1019942

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09

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Where Do I Go for Environmental, Flow and Level Products?

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© COPYRIGHT 2009 OMEGA ENGINEERING, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Shop Online at For Sales and Service, Call TOLL FREE

Cover Art: Based on an Original Norman Rockwell illustration © The Curtis Publishing CompanyDilbert © United Feature Syndicate, Inc.

Visit omega.com to order your FREE copy ofTHE GREEN BOOK ®, Flow, Leveland Environmental Handbookand EncyclopediaTM, 8th Edition FREE!

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CP0912_FPA.indd 3 11/17/09 3:38 PM

CP0912_FPA.indd 4 11/17/09 3:39 PM

5 chemicalprocessing.com ● December 2009

Chemical Processing (ISSN 0009-2630) is published monthly by Putman Media Inc., 555 West Pierce Road, Suite 301, Itasca, IL 60143. Phone (630) 467-1300. Fax (630) 467-1109. Periodicals postage paid at Itasca, IL, and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Chemical Processing, P.O. Box 3434, Northbrook, IL 60065-3434. SUBSCRIPTIONS: Qualified reader subscriptions are accepted from operat-ing management in the chemical processing industries at no charge. To apply for a qualified subscription, fill in the subscription card. To nonqualified subscribers in the United States, subscriptions are $68 per year. Single copies are $14. Canadian and foreign annual subscriptions are accepted at $115 surface per year. Single copies are $16. Canada Post International Publications Mail Product Sales Agreement No. 40028661. Canadian Mail Distributor information: Frontier/BWI, PO Box 1051, Fort Erie, Ontario, Canada, L2A 5N8. Copyright 2009 Putman Media Inc. All rights reserved. The contents of this publication December not be reproduced in whole or in part without the consent of the copyright owner. REPRINTS: Reprints are available on a custom basis. For price quotation, contact Foster Reprints, (866) 879-9144, www.fostereprints.com also publishes Control, Control Design, Food Processing, Pharmaceutical Manufacturing and Plant Services. Chemical Processing assumes no responsibility for validity of claims in items reported.

contentsDECEMBER 2009 | VOLUME 72, ISSUE 12

14 18 21

columns7 From the Editor: Grasp All the Lessons of

Bhopal.

8 ChemicalProcessing.com: Where Does The Time Go?

9 Field Notes: Properly Estimate Engineering Hours.

12 Energy Saver: Improve Batch Processing.

13 Compliance Advisor: EPA Targets Electric Utilities.

30 Plant InSites: Assess the Gravity of the Situation.

34 End Point: Are Chief Execs Paid Too Much?

Departments10 In Process: Shell Showcases Emerging

Technologies | Better Data Promise Better Catalysts

29 Process Puzzler: Guard Against Gas

31 Equipment & Services

32 Product Spotlight/Classifieds

33 Ad Index

cover story 14 Bhopal Leaves a Lasting Legacy

Twenty-five years ago this month, the worst accident in the history of the chemical industry occurred — a leak at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, that killed thousands of people. This article looks at some of the wider lessons learned — and still to be learned. [Cover photo and article photos courtesy of Dennis Hendershot.]

Features MAINTENANCE AND OPERATIONS

18 Build Operator Expertise Faster Sites facing the dual challenges of increased requirements

for safe and efficient operation and expected retirement of large number of staff likely will lose substantial expert knowledge at a time when it’s of greatest need. Following a few do’s and don’ts can significantly speed learning.

SOLIDS AND FLUIDS HANDLINg

21 Benefits Beckon in Heat Transfer Boosts to heat transfer systems’ performance and ef-

ficiency can significantly impact operations. Recent de-velopments provide valuable operational and economical improvements plants can use.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

24 Consider an Alternative Security Program Sites covered by the U.S.’s Chemical Facilities Anti-

Terrorism Standards must develop suitable security plans. Rather than using the standard approach, opting for an alternative one may save time and money and provide bet-ter protection from all kinds of threats.

CP0912_05_TOC.indd 5 11/17/09 3:15 PM

*75019_2*

DOC PATH: Production:Volumes:Production:MICROSOFT:MECHANICALS:75019_Dynamics:DOCS:75019_2M_Dynamics_M4.indd IMAGES:75020_BACKGROUND_SW300_01.tif CMYK 450 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_BACKGROUND_SW300_01.tif 75020_Schorr_Tag_SW300_02.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Schorr_Tag_SW300_02.psd 75020_Steele_Tag_SW300_02.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Steele_Tag_SW300_02.psd 75020_Price_Tag_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Price_Tag_SW300_04.psd 75020_Desai_Tag_SW300_06.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Desai_Tag_SW300_06.psd 75020_Mitsu_1Tag_Right_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1164 ppi 103.03% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_1Tag_Right_SW300_04.psd 75020_Mitsu_2Tag_Left_SW300_02.psd CMYK 1215 ppi 98.72% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_2Tag_Left_SW300_02.psd 75020_Rowe_Tag_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1200 ppi, 1437 ppi, 1281 ppi 100%, 83.49%, 93.67% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Rowe_Tag_SW300_04.psd 75020_Mitsu_1_SW300_01.psd CMYK 1666 ppi 14.4% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_1_SW300_01.psd 75020_Price_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2040 ppi 11.76% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Price_SW300_01.psd 75020_Schorr_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2681 ppi 8.95% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Schorr_SW300_01.psd 75020_Rowe_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2876 ppi 8.34% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Rowe_SW300_01.psd 75020_Desai_SW300_03.psd CMYK 2735 ppi 8.77% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Desai_SW300_03.psd 75020_Johnson_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2287 ppi 10.49% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Johnson_SW300_01.psd 75020_Mitsu_2_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2122 ppi 11.31% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_2_SW300_01.psd Microsoft_Logo_Black.ai 35.33% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_LOGOS:Microsoft_logo:Microsoft_Logo_Black.ai Because_its_everybodys_business_LOGO_LOCKUP.eps Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_LOGOS:Misc:Because_its_everybodys_business_LOGO_LOCKUP.eps dyn-CRM_cmyk.eps Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:MECHANICALS:75020_Dynamics:SUPPLIED:dyn-CRM_cmyk.epsFONTS:Felt Tip Woman Regular True Type -banhart- ver : 010 Regular True Type Segoe Regular, Bold OpenType

FILE: 75019_2M_Dynamics_M4.inddSO5 Artist: Ravil Tabi

SO5#: 75019_2Client: MicrosoftBrand: DynamicsJob Name: Asset BuildingJWT #: MST-DYN-M06683Campaign: Manufacturing - CRMProof: 4 Page: 1

PP: Christian ColasuonnoPM: Nick Vitale AD: Mary WarnerECD: NoneCD: Louis-Philippe TremblayCW: Larry SilberfeinAE: Michael McKloskey

Saved: 11-18-2009 5:26 PMPrinted: 11-18-2009 5:26 PMPrint Scale: NonePrinter: 4880-1_SWOP3_133Media: PrintType: MagazineVendor: None

INKS: Cyan Magenta Yellow Black

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CP0912_FPA.indd 6 11/19/09 10:59 AM

7 chemicalprocessing.com December 2009

From The eDiTor

Companies still

blunder into

serious accidents

because they

don’t remember

previous

incidents.

This monTh marks the 25th anniversary of the worst industrial accident in history — release of toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) from a chemical plant at Bhopal, India, that killed thousands. Almost a genera-tion of engineers has entered the field since the 1984 disaster. Hopefully most are aware of the incident even if they don’t know its details. They probably can’t fathom the horror that those of us who were working then felt or appreciate the profound impact the release has had on how the chemical industry operates.

Let me recount the basics of the accident. Early on the morning of December 3, 1984, MIC gas leaked from a pesticide plant in Bhopal operated by Union Carbide India. The government of the state of Mad-hya Pradesh estimates that about 3,800 people died and thousands more suffered disabilities, although other sources put the toll at many times higher.

Investigations blamed the release on a large vol-ume of water getting into a tank containing about 42 metric tons of MIC, which was used an as intermedi-ate in the production of carbaryl. This caused a chemi-cal reaction that forced a release valve to open.

A number of factors made the accident so disas-trous, including: the amount of MIC on site and the way in which it was stored, shortcomings in safety sys-tem operation, and the large number of people living in a shanty town that had grown up adjacent to the plant.

The incident led to important efforts to make the industry safer. For instance, in 1985 the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York City, established the Center for Chemical Process Safety. Governments also responded, instituting or bolstering safety mandates. In the U.S., as the Web site of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) notes:

“When Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amend-ments of 1990, it required EPA to publish regulations and guidance for chemical accident prevention at facilities using extremely hazardous substances... The rule, which built upon existing industry codes and standards, requires companies of all sizes that use cer-tain flammable and toxic substances to develop a Risk Management Program, which includes a(n):

• Hazard assessment that details the potential ef-fects of an accidental release, an accident history of the last five years, and an evaluation of worst-case and alternative accidental releases;

• Prevention program that includes safety precau-tions and maintenance, monitoring, and employ-ee training measures; and

• Emergency response program that spells out emergency health care, employee training mea-sures and procedures for informing the public and response agencies (e.g., the fire department) should an accident occur.”

Chemical companies today routinely employ formal methods to identify potential risks and ways to deal with them. Many sites now treat manage-ment of change more rigorously. Safety concerns also are prompting increasing interest in the concept of inherent safety — designing out hazards instead of just building in countermeasures against them (see “Rethink Your Approach to Process Safety,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2007/158.html).

But even after all these years and all the attention, more needs doing.

We asked internationally recognized safety guru Trevor Kletz to reflect on lessons learned from Bhopal and, particularly, to indicate where companies still must improve (see p. 14). (Kletz long has focused on safety. In 1968 he became the first technical safety advisor for Imperial Chemical Industries, then one of the world’s largest chemical companies but now defunct (see “ICI Fades Into History,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2008/082.html). It pioneered use of hazops, and Kletz authored the first book on the topic. He has written extensively about safety. The latest edition of his landmark book “What Went Wrong: Case Histories of Process Plant Disasters and How They Could Have Been Avoided” has just come out (see “Make the Most of Your Summer Reading,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/148.html).)

Unfortunately, as Kletz notes, companies still blunder into serious accidents because they don’t remember previous incidents or attempt to learn about other firms’ past miscues with serious consequences.

So, industry, while deserving congratulations for its solid progress since Bhopal, still has work to do. It must put more effort into effectively retaining, retriev-ing and sharing accident information. That’s one les-son from Bhopal that firms haven’t fully grasped.

mark rosenzweig, Editor in Chief

[email protected]

grasp all the Lessons of BhopalIndustry still hasn’t adequately addressed one factor behind the disaster

CP0912_07_FTE.indd 7 11/17/09 3:16 PM

555 West Pierce Road, Suite 301Itasca, IL 60143

Phone: (630) 467-1300Fax: (630) 467-1109

www.chemicalprocessing.com

E-mail: [email protected]/Customer Service:(888) 644-1803 or (847) 559-7360

Editorial Staff

Mark rosenzweig, Editor in Chief, x478

[email protected]

Ken Schnepf, Managing Editor, [email protected]

traci Purdum, Senior Digital Editor, x428

[email protected]

Seán ottewell, Editor at Large

[email protected]

Contributing EditorS

andrew Sloley, Troubleshooting Columnist

lynn l. bergeson, Regulatory Columnist

gary faagau, Energy Columnist

dirk Willard, Columnist

dESign & ProduCtion

Stephen C. Herner, Group Art Director, x312

[email protected]

tom Waitek, Associate Art Director, x413

[email protected]

rita fitzgerald, Production Manager, x468

[email protected]

Editorial board

Vic Edwards, Aker Solutionstim frank, Dow Chemical

ben Paterson, Eli Lillyroy Sanders, Consultant

Ellen turner, Eastman Chemicalben Weinstein, Procter & Gamble

Jon Worstell, Shell Global SolutionsSheila Yang, Fluor Enterprises.

adMiniStratiVE Staff

John M. Cappelletti, President/CEOJulie Cappelletti-lange, Vice President

rose Southard, IT DirectorJerry Clark, Vice President of Circulation

Jack Jones, Circulation Director

rEPrintS

Claudia Stachowiak, Marketing [email protected]

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Folio Editorial Excellence Award Winner

December 2009 chemicalprocessing.com 8

chemicalprocessing.com

“ChemicalPro-

cessing.com ben-

efited from a long

list of improve-

ments in 2009.

i rEMEMbEr when I was a teenager the adults around me would always marvel at how fast time flies. I always thought they were crazy and vowed never to utter that silly idiom. Fast forward 20+ years and I finally get it.

It seems like just last month I was in the beginning phases of planning proj-ects for 2009. Now it’s the end of 2009 and many of the projects are complete and it’s on to next year’s wish list.

ChemicalProcessing.com benefited from a long list of improvements in 2009. At the very beginning of the year we launched the Chemical Processing 50 – CP 50 for short (www.ChemicalProcess ing.com/cp50/index.html). This is a roster of 50 chemical processing companies that

we think are worth watching and learn-ing from. Throughout the year we have been updating the profile pages of these companies. In line with this, we launched Insights From The CP 50, an eNewsletter dedicated to covering the developments, trends and lessons learned from the CP 50.

Also at the beginning of the year we redesigned the Web site. The revamped site includes more related content, social media options and enhanced text functionality, as well as a “Recommend this?” button so you can see what articles your peers think are worthy of reading and recommend ones yourself. And just recently we put a fresh coat of paint on the site. We went from purple and green to burgundy and beige.

We also put our flag in the ground at Twitter (http://twitter.com/Chem_Pro cessing) and Facebook (http://tinyurl.com/chemprocessing-fb).

On the lighter side, we added the

Comical Processing cartoon caption feature (www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/comical_processing_cap tion_1.html).

This year also saw the launch of our first blog, called Chemical Reaction (http://community.ChemicalProcessing.com/chemical_reaction), which offers you a chance to voice your opinion, to argue or agree with your peers, to question the who, what, when, where, why and how, to get answers or give advice or to simply vent about your day at the office.

And for those of you looking for a new job or seeking to hire more employees, we introduced our online job board Chem Connection (http://jobs.ChemicalProcessing.com).

With all these things under our belts, what else could we possibly do? Plenty.

For 2010 we’re planning to host Web-based panel discussions that will cover myriad topics including condition monitoring, energy efficiency, and deal-ing with dust just to name a few. We also plan on unveiling a podcast series dedi-cated to leadership within the chemical processing industry. And, of course, we also plan on inserting more fun features into the site. We are currently toying with the idea of a trivia contest, which will test your knowledge in the field.

There’s certainly a lot of work to do in the coming year. This short to-do list will continue to grow until we are look-ing at yet another new year. And once again, I will be scratching my head and marveling at how fast time flies. traCi PurduM, Senior Digital Editor

[email protected].

Where does the time go?This year saw a slew of site enhancements

bECoME a CHEMiCalProCESSing.CoM inSidErTo become an insider, click on the “become a member” link located at the top right corner of chemicalprocessing.com. This quick, one-time registra-tion gives you access to members-only site benefits.

CP0912_08_CP.COM.indd 8 11/17/09 3:17 PM


fielD notes

Be able to justify

your contingency.

Properly Estimate Engineering HoursDon’t come up short on a project

Only 120 hours were assigned to investigate prob-lems with a batch fluid-bed dryer. The scope included troubleshooting and preparation of a project scope document complete with process and instrumentation drawings (P&IDs), justifications, vendor estimates and a report. The client didn’t have a pipe standard let alone AutoCAD files. The new sales engineer thought he landed a whopper — I thought he should have thrown it back! As it was, I spent at least 40 hours off the books wrapping up the report and finalizing the scope, schedule and budget. There’s got to be a better way to prepare a solid estimate — right?

As with all budgets for engineering or construc-tion, the soundest approach is to understand what the task is, how many people are required, and what are the goals and likely obstacles. Obviously, it’s best if the person who will do the work makes the estimate.

For construction projects the best reference is “R.S. Means Facilities Construction Cost Data 2009.” This hefty paperback breaks down labor into manage-able hours by trade. Once you know the billing rate and skill level for each, it’s easy to estimate labor costs.

There’s no such tool published for engineering la-bor. A few engineers have estimated projects based on the number of drawings but this takes experience with a particular job or type of work. The best solution I’ve found — and one that other engineers also have used — is to collect binders of old estimates.

Developing sensible estimates of engineering hours requires familiarity with the work and with the cus-tomer. Customers could be internal, e.g., your boss, or external, a client. With clients that want flexibility to make changes, agree on a time and materials (T&M) contract for at least the beginning of the work. It’s critical to understand the nature of the work before deciding on the type of contract.

The most common problem in doing an estimate is lack of a clear scope. “Scope creep” often stems from having a scope that doesn’t meet customer needs. Even a clear scope won’t forestall creep unless the customer understands project limits and will abide by an agree-ment. A team at Eli Lilly has had success in employing a “Just Say No List” to address scope creep — see www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/181.html.

The second leading cause of poor estimating probably is inadequate understanding of the work. This can be especially dangerous if there’re only a few minor changes in work very familiar to the estima-tor. People tend to be more cautious in new territory.

A common problem is misapplying a past estimate. Sometimes the simplest tasks can be more compli-cated than expected. Once I specified a relief valve for a slippery heating media: we used 300-psi flanges on a 150-psi-rated system to prevent leaking. Finding the right seal cost an additional 40 hours that were unplanned. Thankfully, it was a T&M contract.

Another common problem is task assignment: who does what. Often several disciplines are involved, so it’s best to have a flow diagram and hierarchy es-tablished. Just writing a memo won’t do. For example, after process flow diagrams are developed, the instru-mentation group should provide input into the control scheme so the process team can create the P&IDs. Without appropriate attention, waiting for approvals and coordinating tasks can eat the whole budget.

Trying to protect yourself by including a healthy contingency is a bad idea. It probably won’t fly with the customer. Contingency frequently is based on a percentage, which is why small (under-$100,000) projects often are over budget. Use a fixed contingen-cy for these projects. Look at specific scenarios where the project can go sour. Be able to justify reasons for a contingency greater or less than 10%. Doing so will protect your contingency from being whittled away.

Now that I’ve discussed some of the pitfalls, let’s consider what an estimate of engineering hours should include. Consider adding these generic items: 1) estimating hours; 2) preparation for meetings — zero as a participant, a minimum of two hours per meeting hour as a presenter; 3) drafting/revising the scope; 4) writing request for proposal; 5) developing and cor-recting drawings; 6) vendor time; 7) permit process-ing; 8) training; and 9) closing the project.

Peer review is critical in assuring project success. Leave plenty of time for reviews with at least three attendees. Keep good notes and carefully file them. As a minimum, conduct a department review followed by another with a construction manager or project man-ager. Sometimes, a vendor can be useful at these meet-ings. At each step, provide sufficient hours to fix errors as well as to modify scope, schedule and, potentially, budget. Hence, pack as many meetings as possible in the beginning of a project. Always include at least one peer review before the customer review — unless you have a desire for professional suicide.

dirk willard, Contributing Editor

[email protected]

CP0912_09_FN.indd 9 11/17/09 3:18 PM

DECEMBER 2009 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 10

IN PROCESS

SHELL GLOBAL Solutions, Houston, recently o� ered a peek at a new route for producing a polycarbonate feedstock and the next generation of its OMEGA process for making mono-ethylene glycol (MEG). CP got details during a tour of Shell’s Westhollow Technology Center in mid-October.

� e vast majority of polycarbonate production relies on phosgene chemistry, notes Garo Vaporiciyan, a venture manager at Westhollow. � e process is rela-tively energy intensive, involves dilute polymer solu-tions in chlorinated solvents and requires salt removal, he explains. So, there’s been a trend to replace toxic phosgene with diphenyl carbonate (DPC). � is avoids a safety risk and obviates solvents and washing salt out of the polymer. In addition, co-product phenol can be used to make DPC or bisphenolacetone.

While this approach eliminates phosgene from the polymer step, several companies use phosgene to make DPC. Non-phosgene-based DPC synthesis technol-ogy exists but such routes are cumbersome and energy intensive, contends Vaporiciyan, and so investment in phosgene-based DPC production continues.

Shell is developing a process for DPC that he terms a step change improvement in chemistry. In it, carbon dioxide, phenol and propylene oxide react to form propylene glycol and DPC. Using ethylene oxide (EO) gives ethylene gyclol instead of propylene glycol.

“…For seven years we’ve moved from paper... to pilot plants and now we’re smelling commercialization within reach… all while still delivering on this target of making this key material for the polycarbonate industry cheaper with much lower CO2 footprint.”

Shell’s next step may be commercial production of DPC via the route, says Vaporiciyan.

Meanwhile, the company foresees signi� cant opportunities to improve its OMEGA process. � e � rst generation of the technology recently was com-mercialized. Korea’s Lotte Petrochemicals started up a 400,000-metric-ton/year plant at Daesan in May 2008, while Petro Rabigh began production in April 2009 at a 600,000-mt/yr unit at Rabigh, Saudi Ara-bia. Shell expects to inaugurate a 750,000-mt/yr plant at its Eastern Petrochemicals Complex in Singapore by the end of this year.

� e process relies on catalytic conversion of EO to MEG, rather than conventional thermal conversion. It reacts EO and CO2 to form ethylene carbonate, which then reacts with water to yield MEG and CO2. � e approach cuts capital investment by about 10%,

Shell Showcases Emerging TechnologiesNew processes promise environmental and economic benefi ts

Oct 08 Nov 08 Dec 08 Jan 09 Feb 09 Mar 09 Apr 09 May 09 June 09 July 09 Aug 09 Sept 09

$ M

illio

n

79.0

78.0

77.0

76.0

75.0

74.0 %

Shipments (NAICS S325) Capacity utilization

52,000

80.0

53,000

54,000

55,000

56,000

57,000

58,000

81.0

82.0

83.0

84.0

85.0

59,000

86.0

60,000

61,000

61,500

87.0

88.0

73.0

72.0

71.0

70.0

69.0

68.051,000

50,000

61,000

67.0

66.0

Trimmed text to �t. Economic Indicators: Both curves need redrawing. July ‘08, 75.4; Aug. 74.8; Sept., 68.8; Oct., 72.7’ Nov., 70.4; Dec. 67.2 (maybe the scale should be changed to 76 to 66)

Economic Snapshot

Shipments and capacity utilization both continued rising. Source: American Chemistry Council.

OMEGA pilot plant

Figure 1. Unit at Westhollow Technology Center in Houston will start up in early 2010 and focus on process improvements. Source: Shell Global Solutions.

CP0912_10_11_InPro.indd 10 11/17/09 3:20 PM

11 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM DECEMBER 2009

IN PROCESS

consumes 20% less steam and produces 30% less wastewater, while obviating di- and tri-ethylene glycol puri� cation, storage and handling, says Dave Van Kleeck, regional technology manager.

A pilot plant at Westhollow set for 2010 start-up will augment an existing one in Amsterdam and will enable evaluating continuous improvement concepts and their scaling to commercial units. It will permit complete piloting of all recycle streams while its MEG puri� cation capabilities will allow assessing product quality as well as manufacture of drum quantities for customer testing, he says. � e new pilot plant will provide more information on EO reactor operation, optimal process conditions, the fate of all impurities and suitable materials of construction, he adds.

� e goal, explains Van Kleeck, is to boost EO se-lectivity to above 90% from today’s 88%–90%, while lowering capital and operating expenses.

Better Data PromiseBetter CatalystsFor the � rst time in-situ monitoring of an electro-chemically induced oxidation state change by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy has been achieved, say researchers at the University of Nottingham, Not-tingham, U.K. “As a result of this research, we can design more e� cient catalysts, new probes, sensors, functionalized electrodes,” explains Peter Licence, an associate professor in the School of Chemistry.

� e researchers succeeded in getting spectroscopic data for the electrochemical reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+

in an ionic liquid mixture. Ionic liquids were neces-sary because they have negligible vapor pressures and so don’t evaporate under the ultrahigh vacuum condi-tions employed.

“It wasn’t easy and we had phenomenal problems. We could do the electrochemistry in the vacuum and we could measure the spectra of ionic liquids — but to do both at the same time has been a real uphill struggle — but now we have cracked it,” Details on the experi-ments appear in Chemical Communications.

� e next steps are to make the measurements easier to carry out and then to investigate other well-understood redox couples to further validate the system, he adds.

“We are using the in situ technique to study on a fundamental level the electronic structure of solution catalysts. We can use this data, in conjunction with laboratory data, to design better and more e� cient cata-lyst. Essentially our technique closes a loop in a feedback mechanism — i.e., we can provide a direct feedback

mechanism to electronic structure, allowing more ef-� cient ‘intelligent design’ of new materials,” he notes.

“� e experiments carried out so far have proved the concept and shown that we can make the technique work,” says Licence. “We are now looking at metal deposition/solution reactions and electron transfer vectors with an aim to study energy capture devices and electrochemically driven processes.”

Electrochemical insights

Figure 2. Artist’s rendition of reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ at elec-trode shows x-rays (blue beam) irradiating surface from which photoelectrons escape. Source: University of Nottingham.

Res

po

nses

(%)

Veryimportant

Important

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

0.0

50.0

Not veryimportant

Inconsequential

60.0

58.8%Heavy

23.5%Moderate

11.8%Slight

5.9%Nonexistant

0%Non applicable

Responses(%)

What’s your site’s interest in using “greener” chemicals?

More than half the sites display a high interest, according to respondents.To participate in this month’s poll, go to ChemicalProcessing.com.

CP0912_10_11_InPro.indd 11 11/18/09 12:40 PM


energY saVer

Being a batch

operator doesn’t

mean you have to

have inefficient

operations.

Batch operators face extra factors that can complicate any energy efficiency improvement. Un-like continuous operations, energy project economics is spread over fewer hours per year and may not help during ramping up and cooling down. Also, these operations tend to be more specialized, so industry standards or comparable plants are hard to find. Still, general energy efficiency principles do apply, but flexibility is needed during design.

For batch operations, make the unit energy sound from the start. A furnace that’s only 50% effi-cient when running must be revamped or replaced to be more efficient. A steam system with several leaks or faulty traps still needs to be repaired. Insulation on hot lines and hot vessels has to be maintained.

The nature of batch operations poses unique problems. One is energy recovery after the opera-tion is over. One operator I know heats liquid to 450°F and then must cool it to store it. All that energy is wasted.

The first possible solution is hot oil storage consisting of a hot oil tank, a cold oil tank, and a series of heat exchangers. After the operations are complete, the product is run through a series of heat exchangers where it’s exchanged against cold oil. The heated oil is stored in a hot tank until the hot oil is exchanged with the feed for the next batch. Sometimes, when there’s a series of batch operations, the heat from one unit can be used to heat up another unit. Other solutions involve using the oil to heat water.

Another problem is the need to reach reac-tion temperature and then remove heat from an exothermic reaction. In most cases, cooling water or fin-fans remove heat while a furnace produces the reaction temperature. Depending on reaction temperature, you can use the reaction to create hot oil, similar to the previously described processor, you can produce steam to run a steam turbine or supplement your steam system.

Most solutions for batch operating efficiency can be solved by frequency and management. One plant I audited had three batch operations,each with different energy requirements and hot oil and steam systems to produce the energy needed. Each operation had several reactors, so some required multiple heaters. I checked frequency and patterns and concluded that everything could be done with two furnaces, instead of five, if the plant spent

more time planning batch timing and added sys-tems for hot oil temperature control.

By setting the hot oil system to the highest tem-perature needed, some operations could be satisfied by blending return oil from higher temperature reactions to supply oil of lower temperature operations. This required running certain batches before others. Man-aging this can result in as much as a 50% energy sav-ings. Most savings came from shutdown of furnaces that sat on idle or worked at reduced rates because not all batches were operating simultaneously.

One problem with the recent recession for batch operators is production cost increase per batch because of less frequency. Some have gone to one-shift opera-tions, which means equipment must be cooled every night and then reheated each morning. Checking the economics may show that keeping the most energy dependent operations going around the clock and running less energy dependent batches during the day would save energy. This eliminates cooling off and start-up periods that substantially increase costs.

Idle energy is the time between batches when equipment must be maintained. Some equipment must be completely cooled while others are kept at a temperature to reduce the need to reheat from ambient. Running fewer reactors more often is a great way to reduce idle energy. One plant I knew used to run one batch every two to three days because an undersized heater required a day to get the reactor to the right temperature and undersized cooling equipment prevented products from being sent to storage tanks.

The plant replaced its heater with a system that could ramp the reactor temperature up in two hours and added heat recovery equipment for faster product cooling. The results were amazing with batch operations done twice a day — a 600% production increase, and a 40% cut in energy con-sumption per batch.

Being a batch operator doesn’t mean you have to have inefficient operations. Maintaining systems at high efficiency, storing heat in a hot oil medium, reducing downtime by running shifts on energy-intense batches, managing batches to take advantage of available heat, and improving batch frequency can help reduce per batch energy costs.

gary faagaU, Energy Columnist

[email protected]

Improve Batch processingA number of steps can lead to better energy efficiency from the outset

CP0912_12_ESAVER.indd 12 11/17/09 3:22 PM


compliance aDvisor

Coal ash

management is

an immediate

EPA priority.

ApproximAtely 5.4 million cubic yards, or 1.1 billion gallons, of coal ash from the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) plant near Knoxville, Tenn., in December 2008 flooded some 300 acres of land, dam-aging property, polluting waterways, and killing fish. TVA will likely spend more than $500 million and perhaps as much as $1 billion dollars on cleanup, says the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The TVA debacle was EPA’s wake-up call for potential coal ash hazards staged in some 584 units at approxi-mately 219 domestic electric utilities.

A Symptom of AccumulAtion

Coal ash has accumulated for years at U.S. electric utilities. It’s the residual typically contained in surface impoundments and similar land management units from coal-fired power plants generating electricity. The coal ash released at the TVA plant accumulated over 50 years and rose to more than 65 feet.

Ash can be stored wet or dry. TVA used wet storage, and last December, an earthen dam burst, spilling the ash over land. While such incidents are uncommon (four similar events have occurred over the past five decades), they are messy, costly, contro-versial and certainly memorable.

Coal ash isn’t regulated as a hazardous waste un-der the federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Congress asked EPA in 1980 whether it should be regulated and in 1993, EPA responded “no.” In 2000, EPA proposed regulating coal ash not as a hazardous waste, but under stricter management standards. Cost of the proposed rule to the electric utility industry inspired fierce opposition, and EPA relented. In 2006, a National Research Council study found that coal ash contains metals and other constituents in quantities that could pose a health risk if improperly managed. Still, however, additional regulatory controls weren’t forthcoming, until now.

epA’S plAn

The coal ash release ignited renewed calls for stricter reg-ulation. In January, Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Chair Barbara Boxer (D-CA) held a hearing to explore the scope of the problem. Boxer noted that the issue isn’t whether the material is considered hazardous waste, but rather what measures are or should be in place to control the material and prevent releases. She issued Senate Resolution 64 directing Lisa Jackson, EPA administrator, to look into the matter.

Jackson announced EPA’s new program to address the TVA release and prevent future ones on March 9. EPA will gather and assess information from electric utilities and develop additional regulatory measures to prevent future mishaps.

EPA requested information from electric utilities about the structural integrity of their surface impound-ments or similar land units. EPA also will compel repairs, where needed. The request was made under Section 104(e) of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CER-CLA), authorizing EPA to impose penalties for failure to provide adequate and timely responses. Among other questions, EPA asks when was the last state or federal regulatory coal-ash management unit inspection, when the company last assessed or evaluated the safety of the management unit, and does the company have profes-sional engineer’s certification for the safety of the unit?

EPA intends to issue a proposed rule outlining new regulations to address management of coal combustion residuals. Information in the CERCLA Section 104 let-ters will likely be used to develop new regulations.

EPA released information from electric utilities on management of coal combustion residuals on September 8. EPA also is assessing “all of the units that have a dam hazard potential rating of ‘high’ or ‘significant’ in responses provided by utilities to EPA’s request.” More information is available at www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/industrial/special/fossil/surveys/index.htm.

Rep. Ed Markey (D-MA), on October 20, re-quested information on EPA’s “findings” on health and environmental risks posed by coal ash. He is chair of the House Energy and Commerce Committee’s Sub-committee on Energy and the Environment, which has jurisdiction over protection of drinking water.

The TVA spill made coal ash management an im-mediate priority in the Jackson Administration. Coal ash management standards may well now be part of Jackson’s legacy to environmental protection.

lynn BergeSon, Regulatory Editor

[email protected]

Lynn is managing director of Bergeson & Campbell, P.C., a Wash-

ington, D.C.-based law firm that concentrates on chemical industry

issues. The views expressed herein are solely those of the author.

This column is not intended to provide, nor should be construed

as, legal advice.

epA targets electric utilitiesThe agency steps up efforts to manage coal ash damage

CP0912_13_Comp.indd 13 11/17/09 3:22 PM

CP0912_14_17_CvrStry.indd 14 11/18/09 12:33 PM


TwenTy-five years ago this month, the worst accident in the history of the chemical industry occurred — a leak of highly toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, that killed thousands of people. Industry learned many lessons; experts wrote many reports. Here, we’ll look at some of the wider lessons learned rather than the narrow points on which most reports concentrated.

The story started in 1974, 10 years before Bhopal, when a large leak of hydrocarbon exploded at a Nypro (UK) plant at Flixborough, U.K., killing 28 people. The leak was large because only 6% of the hydrocarbon fed to the plant was converted; 94% had to be recovered and repeatedly recycled. The most important recom-mendation made afterward was that we should look for ways to reduce the amount of hazardous materials in a plant, a process called intensification or minimiza-tion. The slogan was: “What you don’t have can’t leak.” This thought didn’t occur to most commentators or the official inquiry. Reducing inventory in the Flixborough process isn’t easy. One company started but then aban-doned a research project after realizing there was excess capacity in the process, a stage in manufacture of nylon.

The Bhopal disaster wouldn’t have occurred if the plant managers had known about and then adhered to the recommendation made after Flixborough. MIC wasn’t a raw material or product but an intermediate. Storing it was convenient but nonessential. It could have been used as it was made — then the worst leak would have been a few kilograms from a broken pipe rather than a hundred tons from a tank. This time the chemical industry paid attention; within a year many companies had reduced or eliminated their hazardous intermediates stocks and used the materials as they made them.

Broader relevance

The “Don’t Have” concept can be applied more widely. If chemicals we don’t have can’t leak, people who aren’t there can’t be injured or killed. The human toll at Bhopal was so high because a shanty town had grown up near the plant. It’s difficult in a country like India to control development but necessary nevertheless to prevent people from living too close to hazardous sites.

A 2005 explosion at a BP refinery in Texas City, Texas, killed 15 people and harmed 170. One reason for the large number of deaths and injuries was that temporary buildings used by maintenance workers were close to the explosion site. If the buildings had been placed further away from equipment containing hazardous materials — a recommendation that often has been made — the toll would have been lower.

Similarly, if no buildings are nearby, they can’t be

damaged or destroyed by explosions. The worst peace-time explosion in England occurred at Buncefield in 2005 when gasoline overflowed though the vent at the top of a large storage tank. The ensuing explosion ex-tensively damaged the storage area and a large number of offices and small factories on an adjoining site.

The underlying cause of Buncefield was that all the people and organizations involved in design, operations and maintenance were unaware of similar explosions in Newark, N.J., in 1983 [1,2,3], St. Herblain, France, in 1991 [4], Naples, Italy, in 1995 [5], and elsewhere (other incidents easily can be found by googling “gasoline spill”). They believed cold gasoline couldn’t explode in open air. The group of oil companies that owned the storage depot claimed an explosion of cold gasoline in open air never before had occurred. Damage at Buncefield, however, was more extensive than at Newark and elsewhere.

If just one person at Buncefield had known about just one incident, had realized that a similar event could happen there, and had alerted colleagues, the explosion might not have occurred.

If the designers or operators had carried out a search for incidents at similar installations, the explo-sion probably wouldn’t have occurred. Failing to carry out such a search, and then estimating probability of an explosion and extent of damage, was a dereliction of duty by all organizations involved; they, not just the firm that failed to maintain the high-level trips on the tank, should share cost of the damage.

Many companies now have learned the lessons of Flixborough, Bhopal and Buncefield and have reduced amounts of hazardous materials in process or storage — however, many others still have to learn them. We’re now less likely to build plants near or in urban or built-up areas or allow development close to exist-ing plants, but many current sites are “grandfathered.”

Almost every company has applied the “Don’t Have” principle to employees and has reduced their numbers, often successfully. In many cases, though, what firms have called “empowerment” of remaining employees has been a euphemism for loss of support. The classic example was a 1998 explosion at an Esso gas plant in Longford, Australia, that left the whole state of Victoria without natural gas for two weeks. In this case, the company decided to relocate all professional engi-neers from the plant to headquarters 200 miles away. The official report on the explosion [6] said moving the engineers “appears to have had a lasting impact on op-erational practices at the Longford plant. The physical isolation of engineers from the plant deprived opera-tions personnel of engineering expertise and knowl-

All photos courtesy of Dennis Hendershot


edge, which previously they gained through interaction and involvement with engineers on site. Moreover, the engineers themselves no longer gained an intimate knowledge of plant activities. The ability to telephone engineers if necessary, or to speak with them during site visits, did not provide the same opportunities for informal exchanges between the two groups, which are often the means of transfer of vital information.”

Another misuse of the “Don’t Have“ principle concerns knowledge of past accidents at a company or elsewhere. Chemical makers investigate and report on accidents and make changes — but then file away and soon forget the reports. Moreover, they don’t always share them with other firms.

This is a widespread lapse: “It is a truism in business and industry that things go wrong when the last man who remembers the previous disaster retires,” comment-ed Roger Ford in Modern Railways (p. 18, August 2009).

Necessary steps

Engineers are good at solving problems but not as good at recognizing ones that should be solved. The major safety problem companies should address is

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reFereNces1. “Report on the Incident at the Texaco Company’s

Newark Storage Facility, 7th January 1983,” Loss Prev. Bulletin, No. 57, p. 11 (June 1984). Reprinted in Loss Prev. Bulletin, No. 188, p. 10 (Apr. 2006).

2. Henry, M. F., “NFPA’s Consensus Standards at Work,” Chem. Eng. Prog., Vol. 8, No. 8, p. 20 (Aug. 1985).

3. Kletz, T. A., “Can Cold Petrol Explode in the Open Air?,” The Chemical Engineer, p. 63 (June 1986). Re-printed in Loss Prev. Bulletin, No. 188, p. 9 (Apr. 2006).

4. Lechaudet, J. F., “Assessment of an Accidental Vapour Cloud Explosion,” Loss Prev. and Safety Prom. in Proc. Ind., Vol. 314, p. 377 (1995).

5. Russo, G., Maremonti, M., Salzano, E., Tufano, V. and S. Ditali, “Vapour Cloud Explosion in a Fuel Storage Area; a Case Study,” Proc. Safety and Env. Protect., Vol. 77, No. B6, p. 310 (1999).

6. Dawson, D. M. and J. B. Brooks, “The Esso Longford Gas Plant Explosion,” report of Royal Commission, State of Victoria, Australia (1999).


maintaining awareness of incidents. Chemical makers should set up systematic procedures — rather than rely on memory — to recall lessons of the past, lessons for which we have paid a high price in deaths and injuries as well as money.

Following are a few of the actions that can prevent the same accidents from recurring so often:

1. Include in every instruction and code a note on the reasons for it and accounts of accidents that wouldn’t have occurred if the instruction or code had existed at the time and been followed.

2. Never remove equipment or ignore instructions before you know why they were adopted.

3. Describe old accidents as well as recent ones in safety bul-letins and discuss them at safety meetings.

4. Check at regular intervals to see that recommendations made after accidents are being followed — in design as well as operations.

5. Remember the first step down the road to an accident oc-curs when someone turns a blind eye to a missing blind.

6. Cover important past accidents in training undergradu-ates and company employees.

7. Keep a folder of old accident reports in every control room. Make it compulsory reading for recruits; others should look through it from time to time.

8. Read more books, which tell us what’s old, as well as magazines, which tell us what’s new.

9. When downsizing, make sure remaining employees at all levels have adequate knowledge and experience.

10. Devise better retrieval systems so that we can find details of past accidents more easily. Staff members should review all published or privately circulated reports; any relevant information they contain should be placed in a searchable database.

TREVOR A. KLETZ is visiting professor in the Department of Chemical

Engineering at Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K., and an adjunct

professor at Texas A&M, College Station, Texas. The fifth edition of his book

“What Went Wrong: Case Histories of Process Plant Disasters and How They

Could Have Been Avoided” has just been published (see www.ChemicalProcess

ing.com/articles/2009/148.html). E-mail him at [email protected].

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RELATEd COnTEnT On ChEmiCALPROCEssing.COm

“Brain Drain Brings Big Headaches,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/036.html

“Panel Blasts BP Safety Practices,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/industrynews/2007/003.html

“Rethink Your Approach to Process Safety,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2007/158.html

“Check for Human Errors,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2006/161.html


DECEMBER 2009 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 18

MOST PROCESS plants are struggling with the dual challenges of increased requirements for safe and e� cient operation and expected retirement of a large portion of the workforce. Sites likely will lose substantial expert knowledge at a time when it’s of greatest need. � is will ratchet up pressure to more quickly develop expertise in newer operators.

Traditionally, operators have built expertise on a particular unit by experiencing numerous events. Such encounters result in a very accurate mental model for predicting what will occur in a situation and what ac-tions will be needed to ensure safe operation. However, as a consequence of improved plant reliability and better automation, operators now experience events much less frequently. � is makes it increasingly di� cult to quickly develop expertise to � ll the void created by retirements. Many plants are turning to simulators as the answer to addressing gaps. However, simulators alone won’t guar-antee development of the range of skills expert operators possess — especially those skills needed for problem detection, analysis of events and decision-making.

� e Center for Operator Performance (www.operatorperformance.org), which is collaborative ef-fort of operating companies (BP, Chevron, Flint Hills Resources, Marathon, NOVA Chemicals and Suncor Energy), control system vendors (ABB and Emerson Process Management) and academia (Wright State University), is conducting research to identify how to speed acquisition of expertise and improve operator performance. An initial pilot study examined control of two di� erent process units and a pipeline. Here, we summarize some key � ndings from that work.

DEVELOPING EXPERTISE

Many people believe that memorizing large amounts of factual information and principles builds exper-tise. While technical understanding is key to opera-

tor performance, knowledge not acquired through experience — real or simulated — may not contrib-ute to advanced learning or performance. People bet-ter grasp new information in context of meaningful activities rather than as an abstract set of facts.

Acquiring knowledge isn’t enough, though. Novices also must engage in deliberate practice applying that knowledge, recognizing key infor-mation, setting goals and executing actions. For example, one operating company member of the center uses decision-making exercises that present operators with cues to an unknown problem to let them practice recognizing a problem, analyzing its causes and generating a solution (instead of just telling them the problem and best solution).

Here are some do’s and don’ts for developing operator expertise:

• Don’t just give large amounts of factual informa-tion or rules. A data dump from an expert will be of little value.

• Do create opportunities to learn information as it occurs in real situations. Present console opera-tors with a list of alarms or screen shots of what occurred during an upset and ask them what they think is happening. Coaches with expert technical knowledge then can help them better interpret what they see.

• Don’t just expose novice operators to a variety of generic circumstances. Learning by osmosis is very unreliable.

• Do support practice recognizing cues, expectan-cies, goals and actions. Expert mental models come from doing not reading. Develop a list of scenarios, such as major changes in feed composi-tion/rate or product slates, that novices should ex-perience while on the console. Prior to execution of each task, have trainees list what they would

CP0912_18_20_Maint.indd 18 11/17/09 3:26 PM


expect to see, what could go wrong, and what the first indication of a problem would be. Discuss the list and ensure it’s correct prior to task execution.

On-the-jOb training

Like many sectors, the process industry relies heavily on knowledge transferred through on-the-job train-ing (OJT). The expectation is that pairing novices with experts will lead to transfer of appropriate job knowledge. This training approach poses two main issues. First, operators often have difficulty articulating how they know what they know. For this reason, they frequently lean toward telling rather than teaching. For example, a trainee, when inputting a numeric adjust-ment for a temperature change, asked if that number would suffice. The trainer simply said “yes” rather than communicating why that adjustment, versus another, would give the desired result.

The second issue is that expert operators over time have developed different techniques for doing their work. This may lead to inconsistent information transfer. New operators may learn varying techniques for doing their work and get dissimilar assessments of what’s important as well as diverse views of job expecta-tions. For example, people define “critical” differently. Some say if something out-of-the-ordinary happens and I react to it, it’s not critical — it’s my job. However, some people consider any unexpected change to be a critical event. Others define critical as a problem that occurs without explanation. Defining and training for “critical situations” differently can result in uneven response to events.

This fragmented understanding contributes to de-creased operator performance. Further, it can feed into a vicious cycle as newer operators become trainers.

To enhance OJT:• Don’t just turn the trainee loose with a crew. • Do use structured OJT after initial classroom

sessions. For example, one plant has trainers fol-low novices’ progress to ensure they are learning proper technique and valid knowledge. Trainees should get a manual listing skills and knowledge to master while shadowing actual operators. Prior to each shift these operators should review the list with trainees.

• Don’t presume that because people know the job they can teach it.

• Do have training materials. This ensures trainers provide consistent coaching. Consider, for in-stance, providing structured exercises to help the senior operator on the crew convey key knowledge elements. Establish training goals for each shift —

teaching novices should be as much a part of shift objectives as meeting production targets.

• Don’t leave important information subject to interpretation.

• Do ensure tasks are defined. For example, clarify the meaning of “unsafe” and the conditions requiring unit shutdown. Discuss one safe operating limit or production target each day. Cover failure of compliance and its meaning. For example, is not achieving feed-rate targets acceptable if meeting them would require flar-ing? Spell out the interaction among multiple constraints an operator faces.

tailOred apprOach

While operators may come from similar industries and positions, they likely boast varying levels of expe-rience. So, training programs focusing on baseline or rudimentary skills and knowledge may provide little value for some people. For instance, many experienced operators have expressed frustration that they didn’t gain new knowledge during recertification processes because these didn’t build on expertise they had devel-oped. Besides wasting peoples’ time “learning” mate-rial they’ve already mastered, one-size-fits-all training programs often fail to teach advanced skills.

To support diverse trainees:• Don’t offer one training program that’s the same

for every trainee.• Do take into account the experience and knowl-

edge of individuals. Do they already possess some of the required knowledge from their prior work? Have they developed more advanced knowledge through their experiences? The pro-gram should allow trainees to progress as soon as they have mastered the material.

the impact Of autOmatiOn

Automation can diminish expertise in three ways. First, it can dull the skills of veterans. Second, it can slow the rate of learning, so people take much longer to build up their expertise. And third, it can teach dysfunctional skills that will actively interfere with building expertise in the future.

Information technology can inflict this damage by: • limiting operators’ abilities to access and inter-

pret trends, understand data interrelationships and identify data shifts;

• reducing operators’ understanding of processes by hiding the workings of systems; and

• obstructing operators’ own assessment of a situ-ation by isolating them from processes and only

CP0912_18_20_Maint.indd 19 11/17/09 3:26 PM

providing recommendations and alerts, hamper-ing operators’ abilities to spot anomalies and pat-terns by removing variances from representations.

Here’re some tips for using automation to support operator performance:

• Don’t rely on automated systems that prevent operators from noticing changes and making adjustments — that essentially turn them into passive monitors.

• Do enable trainees to see the workings of the automation, either directly or through training material. For example, create deci-sion trees that re� ect the advanced control program. When the program makes a major adjustment to the process, have trainees follow the decision tree to assess why such a change might have been made (e.g., did cool-

ing water temperature increase and create a constraint on the process?).

A PRACTICAL APPROACH

Most plants with an aging workforce face an increas-ingly urgent need to build sta� expertise. Some are counting on high � delity simulation, as though mere exposure will create skill. Others are hoping that con-tact between novices and experts will result in knowl-edge transfer. A more practical middle ground that involves doing some simple things to enhance learning o� ers a better prospect for increasing expertise.

DAVID A. STROBHAR is principal human factors engineer for

Beville Engineering, Dayton, OH. DANYELE HARRIS-THOMPSON

is a senior scientist at Klein Associates, Fairborn, Ohio. E-mail them

at [email protected] and [email protected].

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CP0912_18_20_Maint.indd 20 11/17/09 3:26 PM


HEAT TRANSFER systems serve as crucial utilities at plants. So, boosts in their performance and ef-� ciency can signi� cantly impact operations.

Consider stereospeci� c reactions. Temperature usually a� ects relative yield of enantiomers. � is has prompted companies to perform organic synthesis at low temperature using reagents such as n-butyl lithium that produce intermediates that after further process-ing lead to products with greater regularity and better selectivity. However, n-butyl lithium is very unstable at room temperature and needs excellent cooling control.

Air Products and Chemicals, Allentown, Pa., has been working with manufacturers to help them get better temperature di� erentials in their exchangers by using liquid nitrogen (LIN) to cool heat transfer � uids.

“In Air Products’ alternative, intermediate heat transfer � uid (HTF) — typically methanol, Syltherm XLT or a similar equivalent — is cooled by LIN in a counter-current � ow heat exchanger. � e HTF is then pumped into the jacket of the reactor vessel, where it removes heat from the reaction. � e warmed � uid returns to the heat exchanger to be re-cooled by the LIN. � e temperature of the HTF is controlled by varying the � ow of LIN,” says Jon Trembley, lead, cryogenic applications.

“Cryogenic cooling also provides rapid responses in cooling that are sometimes necessary to come with reaction kinetics and provides the � exibility to run re-actions at lower temperatures should that be required in the future. Recovery of the vaporized nitrogen also means the operational running costs of cryogenic cooling system are controlled,” notes Marna Schmidt, an industry manager based in Basingstoke, U.K.

Trembley challenges the portrayal of LIN as an

expensive option. “When improved reaction yields and selectivity, reduced unwanted byproducts, and the relatively low capital costs involved are taken into consideration, LIN also becomes an economically attractive choice. Because LIN is used in the reaction cooling process merely as a source of refrigeration, it is not a� ected by the process other than to vaporize and warm up slightly. So, if the evaporated LIN from the cooling process can be recovered and used elsewhere in the plant — such as for purging and blanketing — the costs of the system can be dramatically lessened and are minimal compared to mechanical refrigera-tion,” he explains.

CRADLE-TO-GRAVE CARE

Vendors of more-conventional heat transfer � uids, of course, also aim to help producers improve operations. For instance, Solutia, St. Louis, promotes its no-addi-tional-cost Total Lifecycle Care (TLC) program that includes system design support, start-up assistance, 24/7 access to technically trained experts and more.

� e experience of Mexichem (formerly Grupo Primex), a manufacturer of polyvinyl chloride resins and other materials, in Altamira, Mexico, highlights the importance of such services.

As of 2005, the company was operating two paral-lel heat-transfer systems — one running for more than 15 years with � erminol 66 � uid, which is suitable for operation up to 650°F and pumpable to 27°F, and the other working for several years with a diaryl-alkyl-based product rated to 660°F.

� e system with � erminol 66 has performed with-out incident, says Mexichem. However, after just three years, performance of the other system began to decline.

Developments provide operational and economic improvements

CP0912_21_23_SOLIDS.indd 21 11/17/09 3:28 PM

“First we experienced pluggage in our instru-ment tubing,” says Francisco Nava, production manager. “Soon after, we observed damage to the mechanical seals and problems began occurring in the heat transfer process. As a result, we were expe-riencing losses in distillation efficiency, increases in system vapor pressures, increased unplanned down-time, and impacts to our finished product quality.”

Mexichem turned to Solutia for a complimentary fluid analysis, part of the TLC program. It showed the non-Solutia fluid was degrading rapidly, reducing its ability to operate efficiently. Degradation products accounted for more than half of the fluid composition and the fluid was precipitating crystalline solids under certain conditions.

“Because the alternate heat transfer fluid wasn’t doing a good job, our pump seals were failing and we were losing yield. At the same time, our system utiliz-ing Therminol 66 heat transfer fluid was operating smoothly. The decision to switch to Therminol 66 heat transfer fluid in the other system was clear,” says Nava.

Steam SavingS

Many plants rely on steam as a heat transfer fluid but condensate recovery systems are so effective that

often too much energy is captured. So, steam special-ist Spirax Sarco, Blythewood, S.C., and Cheltenham, U.K., has launched a flash recovery energy manage-ment equipment (FREME) system that’s designed to overcome that problem.

FREME is a completely closed steam system un-der constant pressure that can recover energy from re-turned condensate and flash steam without wastefully dumping or venting surplus energy from the system. Instead it feeds energy from the returned condensate into the high pressure side of boiler feed pumps.

The system passes condensate returning from the steam distribution system through a flash steam sepa-ration vessel. The separate flash-steam and condensate streams travel through a dedicated plate exchanger to heat pressurized feed water before it enters the boiler. The two streams then are combined and go to the boiler feed tank. Because that stream is sub-cooled, it’s sufficiently warm to begin heating cold feed but not hot enough to overheat the tank. Heat and water previously lost from the system can be recovered, reducing utility bills, water treatment chemical costs and carbon dioxide emissions.

The FREME system is available as a pre-engi-neered skid-mounted unit, taking the stress out of designing, specifying, building and installing steam, hot water and other systems, says the company. And with less work to do on-site, the installation process is simpler, safer and speedier, it adds.

Such a system recently was commissioned by Abbey Corrugated, Blunham, U.K. Before the project, water entered the boiler at 154°F–158°F. It now arrives at 280°F–288°F. “…It’s fair to say that the savings from this project were in the region of 25% of the gas used by the boiler,” notes Paul Gale, facilities manager.

In early November FREME won the energy cat-egory in the annual awards for chemical engineering innovation and excellence presented by the Institution of Chemical Engineers, Rugby, U.K.

model reSultS

“Studies around heat exchange equipment show that about 90% of energy consumption on a typical process is associated with some sort of heat exchange. So companies want to get the most return on investment per BTU,” says Tom Ralston, Reading, U.K.-based product manager, exchanger design and rating, for AspenTech, Burlington, Mass. The total installed cost of heat transfer equipment today typi-cally accounts for about 30% of overall plant invest-ment, he notes. “So it’s central to exploring the cost benefits of almost any energy saving proposal.”

A key issue today is fouling. “Rigorous model-ing is very important here if, for example, a stream

CP0912_21_23_SOLIDS.indd 22 11/19/09 9:59 AM

contains materials that polymerize at a certain temperature and which would lead to a signi� cant fouling deposit then good predictions can be vital. � e rigorous exchanger model can predict local � lm temperatures within an operating process and allow the operator to ensure he is outside the limits where polymerization can take place. � e process can be maintained with minimum downtime and maximum e� ciency.”

Perstorp, Perstorp, Sweden, has used Aspen’s Tasc+ to optimize heat exchanger performance and eliminate downtime. “A most important factor in apparatus design is the fact that non-working equip-ment is often very expensive. Cost of downtime is $90,000 to $150,000/day for a typical large-scale polyol factory. For that reason a reliable design tool such as Tasc+ is of highest importance,” says Oleg Pajalic, process engineer.

� e full impact of new technologies such as twisted tube exchangers from Koch Heat Transfer, Houston and hiTRAN wire matrix inserts from Cal Gavin, Alcester, U.K., only can be gauged by a simulation including rigorous models of each exchanger, Ralston also points out. While modeling novel proprietary ex-changers isn’t a trivial task, the biggest challenge is the

conceptual design of the interface between the software tools, which relies on a strong collaboration between the partner companies, he says.

However, the rewards can be impressive: optimiza-tion of a large feed/e� uent heat exchanger revamp on a major European plant by use of Tasc+ and hiTRAN inserts has resulted in a 20% increase in overall � lm coe� cient, re-use of the existing shell, annual � red heater savings of $75,000 and a 1,700-m.t./yr decrease in carbon dioxide emissions.

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RELATED CONTENT ON CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM“Are Your Heat Exchanger Calculations Really Right?,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2008/122.html“Effective Simulation Requires a Broader Scope of Process Heat Transfer Measurements,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2005/491.html“Keep Heat Transfer Repairs Uneventful,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2005/532.html“Take the Heat Off,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2004/172.html

CP0912_21_23_SOLIDS.indd 23 11/17/09 3:29 PM


The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) now has assigned sites covered by the Chemi-cal Facilities Anti-Terrorism Standards (CFATS) into one of four risk-based tiers (for more on CFATS, see “Defuse CFATS Challenges, www.ChemicalProcess ing.com/articles/2009/046.html). The tier assign-ment will drive specific security standards that facili-ties must implement to comply with the regulation.

Within 120 days of receiving its tier notification letter, a site must communicate the elements of its site security plan (SSP) to DHS for administrative approval. This must outline how it will meet the 18 risk-based performance standards (RBPS).

Compliance likely will incur a substantial cost. Based on nearly 20 preliminary engineering studies, estimates have run from $500,000 to $2 million per site.

Using an alternative security program (ASP) for the SSP offers several potential benefits — including an initial saving of staff time and thousands of dollars. In addition, an ASP may provide an overall better security posture against the entire spectrum of threats, not just those from terrorism. So, here, we’ll:

• look at possible advantages of preparing an ASP;• provide a model outline for an operational SSP

that can be used in addition to, or as a substitute for filing, an online SSP via the DHS Chemical Security Assessment Tool (CSAT) software;

• illustrate key decisions for determining an ap-propriate strategy for meeting the RBPS;

• point up the importance of involving law en-forcement in the gap analysis process as part of the site’s security planning process; and

• discuss a potential challenge for small- to mid-size companies.

SSP oPTionS

The regulation stipulates three basic requirements for a SSP:

1. addressing weaknesses identified in the facility’s security vulnerability assessment (SVA) and identifying and describing security measures to handle each;

2. specifying how selected security measures deal with applicable RBPS and potential modes of terrorist attacks; and

3. delineating how measures will meet or exceed each applicable performance standard for the facility’s assigned tier.

A site can provide information on its SSP to DHS in one of two ways.

The first is via the DHS’s Chemical Security As-sessment Tool (CSAT) software, similar to that used by most sites to file their SVA. Filing the SSP online involves hundreds of pages of questions and answers. This process is time-consuming and requires a great deal of up front data collection before sitting down at the computer. Another significant downside is that there won’t be any output from the CSAT software that subsequently can serve as an operational security plan. Such a plan is nec-essary to guide security and other employees as they meet the security commitments on a day-to-day basis. So, the site still will have the task of developing this plan.

Additionally, the online SSP requests a substantial amount of detail about physical security such as the types of access control measures, door hardware, cam-era types and lighting levels in various parts of the site. Sites likely will need a qualified security professional to help collect these data and prepare them for online submission. That person either can be an in-house or external resource — but ensure that any outside

CP0912_25_28_Instru.indd 24 11/17/09 3:30 PM


ASP ModelPlAn Section

titledHS cFAtS RiSk-BASed PeRFoRMAnce StAndARd

noteS

1 leadership commitment • Officials and organization (RBPS 17) Defines security organization to manage crimi-nal/terrorist risks.

2

Analysis of threats, vulnerabili-ties and consequences

• Specific threats, vulnerabilities and risk (RBPS 14)

Identifies risk based on assessment of threat. Requires ongoing mechanisms to monitor for changes in dynamic threats (see RBPS 15 and 16).

3

Implementation of security measures

• Perimeter security (RBPS 1) • Securing site assets (RBPS 2) • Screen and control access (RBPS 3) • Deter, detect and delay (RBPS 4) • Shipping and receiving (RBPS 5) • Theft and diversion (RBPS 6) • Sabotage (RBPS 7) • Personnel Surety (RBPS 12)

Meets the bulk of operational security re-quirements to safeguard people, assets and information. Requires implementing baseline security measures in normal threat conditions.

4 Information and cyber security • Cyber security (RBPS 8)

5 Documentation • Records (RBPS 18)

6 Training, drills and guidance • Training (RBPS 11)

7Communications, dialogue and information exchange

• Reporting of significant security inci-dents (RBPS 15 — partial)

• Significant security incidents and suspi-cious activities (RBPS 16 – partial)

8Response to security threats • Elevated threats (RBPS 13) Defines measures that are implemented if DHS

elevates threat condition or when threats are directed at a specific organization.

9

Response to security incidents • Response (RBPS 9) • Reporting of significant security inci-

dents (RBPS 15 — partial) • Significant security incidents and suspi-

cious activities (RBPS 16 — partial)

10 Audits/third-party verification • Monitoring (RBPS 10 — partial)

11 Management of change/con-tinuous improvement

• Monitoring (RBPS 10 — partial)

Table 1. This model uses the security management systems cited in the Responsible Care Code of Management Practices of the American Chemistry Council (ACC). If a site has adopted an operational security plan consistent with the ACC model, risk-based performance stan-dards should align well with that model. Other models for security management systems also are available.

person you use is Chemical-terrorism Vulnerability Information (CVI) certified before any information exchange takes place. It’s not difficult to achieve CVI certification; it can be done online at (www.dhs.gov/xprevprot/programs/gc_1181835547413.shtm.)

An ASP also is acceptable for communicating the SSP to DHS. This alternative to online submission may make a lot more sense for some organizations and cost significantly less to implement. This concept is similar to that of the ASP that Tier Four sites could submit as part of the SVA process but applies to all facilities’ SSP requirement. We recommend that com-panies consider this approach, particularly if they have a number of regulated sites.

Organizations with multiple sites can prepare a model corporate ASP. This then can be amended to meet the unique requirements of each regulated site

and submitted to meet the SSP requirement, creating additional efficiencies.

A security program sophisticated enough to address terrorism demands good documentation — to maintain continuity as personnel changes occur at a facility. Ac-cording to one chemical industry trade association, “to sustain a consistent and reliable security program over time, companies must document the key elements of their program. Consistency and reliability will translate into a more secure workplace and community.”

A CFATS security program requires substantial training for people with security duties, other employ-ees and even contractors. Such programs need close coordination with local law enforcement agencies.

Table 1 outlines the contents of a typical security plan. Whether a facility elects to prepare an operational security plan after filing online via CSAT or to use it as

CP0912_25_28_Instru.indd 25 11/17/09 3:30 PM

a time- and cost-savings initiative to submit as an ASP, the elements remain the same.

A properly prepared security plan satis� es a fundamental business need to address the full spectrum of threats, not just those from terrorism. In many cases, other risks (i.e., theft, fraud,

workplace violence, product pilferage, etc.) represent more likely worst-case scenarios. Consequently, a comprehensive security plan may do more to improve an organization’s securi-ty posture and bottom line than a plan focused solely on terror-ism. In some cases, the failure

WHAT TYPE OF PHYSICAL SECURITY IS RIGHT FOR YOUR SITE?Performance metrics associated with the physical security elements of the RBPS likely will result in the great-est cost expenditure. Facilities can choose one of two physical security approaches — focusing either on the perimeter or critical assets. The most appropriate decision depends upon the unique characteristics of the site.

For example, consider a recent study for a mining operation cover-ing more than 11,000 acres. Its criti-cal assets needing protection are lo-cated in a 250 ft. × 400 ft. area. So, it makes most sense to target the security design on that small area rather than trying to provide protec-tion for the entire 11,000 acres. Compliance could be achieved with a much lower expenditure.

In contrast, large sites with widely spread out critical assets may have to apply security measures such as intrusion detection, vehicle barri-ers, surveillance and access control measures to their perimeters.

So, evaluate each facility on a case-by-case basis.

Start by identifying the loca-tion of critical assets that must be protected (as defi ned in a facility’s SVA). Designers must use experi-ence and common sense to deter-mine the best way to, among other things:

• keep vehicles away from the critical assets;

• control access from unauthor-ized persons;

• provide a means to detect unauthorized access attempts; and

• establish a way to assess alarms in a timely manner.

While generally more expensive, the perimeter-based approach does have an upside from the security effectiveness standpoint. In theory, such an approach, if effectively

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CP0912_25_28_Instru.indd 26 11/17/09 3:31 PM

to properly predict and manage risks can lead to unforeseen li-ability for organizations.

PreParing the Plan

A baseline plan to meet operational and regulatory requirements always is easier to derive from a completed gap analysis for existing condi-tions. These conditions are based on specific scenarios the facility must address, which are deter-mined by the chemical(s) on site. One way to prepare a gap analysis is to document existing condi-tions at the site against the metrics published in the DHS RBPS. That document can be found at www.dhs.gov/xprevprot/programs/gc_1224871388487.shtm.

Each of the four tiers requires a gap analysis tool. It should cover all performance metrics in a facility’s assigned tier as listed in the Octo-ber 2008 draft RBPS document. This document may undergo some minor revisions; a summary of the changes between that draft and the final version will be posted at www.securingpeople.com.

A key decision when devel-

oping the strategy for an opera-tional security plan is whether the physical security defense plan will emphasize the facility’s perimeter or will take a more asset-based approach. An asset-based approach may require a greater investment in barriers and technical measures in-side the facility where critical assets

are housed. However, depending on the site’s size and concentra-tion of critical assets, it may be far more cost-effective to channel investments to specific areas of the facility (see sidebar).

Involving local law enforcement agencies is an important aspect of gap analysis and security planning.

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designed, likely will detect an unauthorized access attempt earlier — providing more time for a facility and local law enforcement to respond to interdict a terrorist attack.

You should assess a number of factors when developing a physical security design to comply with the RBPS. The best advice is to carefully consider the results required in your security program, use a competent independent designer (i.e., one not tied to a vendor of security products or services), and determine the appropriate staging plan to intelligently implement physical security measures over time.

CP0912_25_28_Instru.indd 27 11/17/09 3:31 PM

In a survey of more than a dozen regulated facilities in rural areas of the U.S., none of the responding Sheri� ’s Depart-ments was aware of the requirement for CVI training. As a result, nobody in those agencies has a CVI certi� cate that would have allowed the site and its consultant to discuss regulatory requirements or share detailed security-planning information for the betterment of the security program.

A review of the National Sheri� ’s Association Web site reveals no information on CFATS or CVI. � is suggests that additional communication is needed between DHS and the local law enforcement community. Until then, sites must address the need for CVI certi� cation on a case-by-case basis. Keep in mind that it’s illegal for sites to involve external authorities in detailed planning until CVI certi� cation can be proven.

An additional challenge for small- to mid-sized compa-nies is to determine exactly how all of this work to imple-ment the regulation will get done. Typically, this size � rm assigns security to non-security professionals with other responsibilities — we call them facility security o� cers; they may never have received training in security manage-ment. A closely related regulation, the Marine Transporta-tion Security Act, stipulates the skills and competencies re-quired of a facility security o� cer. My � rm now is training CFATS facility security o� cers to close the gap left open by the lack of speci� c requirements in the regulation.

THE CLOCK IS TICKING

Regulated chemical facilities now must make a SSP com-mitment to DHS. Corporate management may want to consider developing an operational security plan to serve as a substitute for the online � ling of a CSAT SSP. At a minimum, we recommend having a documented security plan in place by the time a DHS inspector arrives for the on-site inspection. � e ASP approach can help facility and security managers achieve this goal.

FRANK PISCIOTTA is president of Business Protection Specialists,

Canandaigua, N.Y., and is a Certifi ed Security Consultant. E-mail him

at [email protected].

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RELATED CONTENT ON CHEMICAL PROCESSING.COM“Defuse CFATS Challenges,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/046.html. “Feel Secure about Vulnerability Assessments,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2008/046.html.“Get Ready to Comply with New Security Mandates,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2007/095.html. “Protect the Perimeter and the Process,” www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2006/054.html.

CP0912_25_28_Instru.indd 28 11/19/09 9:58 AM


process puzzler

FEbruary’S PuZZLEr

We’re trying to establish the start-up procedure for burners in a natural draught incinerator. as always, there’s the danger that a burner may not light in time to avoid tripping the infrared flame sensors. The standard practice after a trip is to purge any fuel present accord-ing to nFpa guidelines. This would be easy if we used natural gas — but this incinerator is in china and uses coke oven gas that contains hydrogen cyanide. how can we modify the purge procedure for this fuel? Do we need to change the burner design and other incinerator components to handle it?

send us your comments, suggestions or solutions for this question by January 8, 2010. We’ll include as many of them as possible in the February 2010 issue and all on cp.com. send visuals — a sketch is fine. e-mail us at [email protected] or mail to process puzzler, Chem-ical Processing, 555 W. pierce road, suite 301, itasca, il 60143. Fax: (630) 467-1120. please include your name, title, location and company affiliation in the response.

and, of course, if you have a process problem you’d like to pose to our readers, send it along and we’ll be pleased to consider it for publication.

ThiS monTh’S PuZZLEr

one of our welders got hurt cutting into a carbon steel header for a chilled brine line to install another chiller in the closed-loop system. he purged the piping but not the room. an invisible gas ignited from his torch. our plant environment contains chlorine and other corrosives. What was the source of the gas? how can we prevent future accidents and what do we need to change in the system to avoid such safety problems?

Guard against Gas Readers suggest the source of a safety stumper

FoLLoW SaFETy STanDarDS

Prior to any welding or hot work operation, the room in the affected area should be tested for any hydrocarbons present above the lower explosive limit (LEL). Purging the inside of the line is not sufficient. It is critical that the outside of the line and the adja-cent area be free of flammable gases as well.

Kenneth Russell, technical manager - compoundingSolvay Advanced Polymers, Alpharetta, Ga.

iT’S a ConFinED SPaCE

Rooms should be reviewed for confined space status. If there is little or no ventilation, then confined space can be an issue. When welding or any other hot-work activity must be performed, then the preparations must include testing to determine if the atmosphere is safe. The chemical is probably one of the ones you are con-cerned about and was there in trace amounts that were sufficient to be flammable. An LEL meter or a specific instrument to sense the potential gases is a necessity.

Jim Becker, instrument reliability engineerBayer MaterialScience LLC, Baytown, Texas

ConDuCT a Job SaFETy anaLySiS

Hydrogen was the hidden flammable gas. The process of rusting depends on the availability of water and oxygen. In an oxygen-poor environment, if the pH is low, perhaps because of a heat exchanger leak or poor management of the chemistry of the closed circulating system, hydrogen gas can be produced:

Because there’s no way to prevent iron from rusting and minor leaks can go undetected for

months, you’re stuck with monitoring for a low pH and changing some of the process parameters. If the pH of the circulating water is about neutral, it won’t take much of a leak to change the pH. Although the hydrogen reaction is fairly quick, any leak should change the pH enough to forewarn against hydrogen formation.

Another possible safeguard might be a buffering agent. A pH probe could detect the initial dip in pH and allow the buffer to prevent excess hydrogen genera-tion. Venting might also help. Maybe this is a solution.

Now it’s time to consider prevention. The pipe should have been purged with an inert gas before the welding. The work should follow lock-out-tag-out and enclosed-space entry procedures and include a trained sentry to monitor conditions, especially flammable gas concentrations and breathable air. Why not simplify things? Move it outside. The tie-in should be located outside in a well-ventilated place to reduce the risk and the regulatory requirements.

Dirk Willard, senior process engineerInternational Steel Services, Inc., New Caledonia

CP0912_29_PUZZ.indd 29 11/17/09 3:32 PM


plant insites

Without a pump,

small pressure

drops count.

Due to pumps we tend to get careless in consider-ing flow systems. A few inches of fluid pressure drop aren’t very important when we shed multiple psi across a control valve. In contrast, without a pump, small pressure drops count. As a result, gravity-flow, free-surface and open-channel systems cause a disproportionately high number of flow problems at plants.

Gravity-flow systems get their driving force from static head of liquid. Free-surface flow includes piping systems where flow rate (usually generated by gravity) doesn’t completely fill a pipe or duct. Open-channel systems are similar except that the flow channel isn’t fully closed.

Let’s examine two common cases that often go together: free draining from a vessel and free-surface flow in a pipe.

Many vessels have had problems with free-draining connections. Once a nozzle unseals, vapor can enter with the liquid flow. To prevent vapor locking the draw line, liquid velocity must be low enough to allow vapor to vent back into the vessel. Free-surface flow into a nozzle can be very complex. Flow behavior depends upon density difference between vapor and liquid, flow patterns entering the nozzle, velocity of incoming liquid and many other factors. The only sure method to provide free-surface flow is to make the inlet nozzle big enough that some of the more unusual flow patterns don’t get established.

Achieving reliable free-surface flow requires evalu-ating the flowing liquid’s Froude number. In general this dimensionless number is the ratio of gravity to inertial forces. Gravity (or applied) forces represent energy driving flow while inertial forces (opposing forces) represent resistance to flow.

Fr = V/c (1) where Fr is the Froude number, V is the character-istic velocity of the system, and c is a characteristic wave-propagation velocity. Unfortunately, the exact form V and c take in a specific application depends upon circumstances.

Modifying the Froude number to a dimensionless superficial volumetric flux (J*) suitable for use with venting nozzles we get:

J* = 4Q/[πd2(gd)0.5] (2)where Q is volumetric rate of flow, d is actual inside diameter, not nominal pipe diameter, and g is the gravitational constant, all in consistent units.

Simpson identified a maximum upper value of 0.3 for the Froude number for reliable self-venting flow through a nozzle entering a vertical pipe [Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th ed., p. 6-29 (2008)]. This means the outlet nozzle will run less than half full at the nozzle entrance and gives the design equations:

d = 4.27Q0.4 (3)for d in cm and Q in m3/hr, and

d = 0.928Q0.4 (4)for d in in. and Q in gpm.

These equations allow us to find the minimum required diameter to reliably get a specific flow rate if the nozzle isn’t fully flooded.

The second common situation involves a partially full near-horizontal pipe. Flow requires pressure drop. In gravity-flow systems pressure drop comes from height of liquid. Partially full pipes must slope to provide height of liquid to drive fluid flow. The ques-tion is, how much? Many mechanical and chemical engineers use arbitrary standards. Few of them have heard of the Chezy formula for estimating fluid veloc-ity in a sloped line:

v = (2g/f )0.5(dhs/4)0.5 (5)where v is fluid velocity, f is Fanning friction factor, dh is hydraulic diameter, and s is sine of the slope angle. (The first term sometimes is the Chezy coef-ficient, C.) At a constant slope, s equals the height difference divided by the length of pipe.

For sizes smaller than 6 in., pipe should run no more than 50% full to allow for vapor backflow; for pipes larger than 6 in., most applications can toler-ate up to 75%-full pipes. For the relatively short lengths typically encountered at process plants a 40:1 slope is a good starting point for evaluating piping systems with commercial pipe and low vis-cosity fluids (e.g., water and light hydrocarbons). If available, steeper slopes allow for smaller diameter pipes.

Use flooded-nozzle sizing to set initial intake size, establish flow with a gradual slope, then increase the slope and smoothly decrease pipe diameter to reduce investment. With large systems, long pipe runs and more complex layouts, some research to decide on hydraulic design will reward your efforts.

anDrew sloley, Contributing Editor

[email protected]

assess the Gravity of the situationFlow systems without pumps demand particular attention

CP0912_30_InSites.indd 30 11/17/09 3:33 PM


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enD poinT

2008 salaries of

the top 35 U.S.

CEOs were about

129 times their

ideal fair salaries.

A chemicAl engineer with a background in com-plex systems management has applied his statistical thermodynamics expertise to salaries to discover that many CEOs are being paid more than 100 times what they should be.

Venkat Venkatasubramanian, a professor of chemical engineering at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., outlines his theory in the November 3 issue of the online journal Entropy. The paper, “What is Fair Pay for Executives? An Information Theoretic Analysis of Wage Distributions,” can be downloaded at www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/11/4/766.

For many years his research has focused on: risk analysis and management of complex engineered systems; molecular products engineering; cyberinfra-structure for pharmaceutical engineering and materials design; and complex adaptive systems. He addressed these problems using artificial intelligence, informatics, statistics and mathematical programming techniques.

“You might ask why a chemical engineer is con-cerned with economics and CEO salaries,” Venkata-subramanian says. “Well, it turns out that the same concepts and mathematics used to solve problems in statistical thermodynamics and information theory also can be applied to economic issues, such as the determination of fair CEO salaries.”

Central to his theory is the economic interpreta-tion of entropy. “There have been many attempts to find a suitable interpretation of entropy for economic systems without much success,” he explains. “Just as entropy is a measure of disorder in thermodynamics and uncertainty in information theory, what would entropy mean in economics?”

Entropy is a measure of “fairness” in economic systems, revealing a connection between statistical ther-modynamics, information theory and economics, says Venkatasubramanian. Using the theory, the ideal pay distribution is determined to be ”log normal,” a way of characterizing data patterns in probability and statistics.

Venkatasubramanian estimates that 2008 salaries of the top 35 U.S. CEOs were about 129 times their ideal fair salaries. CEOs in the Standard & Poor’s 500 averaged about 50 times their fair pay, raising ques-tions about efficiency of the free market to properly determine fair CEO pay, he says. Fair pay for an average S&P 500 CEO should ideally be in the range from eight to 16 times the lowest employee salary.

The ratio of CEO pay to the lowest employee sal-ary has gone up from about 40-to-1 in the 1970s to as

high as 344-to-1 in recent years in the U.S. However, the ratio has remained around 20-to-1 in Europe and 11-to-1 in Japan, according to available data, he says.

“These ratios are not that far off, when compared to U.S. ratios, from the ideal benchmark estimates from my theory,” he says. “Even in the U.S., the CEO pay ra-tios in the 1960s and 1970s were much more reasonable and in general agreement with the ideal values. So the executive pay excesses appear to be a recent phenome-non. This appears to be another valuation bubble — the CEO valuation bubble — much like the ones we have witnessed in stocks, real estate and commodities.”

Venkatasubramanian and his co-authors conclude that a certain amount of seeming inequality of pay is inevitable in organizations. “Given this reality, the log-normal distribution is the fairest inequality of pay. One may view our result as an economic law in the statistical thermodynamics sense. The free market will ‘discover’ and obey this economic law if allowed to function freely and efficiently without collusion like practices or other such unfair interferences.”

This result is the economic equivalent to the Boltzmann distribution of the energy landscape for ideal gases. In spirit, it‘s like Boyle‘s law for ideal gases, which ignores factors such as intermolecular and mo-lecular forces, but nevertheless provides a useful basis for developing models for non-ideal systems.

“In a similar manner, our theory has its obvious limitations and does not take into account industry or company specific factors, complexities of human interactions, competition and other market conditions, and so on,” they conclude. “However, we present it with the hope of stimulating further research to examine its implications in greater depth and breadth for a wide variety of contexts in economics and social sciences.”

“This paper tackles an important problem in a new way. Venkat is a brilliant engineer who sees pat-terns that others miss. It’s wonderful to see this kind of cross-disciplinary investigation, broadening the range of ideas and mathematical tools being applied to crucial issues like CEO pay,” says William Masters, professor and associate head of Purdue’s Department of Agricultural Economics.

CP’s latest survey shows (www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/072.html), chemical engineers’ aver-age salary reported by respondents is $107,804.

Seán ottewell, Editor at Large

[email protected]

Are chief execs Paid too much?Engineer applies economic entropy to analyze CEOs’ salaries

CP0912_34_ENDPNT.indd 34 11/17/09 3:35 PM

CP0912_FPA.indd 35 11/18/09 11:01 AM

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