is s o , t h e n w h a t is th e p r o b l e m T h r a s y m a c h u s p o s e s ? A r e h is c la i m s

t h a t b e i n g j u s t is f o o l i s h a n d t h a t t h e u n j u s t m a n l i v e s a b e t t e r ( - = h a p p i e r ) l i fe

( 3 44 a ) s i m p l y b a s e d o n i g n o r a n c e o r s e m a n t i c c o n f u s i o n ? A n d i n w h a t s e n s e , i f a n y ,

d o e s h i s c h a l l e n g e i n v o l v e r e l a t i n g o r c o n n e c t i n g

t w o

" s e n s e s " o f j u s t i c e ?

I I . JUST MEN AND JUST CITIES

A n y " w h o l e " i s j u st , a n d t h u s g o o d a n d h a p p y , i f i t i n s t a n t i a te s t h e o n e c o n -

c e p t i o n o r F o r m o f j u s t ic e d i s c u s se d a b o v e . I n t h e R e p u b l i c P l a t o c o n s i d e r s

t w o " w h o l e s , " a m a n a n d a c i t y , e a c h o f w h i c h i s p o t e n t i a l l y h a p p y o r m i s e r a b l e .

I n e a c h t h e j u s t c o n d i t i o n , i . e. , t h e p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g a n d o r d e r i n g o f it s

10 Cf. M e n o 7 lab ; Gorgias 448e, 451d, 463d.

11 576d-580c. Th e tw o oth er proo fs which follow are clearly intended to be appendices

to the judgm ent of the happier l ife , the result of w hich is announc ed a t 5 80b. Pla to then

tries to show that such a just (--=happy) life is also the most pleasant. He explicitly dis-

tinguishes (581e8) this latter decision concerning pleasure fro m the question of the good/bad

life. Cf. Murphy,

The Interpretation of Plato's Republic,

pp. 59-60.

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T H E H A P P Y P H I L O S O P H E R 387

p a r t s , i s t h e c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h t h a t w h o l e is m o s t h a p p y . I n t h e in d i v i d u a l m a n

t h e p a r t s a r e t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s i n h i s s o u l ; i n t h e c i t y t h e p a r t s a r e m e n , o r

m o r e p r ec i se l y, c l as s es o f m e n . T h u s a m a n m a y b e v i e w e d f r o m e i th e r o f t w o

p e r s p e c t i v e s , i .e ., w i t h r e s p e c t t o t w o d i s t in c t j u s t i c e s : h e i s a w h o l e w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e j u s ti c e o f a m a n , w h i l e h e is a p a r t w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e j u s t ic e

o f h is c i ty . A n d i t i s o n l y i n t h e f o r m e r c a s e t h a t t h e j u s t i c e i n v o l v e d e n t a i l s t h a t

t h e m a n i s m a x i m a l l y h a p p y .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t to r e a l iz e t h a t S o c r a te s k e e p s t h e s e t w o j u s t i c e s , t h a t o f t h e

m a n a n d o f th e c it y , q u i t e s e p a r a t e a s h e d e v e l o p s h is a r g u m e n t A t t h e s t a r t o f

h i s i n q u i r y ( 3 6 8 d - 3 6 9 a ) h e s e ts f o r t h h i s i n t e n d e d p r o c e d u r e : h e w i ll u s e a l a r g e r

w h o l e t o p r o v i d e a m o r e p e r s p i c u o u s v i e w o f w h a t j u st ic e i s a n d t h e n a p p l y

t h i s k n o w l e d g e t o h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a s m a l l e r w h o l e ; t h u s h e fi rs t e x a m i n e s

t h e ju s t ic e o f c i ti es , a n d t h e n t h a t o f in d i v i d u a l m e n . F r o m 3 6 9 t o 4 2 7 S o c r a t e s ,

w i t h s o m e h e l p a n d p r o d d i n g f r o m G l a u c o n a n d A d i m a n t u s , f o u n d s o r d e s c ri b e s

a c i t y t h a t is p e r f e c t l y g o o d ( 42 7 e) . T h e y t h e n s e a r c h f o r t h e v a r i o u s v i r t u e s

i n i t , a r r i v i n g f i n a l l y a t j u s t i c e . T h e j u s t i c e o f t h e c i t y c o n s i s t s i n t h e v e r y r u l e

w h i c h g o v e r n e d t h e f o u n d i n g o f t h e c i ty , n a m e l y , e a c h o n e m u s t p r a c t i c e o n e o f

t h e f u n c ti o n s i n th e c it y , t h a t o n e f o r w h i c h h i s n a t u r e m a d e h i m m o s t n a t u r a l l y

f i t ( 4 3 3 a 6 ) . Th i s i s t h e d e f i n i t i o n , o r ~ 6 7 o ~ , o f t h e ju s t i ce o f th e c i t y . F o r t h e c i t y

a s a w h o l e t o b e a s h a p p y a s i ts n a t u r a l l i m i t a t i o n s a l l o w w i l l n e c e s s i t a t e t h a t m e n

( p a r t s ) a c t i n c e r t a i n w a y s , e . g . , s o m e w i l l r u l e ; s o m e w i l l f i g h t a n d a c t a s p o l i c e ;

o t h e r s w i l l s o w c r o p s a n d m e n d s h o es . W h a t i s e s s e n t ia l t o n o t e i s t h a t t h e j u s t ic e

o f t he c i ty d e m a n d s o f e a c h m a n n o t t h a t h e d o w h a t e v e r h e is b e s t s u i te d b y

n a t u r e t o d o s imp l i c i t e r b u t t h a t h e d o t h a t w h i c h h e i s b e s t s u i te d b y n a t u r e t o d o

o f th e fu n c t io n s in th e c i t y . 12 I n t h e c o u r s e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s j u s t c i t y S o c r a t e s

s t a te s e x p l i c it l y t h a t h i s c o n c e r n i s t o m a x i m i z e n o t t h e h a p p i n e s s o f it s i n d i v i d u a l

m e m b e r s , b u t t h a t o f t h e c i t y as a w h o l e ( 4 2 0 b f t. ).

H a v i n g c o m p l e t e d h i s i n v e s t i g a ti o n o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e j u s t i ce o f a c i ty

( 4 34 d ), S o c ra t e s s w i t ch e s g e a rs a n d c o n s i d e r s t h e n a t u r e o f m a n . A t 4 3 6 - 4 4 1 b h e

f in d s t h a t a m a n , l ik e a c i ty , c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e t h r e e p a r t s , i .e ., t h r e e p a r t s

o f h i s so u l. A t 4 4 1 c - e h e s u m s u p t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e l e t t e r a n a l o g y : w h e n h e

a p p l i e s th e n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d f o r m a l d e f i n it i o n o f j u s t ic e t o t h is n e w w h o l e ( m a n )

w i t h a n e w s e t o f p a r t s ( d i v i s i o n s o f t h e s o u l ) , h e w i l l b e a b l e t o s t a t e i n w h a t t h e

j u s t i c e o f a m a n c o n s i s t s .

I t is a t t h is p o i n t t h a t I t h i n k P r o f e s s o r V l a s t o s e r r s i n i n t e r p re t i n g P l a t o ' s

a r g u m e n t . H e e v i d e n t l y f o r g e t s P l a t o ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e l e t t e r a n a l o g y , w h e r e i n

P l a t o e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s t h a t w e a r e u s i n g t h e j u s t c i t y a s a w a y o f s e e i n g w h a t

j u s t i c e

wri t large

i s - - w e a re d i s c o v e r i n g t h e f o r m a l d e f i n i t io n o f j u st ic e . W e a r e

t h e n g o i n g t o a p p l y th i s d e fi n it i on t o m a n , a n d t h e n c h e c k o u r r e s u l t s a g a i n s t

c o m m o n u s a g e . T h e a r g u m e n t a t 4 4 1 c - e i s n o t a n a t t e m p t t o s h o w t h a t t h e j u s t i c e

1~ This is necessary f or at least two reasons. F irst, no t all functions are p erfo rm ed

in a jus t c i ty , e .g . , imita t ive poetry . Second, as Pla to is fond of point ing out , one wh o

is best suited to perform a particular task is usually also well-suited to perform its opposite,

e.g., a good guard also makes a good thief, cf. 333e-334a. But a just city will require one

to do only that task which promotes the well-being of the c i ty .

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388 HIST ORY OF PHIL OSOP HY

of the city an d the justice of a man mus t always be satisfied together. 13 Rathe r,

at 441c Plato is spelling out what m ust be the case if the letter ana logy is to apply.

It is at what Vlastos (in PsH, p. 517) calls step (E) that he mistakes what Plato

is doing. The poi nt is worth co nsiderin g in detail. Socrates says at 441d3:

And we shall say, O Glaucon, that a man is just in the same way in which a city is

just.

It seems plain tha t what Plato is saying is that a city and a m an are both just

in the sa me way, i.e., by the presence o f the same Form: the justice of the man and

the justice of the city will each consist in the parts of that whole performing the

func tion for which the y are best suited for the good of that whole. Plato confirms

that this is what he means by proceeding to apply what he says, concluding

two steps later:

Therefore, let us bear in mind that also in the case of each one of us, whosoever is

such that each of the three kinds [of elements] in him does its own, he is a just man

and a man who does his own. (441d12-e2; Vlas tos' step G, p. 517)

Vlastos, partly because he is already eagerly looking to find some argument,

and partly because he assumes that the terminal phrase in G 'a man who does his

own' must me an does his own job in the city, 14 decides that the crucial argu-

13 Vlastos' claim, PsH p. 515. Vlastos wants to find an argument that links social justice

with individual justice, because he is (justifiably) concerned that otherwise Socrates might

indeed be guilty as charged of committing Sachs' fallacy of irrelevance. I am not sure

what is gained by saving Socrates from that fallacy at the price of having him commit

(twice) the fallacy of equivocation, but I do not think the attribution of either fallacy here

is warranted or necessary. Socrates' attempt to meet Glaucon's (and Sachs') requirement of

showing that the Platonical ly (internally) just man acts in accordance with vulgar, i.e.,

social, standards occurs not here but one page later, at 442d10-443b2. Note that there

Socrates specifically mentions many of the very acts which characterized the standards he

was supposed to meet in the original challenges (343d-344b, 360a-c, 362b). It is true that

the argument there amounts to little more than an appeal to in tuition, and offers merely

Glaucon' s affirmation of Socrates' asserted conclusions. But this is entirely in accordance

with regular Socratic procedure: the long and hard task is in trying to decipher what the

nature of a particular concept, e.g., the justice of a man, is; once it is known, its effects

(supposedly) follow as a matter of course. But, regardless of whether one accepts the con-

clusions of the argument at 442d-443b (1 don't), the important point is that Socrates

does try to make the crucial argument linking internal justice with social standards there:

he says explicitly, Isn't the cause of all this [behavior] that so far as ruling and being

ruled are concerned, each of the parts in him minds his business? (443bl-2). The value of

knowing that Socrates attempts the argument there is that it saves us from feeling com-

pelled to find it where it really is not attempted.

la It is true that in the earlier discussions of the justice of the ci ty the phrase did mean

this. Here, in switching to a discussion of the justice of a man it seems natural to interpret

does his own as referr ing to the man 's own true nature, i.e., his soul. Socrates,

explaining the definition at 443c-e, carefully distinguishes the way he is using 'own' here

from any social sense:

In truth justice was, as it seems, something of this sort; however,

not with respect

to a man s mind ing his external business, but wi th respect to what is within, with respect

to what truly concerns him and his own.

He does not allow the principles within him

to do other work than their own, nor the classes in his soul to interfere with another,

but really sets his own house in good order and rules himself. (443c-e; my italics).

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T H E H A P P Y P H I L O S O P H E R 38 9

m e n t l i n k i n g s o c i a l j u s t ic e w i t h i n d i v i d u a l j u s ti c e i s t o b e f o u n d i n t h e a b o v e

s t e p E . H e f in d s t h e a r g u m e n t ( a f a l l a c i o u s o n e ) b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h a t S o c r a t e s

e q u i v o c a t e s o n t h e t w o u s e s o f ' j u s t ' i n E . H e s t a t e s (p . 5 1 8 ), I n i t s f i rs t o c c u r r e n c e

[ in th e l in e 4 41 d 3 q u o t e d a b o v e ] w e w o u l d e x p e c t ' j u s t ' t o c a r r y i t s n a t u r a l s e n s e

w h e n a p p l i e d t o a n i n d i v i d u a l . S o i t w o u l d h a v e t o m e a n ' ju s t1 ' h e r e u n l e s s s o m e

w a r n i n g t o t h e c o n t r a r y h a d b e e n g i v e n , a s n o n e i s . 15 B u t V l a s t o s i s p r e j u d g i n g

t h e c a s e - - w h a t w e s h o u l d b e e x p e c t i n g h e r e i s p r e c i s e l y

not

i ts n a t u r a l s e n s e , b u t

i ts n e w l y f o u n d f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n . A r a t h e r c l e a r w a r n i n g h a s i n f a c t b e e n g i v e n :

a t 43 4 e S o c r a t es a n n o u n c e s h i s in t e n d e d p r o c e d u r e :

L e t u s a p p l y w h a t c a m e t o l i g h t t h e r e [ i. e. , i n t h e c i t y ] t o a s i n g l e m a n , a n d i f t h e t w o

a r e i n a g r e e m e n t , e v e r y t h i n g is f in e . B u t i f s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t s h o u l d t u r n u p i n a

s i n g l e m a n , w e ' l l g o b a c k a g a i n t o t h e c i t y a n d t e s t it .

T h a t i s , S o c r a t e s e x p l i c i t ly a l l o w s f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t t h e F o r m o f j u s t i c e

w h i c h h e i s a p p l y i n g to m a n w i l l

not

a c c o r d w i t h t h e n a t u r a l s e n s e o f w h a t w e

d o c a ll j u s t m e n ; i f t h a t h a p p e n s , w e s h a l l h a v e t o r e t u r n t o t h e c i t y a n d l o o k

h a r d e r . I f V l a s t o s w e r e c o r r e c t in t h i n k i n g t h a t P l a t o w a s i n i t i a l l y i n t r o d u c i n g t h e

n a t u r a l s e n s e o f ' j u s t ' h e r e , t h e n w h a t w o u l d b e t h e p o i n t o f t e s t in g o u r

j u s t i c e i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e v u l g a r s t a n d a r d s ( 4 4 2 e - 4 4 3 a ) ? O n V l a s t o s ' i n t e r p r e t a -

t i on t h is w o u l d b e a n e m p t y , t a u t o l o g o u s p r o c e d u r e . O n t h e i n t e rp r e t a t i o n I a m

o f f er i n g, S o c r a t e s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y e x a m i n e s o n e h a l f o f t h e a n a l o g y t o f i n d o u t

w h a t j u s t i c e i s, a p p l i e s t h e r e s u l t t o t h e o t h e r h a l f , a n d t h e n c h e c k s h i s a p p l i c a t i o n

t o m a k e s u r e i t a c c o r d s w i t h o r d i n a r y u s a g e . 16 V l a s t o s i s d r i v e n , o n h i s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n , t o a t t r i b u t e to P l a t o a n a r g u m e n t r i d d l e d w i t h e q u i v o c a t i o n ; t h e n , n o t

s u r p r is i n g l y , V l a s t o s c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e d e d u c t i o n i s w o r t h l e s s ; t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n

h a s c o l l a p s e d ( p. 51 8 ). B u t t h e p l a i n f a c t is t h a t P l a t o n e v e r a t t e m p t e d i t . 17

1~ Fo r V la s to s , j u s t i c e i s t h e so c i a l v i r t u e p a r ex ce l l en ce ( p . 5 2 0) , an d th u s ' j u s t ' i n i ts

p r im ar y sen se m u s t b e a r e l a t i o n a l p r ed ic a t e ( p . 51 9) . H e th u s ex p la in s ' j u s tx ': i n i ts

p r im ar y s ig n i f ic a t io n ' ju s t i s a r e l a t i o n a l p r ed ica t e ; t o sp eak o f a p e r so n a s h av in g th i s

p r o p e r t y i s t o t h i n k o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e h a b i t u a l l y r e l a t e s h i m s e l f t o p e r s o n s o r g r o u p s

o f p e r so n s in h is co n d u c t . T h i s is a l l t o o p l a in ly t r u e o n th e p o p u la r n o t io n o f j u s t i c e ( p . 5 1 7) .

T h i s m a y b e t r u e o f c o m m o n n o t i o n s - - i t m a y e v e n b e t ru e o f a n y c o r r e c t n o t i o n o f

j u s t i c e - - b u t i t is i n v e rt e d P l a t o . F o r P l a t o , t h e v u l g a r u s e o f l a n g u a g e i s p r ec i s e l y w h a t i s

not primary--the

o r d i n a r y m a n ' s u s e t a k e s t h e i m a g e , t h e p h a n t o m , t h e s h a d o w ,

t h e e x t e r n a l c o n s e q u e n c e a s t h o u g h i t w e r e t h e r e a l m e a n i n g

Rep.

382bc, 422e, 493bc,

500a , 515b , 597a) . For Pla to , jus t ice i s

primarily

a p r o p e r t y o f a w h o l e , a n d o n l y d e r i v a t i v e l y

can b e sa id t o b e lo n g to a p a r t . ( See m y d i scu ss io n o f Jp b e lo w. ) On P la to ' s wa y o f t h in k in g ,

V l a s t o s ( a n d o r d i n a r y l a n g u a ge ) is g u i l ty o f m a k i n g t h e p a r t p r i o r t o t h e w h o l e , t h e

ex te r n a l p r io r t o t h e i n t e r n a l . ( P l a to , a s i t we r e , i n v e r t s W i t tg en s t e in 1 8 0 d eg r ee s ; o n e m ig h t

a lm o s t say th a t P l a to b e l i ev es an o u tw ar d p r o cess s t an d s in n eed o f i n n e r c r i t e r i a [ cf .

Philosophical Investigations,

p a r . 5 8 0 ] . ) I a r n i n n o sen se d e f en d in g P la to ' s n o t io n o f h o w

l a n g u a g e o p e r a t e s , b u t f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e s e f e a t u r e s b o t h p r o d u c e s d i s t o r t i o n s i n P l a t o ' s

a r g u m e n t s w h e r e t h e y d o n o t o c c u r a n d i n h i b i t s re c o g n i z in g w h e r e P l a t o d o e s i n f a c t e r r .

1 6 M y r e m a r k s h e r e s h o u l d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s i m p l y i n g a n y a g r e e m e n t w i t h S o c r a t e s '

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t th i s n e w t r u e u s a g e d o e s i n f a c t m e e t th e v u l g a r te s t s t o w h i c h h e p u t s i t .

I n d e e d , I a m d u b i o u s a s t o w h e t h e r S o c r a t e s c o u l d e a s i l y d e fe n d h i s r a t h e r c a v a l i e r c o n -

c lu s io n s a t 4 42 e -4 4 3a , t h a t t h e m an wh o i s t h u s i n t e r n a l ly ju s t , i . e ., in s t an t i a t e s t h e Fo r m

o f j u s ti c e a m o n g h i s p s y c h i c p a r ts , w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y r e f r a i n f r o m p e r f o r m i n g t h e a c t s

in d ica t ed .

~7 T h e f ac t i s t h a t wh en S o c r a t e s a r r iv e s a t s t ep E in t h e a r g u m en t we h av e o n ly b een

e x p o s e d t o

one

m ea n in g o f ' j u s t ' , i . e ., a ~b i s j u s t i f it s p a r t s a r e so a r r an g ed , e t c . , an d i t s eem s

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Let us return to Socrates' consideration of the justice of a man. As stated,

Socrates applies the previousl y discovered For m of justice to ma n, a nd concludes:

. .

in truth justice was, as it seems, something of this sort; however, not with respect

to a man's minding his external business, but with respect to what is within, with respect

to what truly concerns him and his own. He does not allow the principles within him

to do other work than their own, nor the classes in his soul to interfere with another,

but really s e t s his own house in good order and rules himself. (443c-e)

Let us refer to such a man, i.e., he who considered a s a w h o l e instantiates justice

amo ng his psychic parts, as Jw. Conce rning the ac tions of one who is Jw Plato

states that

he acts, if he does act in some way--either concerning the acquisition of money, or

the care of the body, or something political, or concerning private contracts.

I n a l l

t h e se a c t i o n s h e b e l i e ve s a n d n a m e s a j u s t a n d f in e a c t i o n o n e t h a t p r e s e rv e s a n d

h e l p s p r o d u c e t h i s c o n d i t i o n ,

and wisdom the knowledge that supervises this action;

while he believes and names an unjust action one that undoes this condition. (443e;

my italics)

Let us call such acts JwA. It will then be true that the Jw who c onti nual ly performs

JwA (and refrains from performing UwA, i.e., unjust actions as defined above) will

be as ha ppy as the l imitations of his nature al low ) s

But because a man can be viewed with respect to either of two distinct justices

(or, more correctly, two distinct instant iatio ns of justice) we find that we can now

talk of a man's being just in yet a second sense. For with regard to the justice of

the city we can call a ma n just in the derivative sense that he performs those

acts which are required of him if the city as a whole is to be just; in this new

secondary usage we say that a man is just

a s a p a r t

if and only if he practices that

func tion which the definition of the city's justice (433a6 a bove) necessitates. Let us

refer to a man who is just in this sense, i.e., as a part, as Jp, and let us call his

typical acts JpA. Depending on the nature of the particular Jv, such acts would

include ruling and makin g poli t ical decisions, fighting in the army and some minor

almost a

n o n

sequitur to pull in another sense of 'just' out of the blue. It seems much more

plausible to attribute to Socrates the good sense of doing what he has said he would do all

along. Vlastos has to clean up too many loose ends on his interpretation (cf. n. 44); he also

has to attr ibute to Socrates a second commission of the equivocation (in G) (n. 45), in order

to make sense of the fact that the argument thereafter is plainly about an internally just man.

I cannot share Vlastos' surprise (n. 12 and n. 24) that other commentators have missed

finding the argument.

is Since men have different natures (370a, 415a) this will not mean that all men, if they

are as happy as possible, will end up engaging in the same sorts of activities. It is not true,

as Weingartner claims it is, that Plato urges us all to become philosophers

op. ci t . ,

p. 252).

In urging us each to become internally just (592b), Plato is telling us we will be as happy as

possible when we realize that for which our natures best suit us. If I am most

n a t u r a l l y

equipped, say, to work with my hands, while my natural capacities for perceiving what

is

are poor, the last thing Plato would urge is that I try to become a philosopher. Indeed,

Plato would argue, I imagine, that I will be happier being a top-notch craftsman than

by being a bungling philosopher.

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T H E H A P P Y P H I L O S O P H E R 391

p o l i c e w o r k , o r e n g a g in g i n v a r i o u s e c o n o m i c p u r s u i ts . F r o m t h is i t f o l lo w s t h a t

i f a l l th e m e n i n t h e c i t y a r e Jp a n d c o n t i n u e t o p e r f o r m J p A , t h e n t h e c i t y w i l l b e

j u s t a n d a s g o o d a n d a s h a p p y a s p o s s i b l e .

W i t h t h i s f r a m e w o r k i n m i n d , w e s e e t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a b y

w h i c h t o j u d g e w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n o r a c t i s j u s t : a m a n m a y b e e i t h e r

Jw o r Jp ( o r b o t h ) ; a n d a n a c t m a y b e e i t h e r J w A o r J p A ( o r b o t h ) . B u t a s t h e

a b o v e e x p l i c a t i o n la y s b a r e , a m a n ' s b e i n g a s h a p p y a s p o s s i b l e i s l o g i c a l l y c o n -

n e c t e d o n l y t o t h e f o r m e r o f e a c h p a i r . T h e j u s t i c e o f t h e c i t y , a n d t h u s a m a n ' s

being Jp

a n d p e r f o r m i n g J p A , s e e m s p r i m a f a c i e t o b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a m a n ' s

a t t a i n i n g l e s s t h a n h i s m a x i m u m p o s s i b l e h a p p i n e s s ; a n d a m a n ' s b e i n g J w a n d

p e r f o r m i n g J w A ( a n d t h u s b e i n g m a x i m a l l y h a p p y ) s e e m s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h h i s p e r -

f o r m i n g U p A a n d t h u s b e i n g U p , i .e . , b e i n g a n u n j u s t p a r t v i s - 5 -v i s h i s c i ty . A n d

i t i s h e r e t h a t T h r a s y m a c h u s m u s t b e h e a r d .

I I I . TH E CHALLENGE

W h e n T h r a s y m a c h u s r a i s e s h i s i n i t i a l o b j e c t i o n s , o n e m i g h t f a i r l y q u e s t i o n

w h e t h e r h e i n f a c t d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t w o k i n d s o f j u s t i c e . C e r t a i n p a s s a g e s

m a k e i t p l a u s ib l e to a t tr i b u t e t o h i m a d is t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n j u s t i c e s w h i c h d i f f e r

a t l e a s t i n d e g r e e , i f n o t i n k i n d ( 3 3 8 c d ; 3 4 4 a ; 3 4 4 c ; 3 4 8 d ) ; o f t h e s e h e m a k e s i t

c l e a r t h a t h e i s t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e g r a n d e r , l a r g e r s c a l e o n e . B u t r e g a r d l e s s o f

w h e t h e r w e s a y th a t h e o n l y m e n t i o n s o n e k i n d o f j u s ti c e , o r t h a t h e m e n t i o n s t w o

a n d t h e n c h o o s e s t o s p e a k o f t h e l a r g e r s c a l e o n e , it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e j u s t ic e o f

w h i c h h e d o e s s p e a k i s t h e j u s ti c e i n a c it y . F r o m t h e o u t s e t h e d i s m i s s e s S o c r a t e s '

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n a p a r t i c u l a r m a n ( 3 3 8 d 3 ) , a n d f o c u s e s t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n c i t i e s ,

l a w , a n d r u l e r s ( 3 3 8 d e) . H e t a l k s o f j u s t ic e in d e m o c r a c i e s , t y r a n n i e s , a n d o t h e r

r e g i m e s a s a d e v i c e u s e d t o p r o m o t e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f th e r u l i n g c l a s s ( 3 3 9 a) ;

i n j u s t i c e i s t h o u g h t o f i n t e r m s o f n o t p e t t y c r i m e s , b u t p o l i t i c a l c o u p s ( 3 4 4 b ) . A l l

o f h is e x a m p l e s d e a l w i t h p o l i ti c a l o f fi c e, a n d h e c o n s i d e r s w h e t h e r s u c h o f f i ce s

s h o u ld b e s u b v e r te d f r o m p r o m o t i n g t h e g o o d o f t he r u l e d t o p r o m o t i n g t h e

a d v a n t a g e o f t h o s e w h o h o l d p o w e r .

W h a t i s e q u a l l y c l e a r i s t h a t a t t h i s p o i n t T h r a s y m a c h u s i n n o s e n s e t h i n k s o f

j u s t i c e a s b e i n g

wit in

o n e in d i v i d u a l . I t s e em s q u i t e d o u b t f u l t h a t i t h a s e v e r

o c c u r r e d t o h i m t h a t j u s t i c e m i g h t b e t h o u g h t o f a s i n t e r n a l t o o n e m a n ; S o c r a t e s

d o e s n o t s u g g e s t t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y u n t i l 3 5 1 e . T h r a s y m a c h u s ' c l a i m t h a t t h e u n j u s t

l i f e i s b e t t e r ( 3 4 3 - 3 4 4 ) i s s t a t e d i n t e r m s o f c o m m i t t i n g i n j u s t i c e i n t h e c i t y ; a t n o

t i m e d o e s T h r a s y m a c h u s e v e r s u g g es t th a t a m a n , a ll o f w h o s e p a r t s a r e f u n c t i o n i n g

w e l l a n d w o r k i n g h a r m o n i o u s l y , w i ll b e le ss h a p p y t h a n a m a n n o t s o o r d e re d .

W h a t T h r a s y m a c h u s i s s u g g e s t i n g s e e m s r a t h e r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d u n -

a m b i g u o u s . A s h e s e e s i t , j u s t i c e i n t h e c i t y c o n s i s t s i n p e r f o r m i n g a c t i o n s w h i c h

p r o m o t e not t h e g o o d o f t h e a g e n t , b u t s o m e o n e e l s e ' s g o o d 343C).19 S i n c e

19 K erfe rd has argued persuasively tha t Thrasym achus maintains on e consistent position

throu gho ut Bo ok I, namely, that ' justice ' means (the prom otion of) anoth er 's goo d. Thu s,

from the point of view of the ruled, justice would be (the promotion of) the advantage of

the ruler. Since Thrasymachus operates o n the assumption tha t everyo ne is out fo r himself,

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3 9 2 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

T h r a s y m a c h u s is o n l y i n t er e s te d i n h i s o w n g o o d , h e s e e s n o r e a s o n t o p e r f o r m

s u c h a c t i o n s ; i n f a c t , h e s e es th e m a s d e t r i m e n t a l t o h i s o w n g o o d . H e c h a l l e n g e s

S o c r a t es t o s h o w h i m t h a t o n e w h o p e r f o r m s s u c h a c t io n s w i l l b e h a p p i e r t h a n o n e

w h o r e fr a in s f r o m p e r f o r m i n g t h e m . H e w a n t s t o b e s h o w n h o w b e in g ju s t

v i s - a - v i s o n e ' s c i t y p a y s . O r , t o s t a t e t h e p r o b l e m i n t e r m s o f S o c r a t e s ' a n a l y s i s

o f t h e ju s t i c e o f a c i t y a n d o f a m a n , T h r a s y m a c h u s w a n t s t o b e s h o w n t h a t J p A

d o n o t co n f li ct w i t h J w A . H e w a n t s t o k n o w h o w b e i n g J p w i ll p r o m o t e - - o r a t l e as t

b e c o m p a t i b le w i t h - - b e i n g Jw . 2 ~ A n i n d ic a t i o n t h a t T h r a s y m a c h u s ' p o i n t m a y h a v e

s o m e b a s is i s s h o w n b y t h e e x a m p l e , p r o v i d e d b y S o c r a te s h i m s e l f , o f th e j u s t

r o b b e r b a n d ( 3 5 1 - 35 2 ) . P e r h a p s u n w i t t in g l y , P l a t o o ff e rs h e r e a c a s e o f a w h o l e

w h i c h h a s a k i n d o f j u s t i c e w i t h i n it , a n d y e t s ti ll is a n u n j u s t p a r t o f a l a r g e r

s o c i e t y .

I f w e s te p b a c k a m o m e n t , a n d v i e w th e p r o b l e m i n m o r e g e n e r a l ( a n d s o m e -

w h a t l es s p r e c is e ) t er m s , w e c o u l d s a y t h a t w h a t T h r a s y m a c h u s is a ss e r ti n g i s t h a t

i n t e re s t s , e v e n e n l i g h t e n e d t r u e o r r e a l i n t er e s ts , o f t h e v a r i o u s w h o l e s

i n t h e w o r l d c o n f l i c t . H e i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o n e m u s t c h o o s e b e t w e e n b e i n g e i t h e r

a h a p p y w h o l e o r a n o t - s o - h a p p y p a r t o f s o m e l a rg e r w h o l e ; t h a t n o s ta te

o f a f f a ir s c a n e x i s t w h i c h s a ti sf ie s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e g o o d s o f a l l w h o l e s .

H e is c h a l l e n g i n g t h e P l a t o n i c b e l i e f t h a t a l l t r u e i n t e r e s ts a r e c o m p a t i b l e , o r t o

p u t i t i n m o r e P l a t o n i c la n g u a g e , t h a t th e y a ll f o r m a h a r m o n y . 21

I n t h is p a p e r I d o n o t d e a l d i r e c t ly w i t h t h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r i n

t h e Republ ic P l a t o a t t e m p t s t o m e e t t h is c h a ll e n ge . I t m a y b e t h a t P l a t o s i m p l y

c h o o s e s t o c o n c e n t r a t e h is a t t e n t i o n o n t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e g o o d l if e f o r m a n 22

a n d f e el s t h a t T h r a s y m a c h u s ' c o n c e r n w i t h J p is o n l y a p e r i p h e r a l p r o b l e m , s in c e

i t d e a l s w i t h w h a t i s a t m o s t a n i m a g e (eifi0 ~X 6v 4 4 3 c 3 ) o f a m a n ' s t r u e

j u s ti c e . O r , m o r e p l a u s i b l y , p e r h a p s P l a t o b e l i e v e s t h a t a l t h o u g h h e d i s c o v e r s a n d

d i s c u s s e s t h e t w o j u s t ic e s s e p a r a t e l y , h i s d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l r e v e a l to w h a t e x t e n t t h e

j u s ti c es o f t h e ci ty a n d o f m a n n o t o n l y c a n c o e x i s t b u t i n f a c t a re c o m -

p l e m e n t a r y ; 23 i t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t P l a t o w a n t s t o m a i n t a i n t h a t , f o r t h e v a s t

m a j o r i t y o f m e n , if t h e y r e a li z e t h e i r o w n t r u e c a p a c i t i e s ( Jw ) , t h e y w i ll i n f a c t

he thinks i t fool i sh to do what i s jus t . I t i s on thi s bas i s tha t Thrasymachus argues tha t

u n j u s t a c t i o n - - b y w h i c h h e m e a n s a c t i o n w h i c h a i m s a t t h e g o o d o f t h e a g e n t - - w i l l m a k e

a m an happi e r. See Th e Doc t r i ne of Thra sy mach us in P l a t o 's

Republic, Durham Uni-

versity Journal,

n.s. IV (1947-I948), 19-27; a l so Ke rferd 's Th rasy m ach us and Justice : a

Repl y , Phronesis, IX (1964), 12-16.

20 Ev en this res ta tem ent o f the pro blem in Soc ra t ic terms i s not en t i re ly fa i r to

Thra sy mach us , fo r i t smuggl es i n a r a t he r i mpor t an t sh if t i n whose goo d t he jus ti ce o f t he

c i ty prom otes . W hereas Th rasy m achu s sees a confl ic t be tween one par t versus anoth er

par t , e .g. , ruler vs . ruled, on Socra tes ' ana lys i s the pro blem becom es pa r t vs . wh ole .

I t migh t be a s ignif icantly eas ier t ask to pro ve tha t a par t benef it s wh en it s wh ole does ,

t han t o show t ha t one pa r t bene fi ts when some o t he r pa r t does . But fo r the purpose of

thi s paper I di sregard thi s shi f t ; l e t us assume tha t Thrasymachus accepts Socra tes '

de sc r ip t i on of wh a t t he ci t y 's j us tic e i nvol ves , and want s to kno w why some pa r t shoul d

promot e t he good of t he c i t y a s a whol e , when such ac t i on seems t o be a t t he expense

(420b ft .) o f t he max i mu m happi ness o f tha t pa r t .

21 Gorgias

508a.

~2 Cf. 34 4e, 352d, 578c, 61 8c.

2s Cf. 435e, 442a, 590de.

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T H E H A P P Y P H I L O S O P H E R 393

a l s o b e p e r f o r m i n g t h e i r p r o p e r ( Jp ) s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s . F o r s u c h m e n , th e c h o i c e

b e t w e e n o n e ' s o w n g o o d a n d t h e c i t y 's t h us p r e s e n t s a f a l s e d i c h o t o m y .

IV. THE HAPPY PHILOSOPHER--A COUNTEREXAMPLE

I n w h a t f o l lo w s I a r g u e t h a t i n a t l e a s t o n e c r u c i a l i n s t a n c e , n a m e l y i n t h e

c a s e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r w h o h a s b e e n n u r t u r e d a n d t r a i n e d i n th e i d e a l c i ty , P l a t o

b a l d l y a d m i t s th a t t h i s m a n ' s J w A a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h h i s Jp A . A n d i f t h is i s s o ,

t h e n s u c h a p h i l o s o p h e r w o u l d b e h a p p i e r ( Jw ) b y c o m m i t t i n g a n i n j u s ti c e ( U p A )

t h a n b y a c t i n g j u s t l y ( J p A ) .

T h e o f t - q u o t e d p a s s a g e w h e r e t h i s q u e s t i o n a r i s e s i s

Rep.

5 1 9 c - 5 2 1 b . 24 H e r e

S o c r a t e s d i s c u ss e s t h e n e c e ss i t y o f c o m p e l l i n g t h o s e o f p h i l o s o p h i c n a t u r e w h o

h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d t o s e e t h e g o o d t o r e t u r n t o t h e c a v e , i .e ., t o g i v e u p s o m e

t i m e f r o m t h e i r l i fe o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n t o r u l e i n t h e c i ty . T h e p a s s a g e i s th e l o c u s

o f t w o i m p o r t a n t t e n e t s o f P l a t o ' s p o l i t ic a l p h i l o s o p h y : f ir s t, t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

p h i l o s o p h e r m u s t s a c r if i ce s o m e o f h i s o w n h a p p i n e s s d u r i n g h i s t e n u r e a s r u l e r ,

a n d s e co n d , t h e p a r a d o x t h a t o n l y o n e w h o d o es n o t w a n t to r u l e w i ll m a k e a n

e f fe c ti v e r u l er . B u t w h a t t o m y k n o w l e d g e h a s n o t o f t e n b e e n n o t i c e d 2 s i s t h a t

h e r e P la t o m a k e s a v e ry u n - P la t o n i c d i s t i n c t i o n - - h e d r a w s a s h a r p a n d c l e a r

c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n w h a t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h is p h i l o s o p h e r ' s h a p p i n e s s , a n d w h a t i s

j u s t f o r h i m t o d o in h is c i ty . A n d I s u b m i t t h a t i n a l lo w i n g t h i s s p l i t t o e n t e r

h is a r g u m e n t , P l a to h a s o p e n e d a P a n d o r a ' s b o x o f o b st a c le s t o a n y a t t e m p t

a t r e f u t i n g T h r a s y m a c h u s .

P l a t o i s q u i t e c l e a r o n b o t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s :

1. That the philosopher's maximum happiness does not lie in ruling. I t i s s t a t e d

e x p l i c it l y s e v e r a l t i m e s t h a t t h e r e i s a b e t t e r l if e t h a n r u l i n g f o r p h i l o s o p h e r s

( 5 1 9 d 9 ; 5 2 0 e 5 ; 5 2 1 b 9 ) . M u c h e a r l i e r ( a t 4 1 9 a ) , i n t h e m i d s t o f f o u n d i n g t h e c i t y ,

A d i m a n t u s h a d o b j e c t e d t h a t S o c r a t e s , i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e l i v e s o f t h e g u a r d i a n s ,

w a s n o t m a k i n g t h e m h a p p y . T h e r e ( a f te r r e m i n d i n g A d i m a n t u s t h a t a s fo u n d e r s

o f a c it y t h e m a x i m u m h a p p i n e s s o f a n y o n e c l as s w a s n o t t h e ir c o n c e r n ) S o c r a te s

c o u l d r e p ly t h a t A d i m a n t u s w a s u s i n g a r a t h e r l o w - l e v el s t a n d a r d o f w ha ~

c o n s t it u t e d h a p p in e s s . A d i m a n t u s h a d o b j e c t ed t o t h e f a ct t h a t t h e g u a r d i a n s

w o u l d n o t h a v e p r o p e r t y o f th e i r ow n , o r m u c h u s e o f m o n e y ; S o c r a t e s d i s m i s s e d

s u c h m a t e r i a l i s ti c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s m e r e l y w h a t is r e p u t e d to b e h a p p y ( 4 2 0 a7 )

a n d a s a f o o l i s h a d o l e s c e n t o p i n i o n a b o u t h a p p i n e s s ( 4 6 6b 8 ). H e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e

a l t e r n a t i v e li f e i s n o c h i l d i s h c h i m e r a o f h a p p i n e s s , b u t t h a t a c t i v i t y w h e r e i n t h e

g r e a t e s t h a p p i n e s s li e s, i .e ., c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e F o r m s . T h e b e t t e r li f e i s b a s e d

o n a t r u e s t a n d a r d o f h a p p i n e s s , r o o t e d i n t h e d i v i n e o r d e r o f t h in g s . T h e

24 Limitations of space prevent quoting the passage in full; the reader would do well,

when consider ing the fo l lowing argument , to keep a copy of th is passage before h im.

2~ M . B. Fos ter not ed the exceptionally un-P laton ic cha rac ter of this passage som e

thir ty-five years ago in Som e Imp licat ions of a Passage in Pla to 's Republic, Philosophy,

X I (1936), 301-307. H e saw the uniqueness of this passag e not, however, as undercutting the

main argument of the

Republic

but as a precursor to the truths of Christianity.

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3 9 4 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

p h i l o s o p h e r i s a l o v e r o f t h a t w h i c h t r u l y is a n d h a p p i n e s s f o r h i m l i e s i n b e i n g

c l o s e t o w h a t i s r e a l , c o m m u n i n g w i t h t h e r e g i o n in h a b i t e d b y t h e h a p p i e s t p a r t

o f w h a t i s ( 52 6 e) . T h e h i g h e s t e c s t a s y a m a n c a n a t t a i n - - - c o m p a r e d w i t h w h i c h

c o n c e r n f o r l a w s a n d i n s t i t u ti o n s is o n l y a n e l e m e n t a r y i n i t i a t i o n - - i s b e in g in

t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e F o r m s t h e m s e l v e s . 26

T h e c a v e i m a g e m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t o n e u s t c h o o s e b e t w e e n t u r n i n g t h e s o u l

t o w a r d s t h e u n c h a n g in g F o r m s w h i c h a r e o r t o w a r d s t h e m u l t i f o r m e v e r - ch a n g i n g

h u m a n a f f a i rs . I f l e f t t o t h e m s e l v e s , th e p h i l o s o p h e r s w o u l d n o t b e w i l l in g t o g o

d o w n a g a i n a m o n g t h o s e p r i s o n e r s o r s h a r e th e i r l a b o r s a n d h o n o r s ( 51 9 d) . O n e

m u s t t a k e s e r i o u s l y t h i s r e l u c t a n c e t o r e t u r n , f o r it c a n n o t b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e

p h i l o s o p h e r s d o n o t y e t k n o w w h a t i s in t he i r o w n i n te r e s t . E x h y p o t h e s i ( 5 1 7 b - d )

t h e y a r e t h e o n e s w h o h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n th e g o o d , y e t w e a r e t o l d t h a t w e s h o u l d

n o t b e s u r p r i s e d t h a t t h e m e n w h o g e t to t h a t p o i n t a r e n ' t w i l l i n g t o m i n d t h e

b u s i n e s s o f h u m a n b e i n gs , b u t r a t h e r t h e i r so u l s a r e a l w a y s e a g e r t o s p e n d t h e i r

t i m e a b o v e . 27 A t r u e p h i l o s o p h e r d e s p i s e s p o l i t i c a l o f fi c e ( 5 2 1 b ) ; r u l i n g f o r

h i m i s d r u d g e r y ( 5 4 0b ) . I t i s q u i t e tr u e , b u t a l s o q u i t e i r r e l e v a n t , t h a t P l a t o

a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t e a c h p h i l o s o p h e r w i l l o n l y n e e d t o s e r v e a s h o r t t e r m i n of fi ce

( 5 40 b ) a n d c a n s p e n d t h e m a j o r p a r t o f h is l a t e r y e a r s p h i l o s o p h i z i n g . T h e f a c t

t h a t P l a t o f e e l s i t n e c e s s a r y t o o f f e r t h i s a p o l o g y i s p r o o f t h a t P l a t o d o e s r e c o g n i z e

t h a t t h e h a p p i n e s s o f th e p h i l o s o p h e r i s n o t p r o m o t e d b y h i s r u l i n g h is c i t y .

2 . T h a t t h e j u s t i c e o f t h e c i t y n e c e s s i t a t e s t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s r u l e . W h e n a n a l y z -

i n g th e a r g u m e n t o f t he

R e p u b l i c

i t i s o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e r e a d e r k e e p

i n m i n d t h e f r e q u e n t s h if ts in t h e m a i n a n a l o g y b e t w e e n t h e c i ty a n d t h e m a n .

A t a n y g i v e n p o i n t i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o a s k w h e t h e r i t i s th e j u s t c i t y o r t h e j u s t m a n

w h i c h S o c r a t e s i s a t t h a t p o i n t c o n s i d e r i n g . ( O n e h e l p f u l b u t o f t e n u n n o t i c e d h i n t

w h i c h P l a t o p r o v i d e s i s t h a t w h e n i t i s t h e c i t y w h i c h i s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , h e

26 Symposium 2 1 1 . I t i s so m e t im es su g g es t ed th a t , f o r P l a to , t h e activity o f p h i l o s o p h y

in c lu d es r e tu r n in g to t h e cav e , o r in so m e v ag u e sen se i s o n ly f u lf i ll ed wh en ap p l i ed

to th e wo r ld o f b eco m in g . I f i n d n o ju s t i f ic a t io n f o r t h is i n an y o f P l a to . A m an ' s n a tu r e

i s d e f in ed b y w h a t h e lo v es ; a p h i lo s o p h e r is ex p l i c i t l y sa id t o b e a l o v e r o f w h a t / s (4 74 f t. )

an d ex p l i c i t l y d en ie d to b e a l o v e r o f r u l in g ( 52 1 b4 ). T h e p h i lo so p h ic n a tu r e i s , u n d e r -

s t an d ab ly , su i t ed f o r p h i lo so p h y , an d , a s P l a to su cc in c t ly p u t s i t , i t i s t h a t a scen t to wh a t

is wh ich w e t r u ly a ff i rm to b e p h i lo so p h y ( 52 1 c7 ). I t i s n o t p a r t o f r ea l i z in g th e p h i lo so p h ic

n a tu r e t o r u l e ; a l l P l a to ev e r c l a im s i s t h a t n o th in g in t h a t n a tu r e m ak es i t im p o ss ib l e f o r

su ch a m an to r u l e ( 48 4- 48 7 ). I n d eed , t h e p h i lo s o p h ic n a tu r e i s t h e b e s t n a tu r e f o r r u l in g ;

i f y o u n eed a r u l e r , g e t a p h i lo so p h e r . Bu t f r o m th i s i t d o es not f o l l o w t h a t i f y o u w a n t t o

p h i lo so p h ize , y o u n eed to r u l e .

2 r T h e b as i c p r o b lem I a m p o s in g wi l l p e r h ap s b e c l a r i f i ed so m ewh a t i f s t a t ed f r o m

an o th e r p o in t o f v i ew . A t t h e l ev e l o f o r d in a r y m en , i n o r d in a r y c i t i e s , a m an ' s d e s i r e s

wi l l n o t a lway s b e f o r wh a t i s i n h i s t r u e in t e r e s t - - a s P l a to p u t s i t , wh a t seem s to h im to b e

b e s t m a y n o t c o i n c id e w i t h w h a t a m a n r e a l l y w a n ts ( cf . Gorgias 466 f t . ) . Only o f a man

wh o k n o w s th e g o o d wi l l i t b e t r u e th a t h i s d e s ir e s (a s t h ey ap p ea r o r seem to h im ) w i l l

n ecessa r i l y co in c id e w i th h i s r ea l o r r a t i o n a l w an t s , i .e . , w i th wh a t i s i n h i s t r u e in t e r e s t .

T h e p r o b le m o f wh e th e r t h e ( i n t e r n a l ly ) j u s t m an i s co m p a t ib l e w i th t h e j u s t c i t y , i .e . ,

wh e th e r Jw~_ _Jta, c an b e p o sed a s f o l lo ws : i n an id ea l c i t y , an d f o r a m an wh o h as seen

th e g o o d , w i l l h i s wan t s b e co m p a t ib l e w i th wh a t i s i n t h e i n t e r e s ts o f t h e c i t y ? I am

su g g es t in g th a t ev en a t t h i s i d ea l l ev e l , P l a to ad m i t s t h a t t h e r e i s a co n f l i c t : wh a t t h e

p h i lo s o p h e r (wh o h as seen th e g o o d [ 5 17 b- d] ) w an t s o r w i l l s (5 1 7 cd ) s t an d s in co n f li c t w i th

wh a t i s i n t h e t r u e in t e r e s t s o f t h e i d ea l c i t y . Or , t o p u t t h e d i l em m a in to P l a to n ic t e r m s :

t h is m a n ' s r a t i o n a l w a n t s a r e o p p o s e d t o p e r f o r m i n g J p A .

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THE HAPPY PHILO SOPHER 395

frequently has Socrates refer to himself and his interlocutors as we founders. )

The section comprising Books V through VII is explicitly said to concern the city,

its realizability and the makeup of certain initially puzzling features, e.g., the

equality of women, the com monalit y of prope rty and children, etc. 2s T he entire

question of a philosopher's ruling comes up only in this connection, in answer to

the question of what would be functionally necessary for such a city to come

into being.

When Glaucon first hears that the philosophers must sacrifice some of their

own happiness, he replies, Are we to do them an injustice, and make them live

a worse life when a better is possible for the m? (519d). Glaucon, r emembering

the previous arguments, is perfectly correct in calling actions which lead to a less

than best life unjus t if one is talking abo ut the justice (and the happiness) of

a man, i.e., Jw. But Socrates reminds him that we are not talking about individual

men here:

My friend, you have again forgotten that it's not the concern of law that any one

class in the city fare exceptionally well, but it tries to bring this about for the whole

city . . . It produces such men in the city not in order to let them turn whichever way

each wants, but in order that it may use them in binding the city together. (519e-520a)

Thus, vis-h-vis the city, Socrates explains, we ( founders , 519c) will not be

doing an injustice in requiring them to rule. In addition to compelling them, we

shall try to persuade them by saying just things (520a). This saying just things

can only refer to J p (the justice of the city), for if it meant Jw (the internal justice

of the individual man), this would mean saying such things as, You owe it to

yourself to do what your nature is best suited for, to mind your own internal busi-

ness ; these latter statements would encourage the p hilosopher towards con-

templation, not towards ruling. Instead, Socrates appeals to the city, to the debt

the philosophers owe for their rearing and to the fact that their rule would be

good for the city. (And such persuasion is bound to work--for these philosophers

have been nurture d in the city, baby-fe d on the noble lie [414] and on the up-

bringing that gives them a sense of kinship with the city [462-466]. They have

been raised to be J o . 2 9

Whereas Glaucon has previously called the act of compelling philosophers

to rule an injustice with reference to the better life available for that individual

man, on hearing Socrates' present justification---one offered entirely in terms of

men considered as parts in their city---Glaucon now concludes, We are laying just

28 The equality of women and the communality are both justified in this context because

they a r e g o o d or the i t y (456e-457a; 462b).

29 Whether or not the noble lie is successful in convincing the philosopher to rule does

not militate against the truth of my point. The fact that a man is successfully persuaded

that his true interest coincides with the interest of the city does not make that of which he

is persuaded true. If the man has a philosophic nature, it is in his true interests to develop

that nature and then to philosophize. In saying he ought to rule, it might be noble to

place the interest of the city paramount, but it is still a lie with respect to what is in the

true interest of the philosopher.

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396 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

c o m m a n d s o n t h o s e w h o a r e j u s t ( 52 0 e) . T h i s s t a t e m e n t m a k e s s e n se a g a in o n l y

i f t h e j u s t ic e r e f e r r e d t o , o f b o t h t h e c o m m a n d s a n d t h o s e t o w h o m t h e y a r e

d i r e c t e d , i s t h e j u s t i c e o f t h e c i t y : i t i s f u n c t i o n a l l y n e c e s s a r y t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s

r u l e

i f t h e c i t y i s t o b e b e s t

( 4 73 d , 5 20 d ); a n d s u c h m e n w i l l o b e y t h e s e c o m m a n d s

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e J p .

I f b o t h t h e s e p o i n ts a r e t r u e - - a n d i t s e em s c l e a r P l a t o w a n t s t o a s s e rt t h e y

a r e - - t h e n t h e r e s e em s t o b e a n i n c o m p a t i b i l i ty b e tw e e n a p h i l o s o p h e r ' s b e i n g

c o m p l e t e l y h a p p y a n d h is r u l i n g t h e i d e a l ci ty . M o r e o v e r , n o t o n l y d o e s t h e

p a s s a g e m a k e t h i s i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y c l e a r , b u t i t s h o w s f u r t h e r t h a t P l a t o i s a w a r e

o f t h e c o n fl ic t . I f P l a t o d o e s o p t 30 f o r m a k i n g t h e c i t y h a p p y , a n d t h u s d e v i s e s

w a y s o f p e rs u a d i n g t h e p h i l o s o p h e r t o p e r f o r m J p A , h is r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p o ss i b le

n e e d t o c o m p e l ( np ot r~ tv ~t yKd t~ etv 5 2 0 a ) i n d i c a t e s h i s a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e t e n s i o n

i s a r e a l o n e .

V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t T h r a s y m a c h u s h a s c h a l l e n g e d S o c r a t e s t o s h o w t h a t f o r

a n y i n d i v i d u a l b o t h ( 1 ) b e i n g a s h a p p y a s p o s s i b l e i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h b e i n g j u s t

v i s - h - v i s h i s c i t y , a n d ( 2 ) t h a t b e i n g u n j u s t v i s - a - v i s h i s c i t y i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h

t h a t d e g r e e o f h a p p i n e s s . I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t i n a t l e a s t o n e i n s t a n c e P l a t o a d m i t s

t h a t n e i t h e r o f t h e s e c h a l le n g e s c a n b e c o m p l e t e l y m e t . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e p h i lo s -

o p h e r i n t h e i d e a l l y j u s t c i ty , m a x i m i z i n g h i s h a p p i n e s s e n t a i l s l o o k i n g a t t h e

F o r m s a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e , w h i l e j u s t i c e i n h i s c i t y e n t a i l s h i s g i v i n g u p s o m e o f

t h i s h a p p i n e s s t o w o r k a t a t a s k h e d o e s n o t e n j o y . T h u s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r P l a t o ' s

p r o o f , it a p p e a r s t h a t a p h i l o s o p h e r w h o h a s b e e n e d u c a t e d b y h i s c i ty t o se e th e

g o o d w o u l d b e h a p p i e r if h e w e r e u n j u s t (U p ) , i .e . , i f h e c o p p e d o u t o n h is r u li n g

t a s k a n d i n s t e a d p h i l o s o p h i z e d . A n d , o f c o u r s e , w e a r e e n t i t l e d t o a s s u m e b y t h e

c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l c h a l l e n g e ( 3 6 1 a ) t h a t h e s u c c e s s f u l l y g e t s a w a y w i t h h i s

i n j u s t i c e . B u t r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r h e c o m m i t s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r U p A o r n o t , t h e

f a c t s e e m s t o b e t h a t , a t le a s t f o r th e b e s t o f m e n , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a n i r r e m e d i a b l e

c o n f li c t b e t w e e n d e v e l o p i n g o n e s e l f to p e r f e c t io n a n d t h e j u s ti c e w h i c h d e m a n d s

s a c r i f i c i n g a p a r t o f o n e s e l f o n b e h a l f o f o n e ' s f e l l o w m e n .

B e f o r e c o n c l u d i n g , I w a n t t o c o n s i d e r b r ie f ly t w o o b j e c ti o n s w h i c h h a v e b e e n

r a i s e d a g a i n s t e a r l i e r d r a f t s o f t h i s p a p e r , a n d w h i c h m a y p e r h a p s b e i n t h e m i n d s

o f s o m e r e a d e r s . B o t h o b j e c t i o n s d e n y t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r c a n i n f a c t b e

m a x i m a l l y h a p p y w i t h o u t h is r u l in g t h e c it y. T h e o b j e c ti o n s , s u m m a r i l y s t a te d , r u n

a s f o l l o ws :

1 . S o c r a t e s a r g u e s ( 4 2 0 ft ., e s p e c i a l l y 4 2 0 d a n d 4 2 1 a ) t h a t i f t h e b e s t n a t u r e s

d o n o t r u l e , t h e c i t y w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d . A n d i f t h e w h o l e i s d e s t r o y e d , f o r t i o r i

~o I am n o t claiming that Plato does opt for this choice, nor does the existence of the

nob le l ie provide evidence that Plato does so opt. Th e nob le l ie occurs in Book III ,

in the context of the founding of the ideal city. Socrates' argument is simply that if one wants

to fou nd the happiest possible city, such a lie w ill be functionally n ecessary.

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T H E H A P P Y P H I L O S O P H E R 397

t h e p a r t i s d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h i t. T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o th i s o b j e c t i o n , t h e p h i l o s -

o p h e r w i l l d e s t r o y h i m s e l f i f h e d o e s n o t r u l e .

2 . S o c r a t e s a rg u e s ( 3 4 7 a - d ) t h a t i n f a c t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r w i ll h a v e t o r u l e in his

own interest, b e c a u s e o t h e r w i s e h e w i ll s u f fe r t h e p e n a l t y o f h a v i n g a w o r s e m a n

r u l e h i m . O n l y b y his r u l e c a n h e a v o i d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f l i v i n g u n d e r t h e r u l e

o f a n i n f e r i o r .

N e i t h e r o f t h e s e o b je c t io n s s e e m s t o b e t e n a b le . I h a v e a l r e a d y c i t e d a b o v e

P l a t o ' s m a n y e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t s t h a t a b e t t e r l i f e t h a n r u l i n g d o e s e x i s t . B u t

a p a r t f r o m t h is , b o t h o b j e c t io n s m i s c o n c e i v e t h e n a t u r e o f P l a t o 's a r g u m e n t f o r

t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s :

1 . T h e f i rs t o b j e c t i o n m i s t a k e s w h a t i t is t h a t S o c r a t e s s a y s i s d e s t r o y e d .

I t i s n o t th e m a n h i m s e l f w h o p e r is h e s , b u t t h e g u a r d i a n , i .e ., t h e m a n qua part.

W h a t S o c r a t e s s a y s i s t h a t i f w e w e r e t o m a x i m i z e t h e g u a r d i a n ' s h a p p i n e s s , w e

w o u l d t u r n h i m in t o s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a g u a r d i a n , i .e ., h e w o u l d b e c o m e

a f u l l- t im e ( h a p p y ) p h i l o s o p h e r . W h a t w o u l d b e d e s t r o y e d is

this m an s being a

guardian. I t i s t r u e t h a t ( p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f t h e i n e p t n e s s o f s e c o n d - r a t e r s a t

c a l c u la t in g t h e n u p t i a l n u m b e r ) t h e c i t y m i g h t s o o n p e r i s h , a n d w i t h i t t h e

s p e c i e s o f ( f u t u r e ) p h i l o s o p h e r s , a t l e a s t i n s o f a r a s t h e y a r e p r o g r a m m a t i c a l l y

p r o d u c e d i n s u c h c i t i e s . B u t t h i s i s n o t a n o b j e c t i o n a s t o w h y t h i s i n d i v i d u a l ,

a l r e ad y - e x i s ti n g p h i l o s o p h e r w i l l n o t b e h a p p i e s t w h i l e c o n t e m p l a t i n g .

2 . E v e n i f t h i s s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n w e r e v a l i d , i t w o u l d h a v e t o b e s e r i o u s l y

m o d i f i ed . F o r a t 3 4 7 d l S o c r a te s sa y s t h is a r g u m e n t a p p l ie s i f t h e y h a v e n o o n e

b e t t e r t h a n or like themselves t o w h o m t o t u r n t h e r u l e o v e r . B u t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s

d o h a v e o t h e r s l i k e t h e m s e l v e s t o r u l e , si n c e t h e c i t y d e v e l o p e d a c l a s s o f

p h i l o s o p h e r - r u l e r s . I t w o u l d b e t o t h e a d v a n t a g e o f e a c h t o c o m m i t t h e i n j u s t i c e

a n d l e a v e r u l i n g t o t h e r e s t o f t h o s e l i k e t h e m s e l v e s . A n d , b y t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f

T h r a s y m a c h u s ' c h a l l e n g e , w e m u s t c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e l i f e o f o n e w h o s u c c e s s f u l l y

g e t s a w a y w i t h h i s i n j us t ic e . B u t i n f a c t th e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e a c a d e m i c ,

b e c a u s e t h i s s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n f o r g e t s w h a t S o c r a t e s i s t r y i n g t o p r o v e . T h i s

o b j e c t i o n s e e k s t o j u s t i f y b e i n g J p b y r e f e r e n c e t o th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o r w a g e s

t h a t s t e m f r o m p e r f o r m i n g J p A , a n d i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s k i n d o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t

S o c r a t e s e x p l i c i t ly r u l e s o u t . P l a t o e v i d e n t l y w a n t s t o u n d e r s c o r e t h a t t h e ' n e g a t iv e

s a n c t i o n , t h e p e n a l t y o f h a v i n g t o b e r u l e d b y a n i n f e r i o r , d e f i n i t e ly i s to b e

c o u n t e d a s a w a g e (I xt a0 6 g ), f o r h e h a s S o c r a t e s c a l l i t s u c h o v e r t h e o b j e c t i o n

G l a u c o n r a i s e s to this very word ( 3 47 a 9 ). A n d t h e n G l a u c o n u s e s t hi s v e r y w o r d

( 3 5 8 b 7 ) t o t e l l S o c r a t e s w h a t h e d o e s not w a n t j u s t i c e p r a i s e d f o r . T o j u s t i f y

r u l in g a s g o o d b e c a u s e o f w h a t c o m e s f r o m i t, w h i l e i t i ts e lf i s d r u d g e r y , w o u l d

b e t o p l a c e it in t h e c a t e g o r y o f m e d i c i n e , i. e., i t w o u l d b e t o a d m i t t h a t b e i n g

j u s t i s n o t g o o d i n i t s e lf .

I f w h a t I h a v e a r g u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h is p a p e r i s c o r r e c t , o r e v e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y

c o r r e c t, I t h i n k i t s et s th e p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a r g u m e n t a b o u t j u s ti c e a n d

h a p p i n e s s i n a n e w l ig h t. H e r e t o f o r e t h e p r o b l e m s o f P l a t o 's Republic h a v e b e e n

s e e n la r g e l y i n t e r m s o f a c o n f li c t b e t w e e n a P l a t o n i c a n d a v u l g a r n o t i o n o f

j u s t ic e ; o n m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e r e is a r e a l c o n f l ic t b e t w e e n t w o s e n s e s o f

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j u s ti c e , b o t h o f t h e m P l a t o n i c . M o r e o v e r , u n l es s T h r a s y m a c h u s ' c h a l l e n g e c a n b e

m e t , i t w o u l d s e e m t h a t w h a t P l a t o i s sa y i n g i s t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s o c ia l

c o n s c i e n c e i n t h e b e s t o f m e n , w h i l e n e c e s s a r y i f m a n k i n d a s a w h o l e i s t o b e

b e n e f it e d , m a y b e a t t h e e x p e n s e o f s o m e h a p p i n e s s o n t h e p a r t o f t h o s e w h o a r e

w i s e s t . P e r h a p s P l a t o , r e a l i z i n g t h i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s c h o s e t o d e d i c a t e s o m e o f h i s

y e a r s a t t e m p t i n g t o r e f o r m t h e p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f S i c i l y ; t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s s a c r i f i c e

o f p h i l o s o p h y r e s u l t e d in o n l y a t t e m p t s t o k il l t h e m a n w h o t r ie d to le a d t h e m u p

( 5 1 7a ) , m i g h t a c c o u n t f o r w h a t s o m e h a v e s e n s e d a s a n a u r a o f P l a t o n i c

p e s s i m i s m .

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