104270558 Magnetism in Nanoelectronics

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Theory Of Operation

As we know conventional electronic devicesrely on the transport of electrical charge carriers- electrons - in a semiconductor such as silicon[4]. This has led to the development of themicroprocessor IC that is seen in every walk of life. Electronic devices based on electronscarrying charge are ubiquitous in society. Theadvent of spintronics manipulates the spin of the electron in contrast to the charge of theelectron, because every electron has spin and isa quantum variable in nature it exists in asuperposition of up and down which is to saywe can exploit quantum physics using thisquantum variable. Conventional electronicdevices use a physical state of 1 or 0, it is there

or not, to store or represent data in binary form.The spin of an electron is controlled and it can be thought of as a sphere with a needle in itscentre that can point to any position on thesphere. This means that every point on thesphere can be a data point, so in principle thismeans that one electron can store an infiniteamount of data [5].

Fig 3. Electron Representation in spin.

The idea of an electron as a sphere with anarrow pointing through its centre is only useful

to easily illustrate a point and using an electronto store infinite data is pure theory. For a deeper explanation of electron spin we must look at theelectron in terms of quantum mechanics. Aninteresting side note, the name electron wascoined by an Irish physicist, George JohnstoneStoney, educated at Trinity College Dublin, atthe Belfast meeting of the British Associationin 1874 [6]. Electrons are subatomic particles of matter that carry negative charge. It has no knowncomponents or substructure and therefore it is

believed to be an elementary particle [7]. Fig 4

shows the standard model that describes all the

known particles and their interactions to date, itis also known as the quantum field theory.

Fig 4 Standard Model

This table describes the elementary particle behaviour, particle physicists seek to isolate,create, and identify elementary interactions of the most basic constituents of the universe [8].So this table gives information on the behaviour of the particles much like the periodic tablegives data on the molecules they constitute.From the standard model we can see that all the

particles contained here have the same spin, .These particles are matter particles or fermions.Other particles have a spin of 0, 1 and 2 [9] andthese particles are the particles that give force

between the matter particles, force particles arecalled bosons [10]. What the spin of a particlereally tells us is what the particle looks likefrom different directions. A spin of 0 is like adot; it looks the same from every direction.Spin 1 is like an arrow it looks different fromdifferent directions and can only look the sameif it is turned in a full 360 deg revolution. Spin only looks the same if it is turned in twocomplete revolutions (720 deg) [11]. So anelectron has a spin . The electron issubdivided into the lepton group of particlesand this describes the interactions in which they

participate; gravitational, electromagnetic andweak nuclear force [12]. If electrons participatein gravity, electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces in a certain way then this allows us tocontrol the spin of an electron by setting up anelectromagnetic field to turn the spin in acontrolled way e.g. up or down.

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secure communications, and single atom dopingtechniques will be developed that will open upimportant applications in the semiconductor industry. We anticipate that there will beconsiderable synergy with nanotechnology andspintronics. The journey ahead will be

challenging but it is one that will lead tounprecedented advances in both fundamentalscientific understanding and practical newtechnologies [18].On a more practical level spintronics has beenused to discover the Giant Magnetoresistanceeffect (GMR) seen on thin film structures. Thethin films are thin layers of a material rangingin thickness from nanometers to centimetersthick. When we talk about GMR the thicknessfalls into the nanometer scale. GMR wasdiscovered by Peter Grunberg and Albert Fert.They saw very large resistance changes -- 6

percent and 50 percent, respectively -- inmaterials comprised of alternating very thinlayers of various metallic elements [19]. Theeffect is seen when a magnetic field is present

beside the thin film layers. As we stated earlier the electron has a magnetic moment thatdescribes the measure and direction of itsmagnetism. It is this property that is of use inGMR. The basic design of GMR is shown inFig 8.

Fig 8 Basic GMR Concept

The layers of magnetic material are divided bya non-magnetic spacer in the centre. If theelectrons in both layers are moved to the up

position the resistance is seen as low throughthem. If one of the layers electrons are placed inthe down position the resistance throughthem is seen as high. This high and lowresistance can be sensed and the resistance can

be viewed as a logic levels. The layers electrondirection are changed by the presence of anelectromagnetic field, when the field isremoved the electrons for example in the leftlayer of Fig 3 that were in the up position will

now be influenced by the magnetic field of thelayer beside it and will return to the down position or in anti-parallel configuration. The

basic principle of GMR is that thin film layersof magnetic materials can be individuallycontrolled by external electromagnetic fields.The applications of this fact are discussed in thenext section.

ElectronicsTechnology and Fabrication

Researchers at IBM have developed the mostcomplicated quantum computer operation in2001. They used a quantum computer tofactorise 15 into its factors, 3 and 5. Theycaused a billion-billion custom-designedmolecules in a test tube to become a seven-qubit quantum computer that solved a simpleversion of the mathematical problem at theheart of many of today's data-securitycryptographic systems [20]. This shows thatalthough quantum computers are at the veryearly stages of development the solutions andapplications are of enormous benefit. Themanager and strategist of IBMs ResearchPhysics, Nabil Anar, says This resultreinforces the growing realization that quantumcomputers may someday be able to solve

problems that are so complex that even themost powerful supercomputers working for millions of years can't calculate the answers[21]. Fig 9 shows a diagram of the 7 bit qubitused by IBM.

Fig 9. 7-bit Qubit Molecule by IBM

The qubits serve as the computer processor andmemory at the same time. The interactions

between the qubit and external sources of interference are isolated so these interactionscan be controlled. Chemists designed themolecule that has 7 spins, it contains fivefluorine and two carbon atoms, and the spin iscontrolled by radio frequency pulses anddetected by NMR (Nuclear MagneticResonance) [22]. NMR is where the spin of theelectron generates a magnetic field, when thismagnetic field is exposed to another magneticfield, e.g. a detector; there are two spin states inexistence. The difference in the energy

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but a spin transistor differs from a conventionaltransistor in that the spin (or magnetic state) of a transistor can be set and then will not change,so unlike a normal electrical circuit thatrequires a continuous supply of power, a spintransistor remains in the same magnetic state

even when power is removed [26]. This factwill allow for very small transistors that do nothave the problems today of normal transistorsrequiring a lot of energy to switch states at verysmall sizes.

Fig 13 Spin Transistor

Of huge importance to any industry is theability of the industry to turn the theory intousable products in high volume and low cost.As pointed out earlier the spintronics industry isrelatively new but building on the techniqueslearned from the microprocessor industry thereare established techniques that can be used for the fabrication of nanodevices. Fromresearching for this report I have selected three

techniques from the many options to discuss.Molecular beam epitaxy is a technique for epitaxial growth via the interaction of one or several molecular or atomic beams that occurson a surface of a heated crystalline substrate.The solid sources materials are placed inevaporation cells to provide an angular distribution of atoms or molecules in a beam.The substrate is heated to the necessarytemperature and, when needed, continuouslyrotated to improve the growth homogeneity [39] . MBE deposits single crystals at a time onto a substrate epitaxy. It is a slow process andthis allows the thin films or crystals to grow.This method of putting down layers is used inthe manufacture of both quantum dots and thinfilms layers for GMR.

Fig 14. MBE The resulting 'superlattices' have a number of technologically important uses includingQuantum well lasers for semiconductingsystems, and Giant Magneto-Resistance for

metallic systems [40]. A key element in MBEis the preparation of the substrate. The surfaceneeds to be clean and free of foreign materialcontamination. A clean surface is an important

prerequisite for epitaxial growth, sincecontaminants from the atmosphere or other

sources can easily contaminate a clean GaAswafer and cause crystal defects or degrade theoptical and electrical characteristics of theepitaxial layer [41]. The process is monitored

by RHEED (Reflective High Energy ElectronDiffusion) intensity oscillations to measure thegrowth of materials during MBE. It bounces anelectron beam off the substrate and thedifference in the angle of reflection indicatesthe growth rate.E-beam lithography or electron beamlithography refers to a lithographic processthat uses a focused beam of electrons to formthe circuit patterns needed for materialdeposition on (or removal from) the wafer, incontrast with optical lithography which useslight for the same purpose. Electronlithography offers higher patterning resolutionthan optical lithography because of the shorter wavelength possessed by the 10-50 keVelectrons that it employs [42]. This method isused widely in industry for creatingnanotechnology devices. It allows us to createvery small patterns. Optical lithography isconstrained by its light diffraction and EBLdoes not have this problem.

Fig 15. E-Beam Lithography

Metalorganic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) is a process for the production of complex

semiconductor film systems as used in moderndevices such as lasers, transistors for mobile phones or light emitting diodes. Unlike thewell-known silicon, these semiconductors donot merely consist of one component but of twoor even more. They are therefore designatedcompound semiconductors [43]. Compoundsemiconductors like gallium arsenide (GaAs)and indium phosphide (InP) are part of thisgroup. To construct a layer of GaAs we needtwo compounds (gallium and arsenic) in their gas form. The gases are fed into a chamber withthe substrate and the compounds react and form

a GaAs layer that has been grown onto thesubstrate. After this a scrubber gas is used toremove any molecules that have not reacted and

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are detached form the surface substrate [44].The time, temperature and gas composition isentirely dependant on the type of compoundyou want on the substrate.

Fig 16. MOVPEResearch Groups

From the research carried out for this report itseems that IBM are the major commercialresearcher for spin devices. From their researchwebsite it indicates they are involved inhundreds of research projects across a widerange of disciplines but in relation tomagnetism in nanoelectronics the main focus ison GMR, Tunnel Junctions, MagneticTheory/Simulation andMagnetoelectronics/Spintronics. The main goalof IBMs nanotechnology research aims todevise new atomic- and molecular-scalestructures and devices for enhancinginformation technologies, as well as discover and understand their scientific foundations[28]. The US patent office granted 4,186

patents to IBM in 2008. This amount wasnearly triple the number Hewlett Packard (HP)received, and exceeding the total combinednumber of patents for Microsoft (2,030), HP(1,424), Apple (186), EMC (192), Accenture(68) and Google (58). With 3,515 patents,Samsung came in second, followed by Canon inthird place with 2,114 [29]. This highlights amassive effort on IBMs part to consolidatetheir position as a market leader in newtechnology going into the future.

Closer to home Ireland has tworesearch companies that were visited by theclass in 2009, Crann and Tyndall. Crann(Centre for Research on Adaptive

Nanostructures and Nanodevices) based inTrinity College Dublin. As the name wouldsuggest have an interest in nanotechnology andhave a wide range of activities that are beingresearched, researchers are pioneeringdevelopments in several key and emergingareas such as organic and molecular spintronics, flexible electronics, nanoscale

polymer imprint, ultra-sensitive bio-sensors andnanoscale metrology [30]. There are threemain themes to the research at Crann;

Nanoscale Magnetism and Spintronics,Integrated Nanoscale Devices and Bio-sensingand Bio-Nanoassembley. These three themesoverlap and involve many different disciplines.

The technical activities are directed by 17 principle investigators with 150 researhers onthe staff. A presentation by one of theresearchers on magnetism showed how the spinof an electron was reacting to a 2 Tesla magnet.The object of the project was to investigate disk

storage but the experiment was not working for the researcer on the day. One very importantoutcome of the work done in Crann was thedesign of Smeagol. This has been designed tocalculate transport properties of atomic scaledevices. It is the result of a collaboration

between the Computational Spintronics groupat Trinity College Dublin, and the condensedmatter groups of the University of Lancaster and Oviedo [31]. This is simulation softwaredeveloped to make quantitative predictions

providing experimentalists with a better understanding and clear directions for designing atomic scale devices [32]. This toolallows other developers to make accuratecomparisons between experimental andtheoretical designs to allow for morecomprehensive modelling and so for thisreason it has been specifically created to dealwith magnetic systems [33].Even closer to home is Tyndall in Cork. Theclass also visited this research facility. Themain focus of the research at Tyndall includes the fabrication and characterisation of novelnanoscale device structures on silicon. Thiswork is designed to help industry to continuealong the trajectory defined by Moores Law.The heterogeneous integration of nanoscalematerials into practical working devices of interest to the electronics industry. Theintegration of novel functional materials ontoactive silicon devices, designed to permit thedelivery of added functionality for systems-on-chip (SoC) applications including on-chip

power, sensing and actuation [34]. To achievethis Tyndall has over 370 researchers (including116 PhD students), 200 industry partnershipsand five start ups based on Tyndall technology.An area of research using magnetism is in Magnetic Field Assisted Assembly of

Nanocrystal wires where it was found thatnanocrystal wires can be formed and alignedusing magnetic fields [35]. This type of research is providing the industry with the toolsrequired to construct nanodevices. Without thetools to easily make the devices the industrywill be to expensive to run. Other areas of research include a lot of photonic work withregard to quantum dots and self assembly of nanoscale components where the componentsare placed in the device by using electric fieldsto guide them into position.From the point of view of a student the industryis growing at a massive rate and according to

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Prof. David Awschalom of the University of California the area of nanotechnology has greatopportunities for students to further their studies [36] and with two well respectedresearch companies in the country, with one thedoorstep, nanotechnology might well be the

way forward.

Application to Industry

A lot of material covered in this report is still atvery early stages of research. There has been noclear roeadmap to the future that the scientificcommunity have yet agreed except that theadvancement of spintronics is well under way.To continue the rapid pace of discoveries,considerable advances in our basicunderstanding of spin interactions in the solidstate along with developments in materialsscience, lithography, minaturization of optoelectronic elements, and device fabricationare necessary. The progress towardunderstanding and implementing the spindegree of freedom in metallic multilayers and,more recently, in semiconductors is gainingmomentum as more researchers begin toaddress the relevant challenges from markedlydifferent viewpoints [37].In relation to quantum computing DavidDiVincenzo of IBM highlighted five stages

before a quantum computer can become a practical reality; (1) a scalable physicalsystem with well-characterized qubits; (2) theability to initialize the qubit state; (3)decoherence times much longer than thequantum gate operation time; (4) a universal setof quantum gates; (5) and the ability to measurespecific qubits [38]. Spintronics is not the onlycontender marked as a solution for quantumcomputer solutions, other possible solutionsinclude Bose-Einstein Condenstate quantumcomputer, Diamond based quantum computer and Optic based quantum computer are to name

but a few. My own opinion is that spintronics isa lead contender as IBM have shown that aqubit can be made and implemented as aquantum computer. Spintronics has also beenused to create workable disk storage and therecent commercial availability of storagedevices, from iPods to external hard drives, of up to terra bytes shows that industry has beensuccessful in manufacturing low cost high

volume applications. The microprocessor industry is so well understood that themanufacturing expertise gained from 50 years

of competition is adapting to the newchallenges of spintronics. With invention of tools like Smeagol and powerful electronscopes, these tools and new equipment allow usto experiment and design new and interestingmaterials that result powerful and innovative

designs.

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References

[1] Magnetism Fundamentals. E. du Tremoletde lacheisserie, D. Gignoux.www.google.com/books?id=MgCEnarQD08C8pg=DA3#V=onepage&q=&f=false[2]www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations[3] A Briefer History of Time. StephenHawking, Leonard Mlodinow.[4] Nanotech Now. www.nanotech-now.com/spintronics.htm[5] [36] Introduction to Spintronics. Prof DavidAwschelom. Interview on youtube for RoyalSociety in London. www.spintronics-info.com/[6] George Johnstone Stoney 1826-1911.Obituary Daily Express.www.offalyhistory.com/articles/264/1/George-

Johnstone-Stoney-1826-1911/Page1.html[7] New Testa for Quark and LeptonSubstructure. Estia J. Eichten etal.Phys.Rev.latt.50,811-814.www.prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v50/ill/p811_ 1[8] What is Elementary Pysics.www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?

pid=1000345[9][11][13] A Brief History of Time. StephenHawking.[10] The Particle Adventure.www.particleadventure.org/fermibos.html

[12] What Are Leptons. Paul A. Heckert.www.particle- physics.suite101.com/article.cfm/what_are_leptons[14] A Short History Of Nearly Everything.Bill Bryson[16][18] A Quantum Information Science andTechnology Roadmap. ARDA (AdvancedResearch Development Activity).www.qist.lenl.gov/pdf/rn_intro.pdf [17] Wikipedia.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Computer

[19][25] IBM Research.www.research.IBM.com/research/gmr.html

[20][21][22][24][38] IBMs Test TubeQuantum Computer Makes History.www.domino.research.IBM.com/comm/pr.nsf/

pages/news.2001/219_quantum.html[23] Nuclear Magnetic ResonanceSpectroscopy.

www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualTest/spectrpy/nmr/nmr1.html[26] Spintronics BreakthroughFor NextGeneration Electronics. Innocations Report.www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/energy_engineering/re

port.43595.html

[27] The Bipolar Spin Transistor. Mark Johnson 1996 Nanotechnology.www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0957-448417/4/015[28] IBMwww.domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research.nsf/pages/r.nanotech.html[29] IBMwww.domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research.nsf/d.compsci.ibmpatents.2008.html[30] Crann. www.crann.tcd.ie[31][32][33] Smeagol.www.smeagol.tcd.ie/SmeagolAbout.htm[34][35] Tyndallwww.tyndall.ie/micronano/index.html[37] Spintronics. A spin based electronic visionfor the future. S.A Wolf et al. Magnetism andMaterials[39] Basics of MBE. Fernando Rinaldi.www.opto.e-technik.uni-ulm.de/forshung/jahresbericht/2002/ar2002_fr [40] An Introduction to MBE. UK SurfaceAnalysis Forum.www.Uksaf.org/tech/mbe.html[41] An Introduction to MBE Growth.University of Texas.www.projects.ece.utexas.edu/ece/mrc/groups/street_mbe/mbechapter.html[42] Electron Beam Lithography.www.siliconfareast.com[43][44] What is MOVPE. Dorothea Gauer.www.fz-juelich.de/ibn/movpe/emovpe1.html[45] Quantum Dots In Electronics. CIT StudentReport for Nanotechnology 2008.

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104270558 Magnetism in Nanoelectronics

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