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10. CAUSAL ANALYSIS (ANALISI CAUSALE)

ReferencesJoly M., Des idées qui repportent... ca se trouve! Démystifier la créativité industrielle, Paris, Les Éditions d’Organisation, 1992 (it. transl. Adriano Caiani, Idee che rendono... come trovarle, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993).

Class: B

Phase: External Mapping, Internal Mapping

DescriptionYou often need to review your approach to any given problem, until you get to its very core. To this purpose, Michel Joly (1993) suggests two techniques: CROSSED SEGMENTATION and Causal Analysis.

Causal Analysis belongs to external mapping (see the author’s example in “Idee che rendono…come trovarle”) though it might be used in internal mapping, as well.

“Someone calls it “epistemological method”… Causal analysis tries to define a given problem, to let it breath and to address the very origin of things, even through hypothesis. The bold effort involved by this method often gives successful outcomes: the problem appears in its entirety, together with its related solutions.

The ice block story

An oil production and distribution company was looking for something to propose to car drivers. So, the company members examined car drivers’ problems and tried to work out a product to solve them. Winter was approaching and soon snow lovers would leave for a week’s skiing holiday. The company managers thought about car drivers who are not used to cold. They would leave the city and finally get to the mountain resort at dusk, with their folks. A few miles before arriving, they would slip on an ice block, smash against a rail and begin their snow holiday in a freezing luxurious hotel, having to pay for an unexpected accident.

The real problem was how to prevent a car from skidding on the ice.Why does it skid? Because the rubber friction coefficient on the ice is low. Why is it low? Many would answer that ice is smooth. Is it true that a smooth surface has a low friction coefficient?

You realize that it is not true if you place a sheet of paper on an upright glass and remove the air between the two: your sheet does not drop or comes off only after a while.

Therefore there must be another reason. Why then two surfaces supposed to have a high friction coefficient could spoil our poor driver’s holiday?

A group of technicians was confronted with this issue; some of them stated that there was something between the rubber and the ice, maybe some water. Why water? Where might it come from?

What about hot rubber? Indeed, it is hot but it comes into contact with the ice only for a short while, therefore it cannot melt the ice crust.

What about rubber friction? Cars skid even when they are standing…

How about the tyre pressure on the ice? It is true; ice melts under a certain pressure, even at 5 or 6 degrees below zero.

Which is the tyre pressure on the ground? It is about 2 bars (pumping pressure). Is it enough to melt the ice straight away (adiabatic melting, id. without heat transfer)? Experts say no.

What then? The water hypothesis was not odd at all. Do such pressures really exist? After all, pressure results from a mass applied to a surface.

What about the contact surface between the tyre and the ground? A careful test proved that the tyre gets worn on the road and has more or less evident harms (shellings, scratches, furrows). The contact does not take place on a huge surface; on the contrary it is scattered within an apparent contact surface with the ground or the ice. So, the car weight rests on a few contact points, thus putting a pressure that is much bigger than 2 bars, id. over the adiabatic limit. The ice placed on the contact points melts under the wheels pressure. The car begins to skid, the pressure pushes a bit further, ice melts and the car cannot stop.

So, if it works like this, how can you remove irregularities and make the surface smooth?

Obviously, you do not need to always adjust tyres, otherwise they would get spoiled in a short time.

What about filling holes? With what then?By dint of thinking, they generated the following idea: they covered rubber with a

kind of foam, so they created an undamaged contact surface for the ice crust. In this way, they reduced peak pressure and without peak temperature ice did not melt any longer.

This product can now be found in aerosol cans; drivers that leave for skiing resorts can buy it before smashing against a rail on a freezing road. However, the foam layer fades away and needs to be rebuilt…

Brilliant, isn’t it? Our grandmothers wore their woollen tights on their shoes, thus filling any holes and increasing the real contact surface between their feet and the ice crust. As a result, they did not risk breaking their legs so much.” (Joly, 1993)

Related Techniques: CROSSED SEGMENTATION

Topic: Problem analysis (Chapter 6, Paragraph 1.2)

11. CAUSAL MAPPING (MAPPA CAUSALE)

ReferencesVicari S., La creatività dell’impresa. Tra caso e necessità, Milano, Etas Libri, 1998.

Class: B

Phase: Predisposition

DescriptionThis technique was borrowed from the systems theory which can be used to

remove natural constraints to market growth and development.

“It is about identifying the cause and effect relations between market natural development and its decisive factors. It is similar to FORCES FIELD ANALYSIS; however, the development decisive factors are not considered as isolated forces but as a set of relations that affect a specific phenomenon in a systemic way.” (Vicari, 1998)

Figure 3-5 shows a Causal Mapping of the pay tv market.

«La domanda di pay tv è influenzata dal prezzo dell’abbonamento e dalla am-piezza della copertura sul territorio delle trasmissioni. Quest’ultima influenza a sua volta il numero di ricevitori installati presso le abitazioni, che attraverso le economie di scala riduce il costo di installazione del singolo ricevitore, innescando un circolo virtuoso di incremento del numero di quelli installati. Un’altra determinante della domanda di pay tv è la qualità dei programmi, che è influenzata dalla qualità dei servizi accessori e dalla diffusione di programmi in lingua locale. Ulteriori de-terminanti della domanda di televisione a pagamento sono il tipo e la qualità delle trasmissioni gratuite, nonché il numero di ricevitori installati.» (Vicari, 1998)

“Pay Tv demand varies according to the subscription fees and to the broadcasting range on the territory. Indeed, the broadcasting range is directly related to the number of home receivers because it cuts the installation costs for each receiver through scale economy. So, it triggers a virtuous circle of increased installation. Another decisive factor for pay tv demand is program quality which depends on the services offered and on the number of native language programs broadcasted . Further decisive factors of pay tv demand are free programs type and quality, together with the number of receivers installed.” (Vicari, 1998)

Figure 3-5: Pay Tv Market Causal Mapping

M

Broadcasting range Number of installed receivers

Pay-TV demand

Quality of free programs

Quality of optionals

Receiver installation fees

Satellite receivers feesNative language programs

diffusion

Subscription fees

Quality of pay tv programs

(Source: Vicari, 1998)

“[…] This diagram allows to identify not only the restraining forces to the natural development of a specific phenomenon but also the whole set of cause and effect relations.Causal Mappings mainly differ from FORCES FIELD ANALYSIS because they allow to identify the whole group of forces – which are seen as interacting causes – while FORCES FIELD ANALYSIS considers each cause on its own as an independent factor. So causal mappings give you an overview of all interacting causes that can hinder or promote development. Moreover, causal mappings differ from FORCES FIELD ANALYSIS – which results from a systemic view – because they allow to identify critical forces, i.e. forces that can affect a whole set of interrelated causes. You can remove restraining forces by focusing on “critical forces”. You need to make an effort to identify and remove all elements that are very likely to affect the system development. For example, if price is the main constraint to market development, then you need to focus on how cutting costs, e.g. by reengineering processes, redesigning products and modifying distribution methods or marketing activities.” (Vicari, 1998)

Related Techniques: FORCES FIELD ANALYSIS FISHBONE DIAGRAM

Topic: Removal of natural constraints (Chapter 4, Paragraph 3.2.1)

12. CHANGE MATRIX (MATRICE DI CAMBIAMENTO)

ReferencesJaoui H., La creativité mode d’emploi, Paris, ESF éditeur-Enterprise Moderne d’Edition et Libraires Techniques, 1990 (it. transl. Maria Rita Pessot, La creatività : istruzioni per l’uso, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1991).

Jaoui H., Créatifs au quotidien. Outils et méthodes, Paris, Editions «Hommes et Perspectives», 1991 (it. transl. Di Maria Elisabetta Tonin Dogana, Creatività per tutti. Strumenti e metodi da impiegare nel quotidiano, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993).

Class: C

Phase: Internal Mapping

Description Every organization aims to avoid energy waste and risks related to any given “change”.Therefore company internal forces opposed to a changing situation can be identified through a simple matrix (Figure 3-6) which…

“…once you fill it out, it will help you to set up a different strategy, make good use of your energies, avoid direct conflicts, trust allies who appear unsuspected.” (Jaoui, 1991)

Figure 3-6: Change matrix

Wish to changeFunction Nobody Weak Medium Strong ExtremeGeneral

ManagementManagers

Managerial Staff

PersonnelTrade Unions

CustomersSuppliers

(Source: Jaoui, 1993)

15. CRITERIA LIST (ELENCO DI CRITERI)

ReferencesOsborn A.F., L’arte della creativity, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1992, ed. orig. del 1953.

Class: B

Phase: Evaluation

Description To facilitate the idea evaluation process, Osborn (1992) suggests to use a Criteria List.

This list includes a set of questions, such as:

1. Is it simple enough?2. Is it in accordance with human nature?3. Is it relevant?4. Is it practical?5. Will it improve production or quality?6. Will it help to make a more efficient use of workforce?7. Will it improve functioning, maintenance or building processes?8. Is it more advanced than existing tools or machines?9. Is it safer?10. Will it help to avoid waste? Will it help to use materials for a long time?11. Will it help to avoid unnecessary work?12. Will it cut costs?13. Will it improve existing methods?14. Will it improve working conditions?

Related Techniques: /

Topic: Integration and selection (Chapter 9, Paragraph 4.1)

16. CROSSED SEGMENTATION (SEGMENTAZIONE INCROCIATA)

ReferencesJoly M., Des idées qui repportent... ca se trouve! Démystifier la créativité industrielle, Paris, Les Éditiond d’Organisation, 1992 (it. transl. Adriano Caiani, Idee che rendono... come trovarle, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993).

Class: C

Phase: External Mapping

Description Like CAUSAL ANALYSIS, the Crossed Segmentation technique is used to outline the problem that you are going to face.

In his book “Idee che rendono… come trovarle”, Michel Joly shows how to use this technique through a real story that he calls “fairy tale”.

“Like other techniques, this method helps you to outline your problem but unlike other techniques it tries to split it up…: you often end up finding your solution with a little effort.

The butane fairy tale

A producer of small butane cans to be mainly used for camping or, in general, for domestic use when other energy sources were missing had noticed that when he advertised his product, his sales decreased.He tried to split up the market and address consumers directly, as he had only dealt with retailers so far.Something unexpected had occurred before: he had found out that not only campers but also people living in the elegant city areas purchased his butane cans. However, the inquiries made about the retailers’customers proved that most of them had Spanish or Portuguese surnames. So the problem was the following: how to address all foreign people living in France who needed butane cans for their lofts without regular energy plants?The answer came out quite easily and resulted from another question: can these foreign people living in France (possibly not for a long time) read in French? (Those who live in France for a long time can speak and read in French but they are not living in lofts any longer). No, they could not read in French, so they could not even understand written advertisements!Was there any solution? Of course! The producer needed to advertise his products in Spanish, Portuguese, etc. not only in newspapers but also in the places where these people met.” (Joly, 1993)

Related Techniques: CAUSAL ANALYSIS

Topic: Problem analysis (Chapter 6, Paragraph 1.2)

17. DEADLINING

ReferencesAndriopoulos C., Lowe A., “Enhancing Organizational Creativity: the Process of Perpetual Challenging”, Management Decision, Vol. 38, n. 10, 2000, pp. 734-742.

Osborn A.F., L’arte della creativity, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1992, ed. orig. del 1953.

Class: C


Description

Deadlining is a very efficient tool to stimulate creative thinking. It develops employees’creativity by setting a precise deadline for each project.

Referring to deadlining, Osborn (1992) states that:

“…another way to enhance imagination is setting a deadline and sticking to it. If necessary, we commit to draw a promissory note to certify that we are going to present our suggestions within the fixed term. Our will often gives in to such commitments. When we set a deadline, we increase our emotional power, as we know that we may face a possible failure. On the contrary, we can decide to create a certain number of ideas. Say we are generating five ideas; when developing them, we come across new ideas and soon 25 or more ideas are generated. The bigger the number of ideas, the better the chance to find what we are looking for. [...] Mental flexibility is becoming a common term among psychologists who now regard it as a very efficient tool. However, everyone knows that finding alternatives is not such an easy task.” (Osborn, 1992)


Topic: Preliminary procedures (Chapter 9, Paragraph 2.3)

20. DIALOGUE (DIALOGO)

ReferencesGurteen D., “Knowledge, Creativity and Innovation”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 2, n. 1, 1998, pp. 5-13.

Lawson B., Samson D., “Developing Innovation Capability in Organisations: a Dynamic Capabilities Approach”, International Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 5, n. 3, 2001, pp. 377-401.

Sutton R.I., Weird Ideas that Work. 111/2 Practices for Promoting, Managing, and Sustaining Innovation, New York, The Free Press, 2002.

Weiss W.H., “Demonstrating Creativity and Innovation”, Supervision, Vol. 63, n. 3, 2002, pp. 6-10.

Class: B

Phase: Internal Mapping, Predisposition, Creative process

Description

Dialogue is a very important “tool” for creativity development within a company; indeed, several authors suggest to use it at different times.

Firstly, David Gurteen (1998) maintains that the major problem for a company is to think about knowledge – already available in a big quantity - in new ways. However, you often fail to attain this objective because there are some “locks-in” that you need to remove, in order to liberate your creativity.

Gurteen identifies the following “locks-in”:

■ Creativity is a serious business: creativity is too often regarded as a serious analytical task, whereas it is meant to be a pleasant activity; ■ Creativity is not needed: creativity is very often seen as an attitude to be adopted from time to time, rather than a mental habit; ■ Creativity is specialized: creativity is regarded as a prerogative for some disciplines or company functions, like R & D, rather than an activity of the company expertise; ■ Limiting paradigms: they are the major creativity lock-in because they limit unconscious thoughts and actions; they concern everyone’s unique perception, vision and communication of the world; ■ Inappropriate mental models: unlike paradigms, mental models are conscious and correspond to reality interpretation schemes; ■ Limitations of traditional teaching: it concerns traditional teaching which does not involve the games learning potential; ■ Inappropriate belief in absolutes: knowledge is always in evolution and is not absolute at all; ■ Worry and rewards and punishment: when you are afraid of being rewarded and punished;

■ Fear and lack of trust: it is the most common lock-in; it is when you are afraid of failing and being mocked by others. ■ Infanticide: when you tend to put down new ideas; ■ Information overload: when you rely on and analyse information too much; ■ Judgement: when you tend to judge (without thinking twice) instead of suspending judgement.

To remove these locks-in, he suggests to use dialogue. It allows to discuss about things, in order to reveal one of the major creativity locks-in, i.e. the limiting paradigms. To be really efficient, dialogue must be carried out adequately; speakers need to listen to each other and not simply reply because dialogue is not a fighting confrontation but a tool to investigate the point of view of the person whom you are speaking to. All participants need to take some advantage from dialogue, like learning something new. It is to be conceived as an opportunity to establish a contact between people, rather than a moment for complaining about others’ ideas. According to Gurteen, dialogue is important, especially because it helps participants to become aware of their mental paradigms, as well as the others’, and therefore to clear their mind of prejudices. This is a precondition to allow people’s creativity to burst out.

Unlike Gurteen, Weiss W.H. (2002) suggests to use dialogue during the internal mapping phase. He states that as all employees in a company could always generate ideas, chief managers must be ready to receive them. So, they can carry out dialogues (even informally) with their employees during which they would listen to their ideas, advice and suggestions which could possibly lead to improved products, procedures and processes. This is a positive factor for the company, since it can bring new ideas and involve its personnel in the company processes, thus making employees more fulfilled.

Also Lawson and Samson (2001) think that having a dialogue with all company employees (the so called INTERNAL SENSORS) can help to better allocate the necessary resources for the company development.

Unlike the authors mentioned so far, Sutton (2002) defines dialogue as an integral part of the creative process. He thinks that dialogue is a fundamental element of group work because it allows to develop and test the value of new ideas. It is a kind of “intellectual conflict” that is totally different from interpersonal conflicts; in fact, it is about a “clash of ideas” that only aims to generate innovation. Such clash deals with a selection of well-balanced people without particular communicative problems; they are confronted to each other and respect each other. Their dialogue is centred on the relevant problem and aims to develop a number of alternatives to be examined collectively.

Humour and jokes are the creative group major tool to relieve any conflict between participants and keep focused on facts, rather than personal conflicts.

A relieved atmosphere improves our mental flexibility, as it allows to connect inputs and generate a larger variety of ideas. Moreover, too strict people need to be isolated because they could have a negative influence on the others. Conflict is strictly forbidden during the early stages of the ideation process, when the idea is not complete yet.

It is necessary to suspend judgement during these debates, to make sure that negative criticism does not prevail and put down early ideas before they are fully developed and ready to be examined.

Related Techniques: INTERNAL SENSORS

Topic: /

22. DIRECT COMPARISON (CONFRONTO DIRETTO)

ReferencesDe Bono E., Serious Creativity Using the Power Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas, The McQuaig Group, 1992 (it. transl. Severo Mosca, Essere Creativi. Come far nascere nuove idee con le tecniche del pensiero laterale, Milano, Edizioni Il Sole 24 ORE, 1998).

Vicari S., La creatività dell’impresa. Tra caso e necessità, Milano, Etas Libri, 1998.

Weiss W.H., “Demonstrating Creativity and Innovation”, Supervision, Vol. 63, n. 3, 2002, pp. 6-10.

Class: B

Phase: Evaluation

Description

During the evaluation phase, you need to carefully examine each idea to choose the best among them. Like others, De Bono (1998) suggests to use Direct Comparison. Make a direct comparison between ideas or alternatives which are in competition. Then, take note of their similarities and differences which can later be compared to the evaluation criteria adopted. This technique allows to take into consideration those factors that cannot be included in any personal evaluation checklist. Furthermore, this method helps you to evaluate whole ideas. Direct Comparison can give excellent outcomes if you work on the factors that usually lead people to put down an idea. Focus on risks and faults: they will give you the necessary reasons to put down some competing ideas. On the contrary, if you focus on positive aspects, you will find it hard to put down a given idea that looks like a potential solution. Like De Bono, Vicari (1998) suggests to use Direct Comparison to evaluate ideas:

“A company is always generating new ideas…These ideas are then compared, tested and evaluated, as regards their costs, revenues, market potential, etc. Each company carries out this selection process according to its selection criteria which are parallel to the selection mechanism. We will refer to these selection criteria as a selection code.

This code is made up of the constraints that underlie a company innovation process; each company has its own code which results from the company experience and underlies the development process.” (Vicari, 1998)

The author states that the selection code includes internal and external evaluation elements. Figure 3-7 shows an example of the selection code which helps to evaluate the ideas appropriateness and consistence with the organization.

Figure 3-7: The selection codeInternal elements External elementsMission and vision ImageCompany culture PlacementExpertise Clients’ needs

Strategy Competitors’ strategiesExisting products Current legislationProduction structure Socio-cultural valuesFinancial profitability parameters Competitive structure

(Source: Vicari, 1998)


Topic: Final decision (Chapter 3, Paragraph 5.3)

24. EX-POST LOGIC (LOGICA A POSTERIORI)


Class: C

Phase: Evaluation

DescriptionConsider one idea at a time as you were going to choose it. Then think of how

you are going to tell your audience why you chose it. A very good idea can often turn out to be weak when you try to explain the logical reasons of your choice. Indeed, this selection is emotional rather than rational and based upon expectations rather than on well-founded forecasts.

This technique often helps to keep ideas which are supposed to be chosen on a rational basis; however, you risk putting down a large number of peculiar ideas with a great potential but without a solid logical basis coming from your experience.


Topic: Final decision (Chapter 3, Paragraph 5.3)

25. EXTERNAL CONTACTS (CONTATTI ESTERNI )

ReferencesFoster R.N., Kaplan S., Creative Destruction: Why Companies That Are Built to Last Underperform the Market – and How to Sucessfully Transform Them, Currency Doubleday, 2001 (it. transl. Roberto Merlini, La distruzione creatrice. Strategie di discontinuità e trasformazione per le imprese che vogliono conservare l’eccellenza, Milano, Etas Libri, 2001).

Class: C


DescriptionFoster and Kaplan (2001) state that there is a “blurred zone” in the economic activity, which can be found on the

periphery of the different sectors. New companies are generated within this area to explore unkonwn needs and to capitalize on new capacities, new technologies and new business concepts.

According to both authors, strategic planning, advanced research and venture capital acivities should mainly aim to analyze how the periphery of a given sector evolves and whether it is a potential source of wealth. They regard the periphery evolution as a precondition because:

- It allows to see the future opportunities of a given section from a strategic perspective;- It allows to identify unsatisfied customers, understand what they need and investigate their competitors’

approaches to address their needs;- It allows to identify new born companies to exploit new opportunities or new abilities through a very innovative

method;- It allows to gear the innovation activity within the company to a radical and effective change, i.e. the kind of

change occurring on the periphery;- It allows to choose the right time for business dvelopment.

Furthermore, the need to understand the periphery evolution – which is a precondition for change – has increased together with the change rate of the economic environment. Since the change rate is going to further increase in the future, the capacity to identify peripheries will become crucial. So focusing on periphery will lead to reorganize the company strategic planning, research and investments in new initiatives.

In this context, any contact with the company external environment is fundamental to help the management to outline and understand the periphery of their own section. Trips abroad and meetings with customers allow the management team to to adopt a more outward-looking mental model.

Related Techniques: EXTERNAL SENSORS

Topic: The importance of periphery (Chapter 2, Paragraph 1.5)

26. EXTERNAL SENSORS (SENSORI ESTERNI)

ReferencesCocco G.C., Creatività ricerca e innovazione. Individui e imprese di fronte alle sfide della società post-industriale, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1987.

Andriopoulos C., Lowe A., “Enhancing Organizational Creativity: the Process of Perpetual Challenging”, Management Decision, Vol. 38, n. 10, 2000, pp. 734-742.


Sutton R.I., Weird Ideas that Work. 111/2 Practices for Promoting, Managing, and Sustaining Innovation, New York, The Free Press, 2002.

Class: B


DescriptionIn the existing business and social environment where competitors gain ground

and market opportunities decrease, companies need to continuously turn to creativity. Creativity is their only resource when they need to make important decisions which entail the company development and even its existence.As a result, the capacity to generate ideas and innovations must be a

precondition for each company.Gian Carlo Cocco (1987) states as follows:

“In other words, it is about perceiving the need and the opportunity to follow a given guideline, thus discovering the main factors that help to outline a problematic situation. Hereunder you find a list of such factors:

▪ situation analysis;▪ problem definition;▪ problem analysis.” (Cocco, 1987)

Cocco mentions Normann and his theory of the company idea life cycle; Cocco refers to Normann’s theory as the “sensor stage” phase ans suggests to use the so called “External Sensors” technique:

“The sensor stage...is characterized by a view, a logical and clear guideline that leads the opportunity research; it relies on “sensors” which are collection and analysis centres of heterogeneous information. Virtually, the increased sensitivity to new business opportunities is a process of selective learning. According to figures, to increase their success opportunities, companies must place a large number of sensors on the very external periphery (market sectors, aggressive competitors, qualified customers, etc.) At the sensor stage (which is divided into different steps of opportunity identification, feasibility study and actual plan implementation) everyone aims to attain more or less challenging goals. The atmosphere is characterized by imagination and general hope which make this phase quite “animate”...” (Cocco, 1987)

Then Cocco states that the collected information can help to improve the ability to foresee, conceive, experience and implement competitive strategies; indeed, these strategies act as operational schemes or models that can stimulate successful actions. So they must be regarded as positive hints, rather than normative criteria. Competitive strategy models entail a learning process which helps to outline the company situation in a conservative or radical way, according to the mental scheme underpinning the company actions.

Like Cocco, other authors regard external sensors as crucial elements for any given company, no matter what sector they belong to.

For example, Lawson and Samson (2001) think that companies need to have a deep knowledge of their external environment to create real value products for their customers. To this purpose, they can protect their periphery by using external sensors to stay in touch and form alliances with customers, suppliers, competitors. So companies can freely use key resources of the external environment like information, capitals and, in general, any goods or services that can make them more competitive. In particular, the authors stress the need to absorb all knowledge resulting from external relations.

The collected data will be used to generate a company view and strategy that can manage innovation in an effective way. The strategy must help to outline resources, products, processes and systems to face a floating competitive environment and decisions on what businesses and related markets are to be addressed. For a successful innovation, the company needs to have a clear and shared view aimed to adopt a proactive attitude which looks ahead and not back.

On the contrary, Sutton (2002) suggests to turn to peculiar external sensors that help to receive the inputs coming from the company external environment. They correspond to the potential neo recruited people who can be an interesting source of information during job interviews. Given their past experience and contacts, applicants can provide crucial information about the competition plans, strategies, guidelines, new products, technological innovations, together with their company structure and organization (several company managers try to attract promising young people by showing them their on-going projects).

Obviously, you need to know how to manage a job interview. For example, you can ask applicants to tell how they would use their past experience to solve a given problem in the company. A few applicants need to have gained experience in totally different fields. These people should be asked to identify new business opportunities and new perspectives for problem analysis. As a matter of fact, their lack of specialized knowledge can help to get over a standstill and provide interesting hints.

Related Techniques: EXTERNAL CONTACTS

Topic: Company ideas in the economic system (Chapter 5, Paragraph 1.1)

28. FILE CLOUD “9”

ReferencesDe Bono E., Serious Creativity Using the Power Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas, The McQuaig Group, 1992(it. transl. Severo Mosca, Essere Creativi. Come far nascere nuove idee con le tecniche del pensiero laterale, Milano, Edizioni Il Sole 24 ORE, 1998).

Class: B


DescriptionThis technique is very useful during the predisposition phase which includes

all activities that underlie creative thinking.

“Cloud “9” means “dream”. It refers to a real file that is passed on to a certain number of managers. More files can circulate and some of them are limited to special sections. Files are meant to circulate monthly or bimonthly.

They should convey the following information:

New ideas. They are not innovative ideas, as they are already used within other organizations, apart from your company.

Original ideas. They can carry their inventor’s name and do not refer to similar or previous ideas but to specific goals of a given sector or file items.

Positive comments They are comments coming out from “white hat” thoughts which support an idea presented in the file while adding new information or experience to this idea. They are also comments or suggestions about the alternatives or changes contained in the file (green hat). However, negative comments should be left out (black hat), unless they give interesting problem solving hints.

New creative focusing They can be presented as problems, tasks, opportunities and so on, which should be particularly stressed, so that executives can remark them immediately.

The file is read and supplemented with suggestions, comments and hints; then it is forwarded to the next reader. If it becomes too bulky, further files can be created, together with a list of the desired information.

File Cloud “9” offers many advantages:1. It is a system which regularly reminds you to think in a creative way.2. It is a source of creative goals.3. It presents ideas and concepts to be contrasted.4. It is a simple communication channel.5. It gives you the real value of ideas and suggestions.

File Cloud “9” is an opportunity. You are not forced to write down your ideas; on the contrary, you can just read the file and forward it to the next reader, without adding your thoughts.” (De Bono, 1998)

Related Techniques: SIX THINKING HATS

Topic: Creativity introduction (Chapter 3, Paragraph 3.2)

31. FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS (CAMPO DI FORZE)


Class: B


Description As well as CAUSAL MAPPING, Force Field Analysis is a technique used to remove natural boundaries to market growth and development.

“Force field analysis is a very successful technique, especially for quality management and continuous improvement processes.

Basically, each situation is outlined in a certain way and to a certain extent, according to some forces that push into a certain direction and other forces that go into the opposite direction. The situation evolves into one direction or the other, depending on the prevailing force.

You can use the same approach to social and economic phenomena. For example, a market size depends on the forces pushing growth, i.e. driving forces and forces opposing growth, i.e. restraining forces.

Force field analysis shows this dynamic…To obtain a significant growth, you just need to identify restraining forces and

reduce or remove them. For instance, in the case of natural food products, market development opportunities are generated from the market natural development which can evolve autonomously if its growth restraints are put down. The forces pushing market growth correspond to health care, physical beauty, increased revenue, etc. On the contrary, the forces opposing market growth are the knowledge of food problems, the awareness of food and health relations, the price of natural food products and so on and so forth.

Therefore, market growth can be obtained by acting on both driving forces, which already push upwards, and restraining forces that can be supervised more directly.

If you can act on restraining forces, which prevent the phenomenon from liberating its pushing forces, you can obtain an impressive growth, with a limited effort (given a certain phenomenon size).” (Vicari, 1998)

In this excerpt Vicari (1998) maintains that force field analysis can be defined as a model to outline the conflict between the forces acting in a given situation.

This technique can be divided into the following steps:

1. Identify driving and restraining forces of a given situation;

2. Draw up a diagram (Figure 3-10) with:

- Current condition: represented as a horizontal line;

- Growth forces (or driving forces): represented as arrows that push the line upwards;

- Opposed forces (or restraining forces): represented as arrows that push the line downwards.

Figure 3-10: Force field analysis

(Source: http://www.mycoted.com)

Arrow thickness signifies strength of impact of a force; arrow length shows how complicated it would be to adapt;

3. To obtain a reasonable growth, you should move the central line both upwards and downwards. In particular, try to:

- Find ways to strengthen or add positive forces (driving forces);- Find ways to weaken or remove negative forces (restraining

forces).

Related Techniques: DO IT CAUSAL MAPPING

Topic: Removal of natural bonds (Chapter 4, Paragraph 3.2.1)

32. FORMATION (ON CREATIVE TECHNIQUES) FORMAZIONE NELLE TECNICHE CREATIVE


Jaoui H., Créatifs au quotidien. Outils et méthodes, Paris, Editions «Hommes et Perspectives», 1991 (it. transl. Di Maria Elisabetta Tonin Dogana, Creatività per tutti. Strumenti e metodi da impiegare nel quotidiano, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993).

McFadzean E., “Developing and Supporting Creative Problem-Solving Teams: Part 1 – a Conceptual Model”, Management Decision, Vol. 40, n. 5, 2002, pp. 463-475.

Osborn A.F., L’arte della creativity, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1992, ed. orig. del 1953.

Class: B


.

DescriptionCreative training is a fundamental aspect of the predisposition phase and

therefore it needs to be taken into great account. Even though training is not always a precondition for creativity techniques, you cannot overlook this method if you want to use more sophisticated techniques to generate very innovative ideas.

Creative training requires will, skills and a methodology. Will is fundamental because it is not about using your innate creative skills but it is about trying to teach some techniques and procedures; skills are a requirement for trainers who need to convey the logic that underlies creativity; finally, a systematic and deliberate methodology is required to use your creativity through formal programs for creative training.

In particular, Edward De Bono (1998) stresses the importance of training to disseminate a general creative capacity that he defines as follows:

“It is the creative capacity that should be available to each organization member, with no exception. However, the extent of creative capacity is not the same for each level.

At the management level, it is necessary to realize the importance and the logic that underlie creativity, which must be seen as an essential resource and not as a marginal luxury. Lateral thinking techniques and methods must be available to managers...

At other levels, such understanding might be impracticable (yet, if it was practicable, it would be successful). So, organization members may just need to understand the creativity value and some basic techiques, in order to master the creativity tools.” (De Bono, 1998)

Furthermore, training is a precondition to provide some specific areas with creativity.

“Some particular areas constantly require new ideas. In other words, “ideas” are the product made in these areas. Natural creative skills (or stimulus) can be improved only through systematic methods.

The research activity focuses on these special areas in which creativity does not only help to solve problems but also to develop new research fields. So research should be focused on concepts, rather than technological progress.

[…] When you want to develop really new products, you need a large amount of conceptual creativity...

Marketing is a combination of analysis, tradition and transfer of creative concepts which have a wide range of uses. As participants understand your innovative concepts, you can proceed. Traditional working methods must be used and constantly supervised. New synergies and ways must be devised to address consumers. Values are always changing and therefore it is necessary to keep pace with change to turn it to your advantage.You also need to promote new values. Traditional products must be renewed and launched again on the market, thus finding out or creating new market sectors...

In particular, marketing needs a solid conceptual capacity; as a matter of fact, this sector always welcomes new concepts and alternative methods to translate them into practice.

[…] It is not easy to train creativity within these special areas where people give their creativity for granted and do not want others to teach them how to be creative. Nevertheless, once they can master creativity techniques, they are very glad to use them and enjoy their outstanding outcomes. It is necessary to investigate both the “logic” that underlies creative training and its related specific techniques. Trainees should also get the opportunity to use these techniques regularly. Techniques should keep their formal aspect, in order to face the typical “freewheeling” working method used in these special areas...Formal techniques provide each individual with a “creative assistant”, who is actually the individual himself acting otherwise.” (De Bono, 1998)

Furthermore, it must be said that creative training is also very useful to those who need formal and intentional creative skills to generate new ideas, even though they do not work in the above mentioned special areas. They are for example the participants to the regular creative sessions and facilitators who need to show how to use creative techniques and assist participants during the various sessions.

“The participants working in these special creative groups are not used to creative thinking; therefore, they must be given some creative skills that are not already included in their professional knowledge. It is much easier to train these groups than the people working in the above mentioned special areas, as they cannot refer to any previous creative style and they are less self-centred. Their training should stress the practical aspects of creative techniques. Participants do not need to deeply understand the creativity logic but they need to know how to exactly use formal creative techniques. Perhaps, it is not useful to train all group members to use all creative techniques; however, they should be trained in a way that they can use them.

Operational creative skills can be used any time. People need to be always ready to use the adequate creative technique. It is as if you trained a surgeon on how to use a scalpel before teaching him the general principles of medicine.” (De Bono, 1998)

Training can be structured in different ways:

One-day seminars (six hours and a half): they help to provide large groups with some general knowledge about creativity, thus awakening companies to the importance of creativity;

Two-day seminars (eleven hours and a half): they give space to practical training, so that participants (up to fifty people) can realize what creative techniques deal with;

Teachers training (five days/forty hours): it is thought to provide teachers with those tools and methods that they will later transfer to their students;

Advanced lateral thinking training (five days/forty hours): it is thought for those people that need to be very creative in their profession. The group can include twenty participants at most.

Finally, see the following modules developed by De Bono for company trainers.

Forty-hour module: it is an advanced course for people operating in special areas who need to develop creative skills for their job.

Twenty-hour module (for managers): it addresses managers that – even if already creative - need to be creative in their job and promote others’ creativity.

Ten-hour module (basic capacity): it helps to provide workgroups with some basic knowledge about creative techniques; in particular, it deals with the application of these techniques.

Five-hour basic module: it is the most elementary module which defines a set of tools. This kind of training might be used by all company members.

These modules can be divided into smaller or bigger parts, according to the kind of training applied by each company. For example, the twenty-hour module might be broken down into five smaller four-hour modules. In general terms, the smaller the modules are, the more efficient the training will be, as breaks between small modules give you time to train and think about what you are doing. Teaching creativity in one go is risky because you might tire participants; moreover, you could stress some processes and overlook others that are equally important.


Topic: Creativity introduction (Chapter 3, Paragraph 3.2)Preliminary procedures (Chapter 9, Paragraph 2.3)Individual and group creative work (Chapter 11, Paragraph 3.2)

33. FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS (ANALISI FUNZIONALE)

ReferencesJoly M., Des idées qui repportent... ca se trouve! Démystifier la créativité industrielle, Paris, Les Éditiond d’Organisation, 1992 (it. transl. Adriano Caiani, Idee che rendono... come trovarle, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993).

Class: B


DescriptionThis technique plays a crucial role in the improvement of the company processes. As a matter of fact, it is complementary to the value analysis which is used to cut the costs of products and processes without modifying their natural use.This method can be divided into the following steps:

1. Break down a given product or process into some functions;2. Fix the price for each function, according to the parts that they concern;3. Classify the functions according to the criteria of customer’s decreasing

interest.

This technique helps to identify anomalies, i.e. expensive functions that are not really important to the customer and that therefore can be removed. Joly (1993) shows the efficiency of Functional Analysis through the distillation column story which deals with the case of a petrochemical plant where the chief planner remarked that there was a project whose costs were higher than its selling price.

“Once upon a time a chief planner developed a project whose costs were higher than its selling price. As soon as he noticed this, he desperately tried to decrease such costs.

Someone cleverly suggested value analysis to the chief planner.The project was about the analysis of a petrochemical plant and the purchase of

the necessary equipment, the plant assembly and testing.Functional analysis allowed to discover a function, i.e. temperature check on top

of the distillation column. This function was not very important to the customers; nevertheless, it turned out to be much more expensive than other functions which were useful to them.Why was it so expensive? Because to fulfil this function, they needed not only a drill but also the necessary means to check the temperature, i.e. metal structures, platforms, accident-prevention equipment, ladder, lights. All this stuff to check the temperature! The function was really too expensive. What to do then?

...the group asked the process expert if it was necessary to check the temperature...The expert answered that it was not worth all the trouble; indeed, nobody was ready to climb up there to check the temperature, as they could see it on a simple board...It was a totally unuseful function.Both the drill and the relevant equipment were then removed from the project.” (Joly, 1993)


Topic: Flaw analysis (Capitolo 6, Paragrafo 2.2)The company cognitive heritage (Chapter 11, Paragraph 2.1)

38. HINT BOX (CASSETTA DEI SUGGERIMENTI)

ReferencesOsborn A.F., L’arte della creativity, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1992, ed. orig. del 1953.

De Bono E., Serious Creativity Using the Power Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas, The McQuaig Group, 1992 (it. transl. Severo Mosca, Essere Creativi. Come far nascere nuove idee con le tecniche del pensiero laterale, Milano, Edizioni Il Sole 24 ORE, 1998).

Class: B


DescriptionThis technique aims to develop the company cognitive potential which is too often overlooked. It is about encouraging employees to suggest ideas to improve their company and rewarding them for their suggestions.

“The “Hint Box” was first introduced into Scotland in 1880 by a shipowner whose name was William Denny; in the United States it was adopted by Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.in 1899. The United States Navy established this system without reservation in 1918; however, it became well-known only during the Second World War. The Army Hint System helped civilian workers to suggest 20,069 new ideas which allowed to save 43,793,000 dollars in 18 months. The Navy adopted such system in its 48 largest ground bases. In one of them over 900 suggestions were received and examined within 15 days.

The “hint box” is becoming more and more popular in industrial organizations. Eastman Kodak had to pay over 28,000 dollars in one year for adopting some suggestions. 9,711 suggestions in all were adopted, i.e. 1,100 more than the previous year. In the same year four people working in a Kodak factory suggested each over fifty ideas. General Electric Co.gives its employees an average of 50,000 dollars per month for their suggestions. In the past, several companies paid some 5,000 dollars for an idea...

The hint box system turned out to be very successful for General Motors. In only one year, 256,499 ideas were suggested and 68,378 were adopted. The winners received 3,260,000 dollars in all at that time.

At A.C. Spark Plug Division, Al Simberg organized some courses of creative problem solving for about 600 employees. He carried out much research to investigate the effects of creative training on the hint box system. So, employees were divided into two groups...the one group suggested a large number of accepted ideas, whereas the other generated a very short list. Both groups followed a ten-class course about creative thinking. In the following year, the first group members increased their suggestions by 40%, while the second group members increased their suggestions by 47%...

To keep national economy centred on an increased working production, you need to let new ideas flow. This is why John A.Barkmeier, who worked for Marshall Field, announced to 800 corporation managers: “Each company employee needs to think creatively from the bottom upwards.” This is the reason why hint box systems are so popular nowadays.” (Osborn, 1992)

In his book “Essere Creativi. Come far nascere nuove idee con le tecniche del pensiero laterale”, De Bono suggests to turn to “little barrages” of specific hints.

“For example, you could stress safety at work through posters and signs for a couple of weeks. After stopping campaigning for a while, you could launch a hint plan to “cut costs”, followed by some campaigns for “energy saving”, “waste reduction”, “process improvement” and so on and so forth. Campaigns need to short and focused. Hints on a given theme must be presented within a fixed term.” (De Bono, 1998)

Nowadays, the Hint Box System is an integral part of the Japanese culture. In Japan this technique is particularly successful because hints are usually examined and evaluated at their original level. On the contrary, in Western countries hints flow into the system and are then evaluated at a higher collection level. The evaluator, who has to manage a large number of hints, tends to select the most interesting ones. This system helps to prevent people from presenting “silly” hints and encourages them to put forward really useful suggestions.

The main problem within this sytem is that rewards for hints are often procrastinated. Hints are usually evaluated by a number of boards whose members reward those who presented practicable hints. However, in some sectors like that of technical projects, hints can be easily evaluated on the economic side, whereas in others like customer service, the economic value of a new idea cannot be easily evaluated. To speed up this procedure which may be very long, it is preferable to formally acknowledge hints within a short time from their presentation, no matter what quality they are. In this way you prevent this useful tool from becoming inefficient.


Topic: Encourage idea imagination (Chapter 9, Paragraph 1.1)

42. INTERNAL SENSORS (SENSORI INTERNI)

ReferencesCocco G.C., Creatività ricerca e innovazione. Individui e imprese di fronte alle sfide della società post-industriale, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1987.


Class: B


DescriptionInternal Sensors are a useful tool to detect and develop innovative hints within

the company.Innovation is no longer seen as a prerogative for R&D function, which

accounts for a small part of the company; on the contrary, it is everywhere in the company organization.

Therefore chief managers must be ready to perceive hints coming from all employees, regardless of their level because they are internal sensors for the company.

Using internal sensors is a precondition for creative thinking applied to company strategy which needs ideas to solve problems, face change and foresee future events in more and more competitive markets.

“These energies usually have a very sophisticated theoretical basis (but a poor practical application) and are still limited. So, they need to face and absorb other creative hints that are functionally developed within the company. This is a big challenge for companies; they need to gather their wide and unused creative potential. They also need to involve as many company “sensors” as possible in the process of acknowledgement, interpretation and feedback related to the internal and environment change.

[…] The way employees are managed in a company is crucial to generate creative ideas. Therefore, you need to put down office divisions and gather new suggestions, together with technical, economic and organization solutions. You need to translate participation into practice and not just speak about it. The number of “sensors” (i.e. fucntions and single individuals, too) within the company must be adequate to the extent of change, the existing problems and the need to improve existing innovations, in order to encourage...”the innovative use of innovations”.” (Cocco, 1987)

To fulfil their function, sensors need to be fully autonomous, so that they can give creative inputs which are useful to promote readaptation and change.

Cocco (1987) states that a too strict organizational structure, i.e. a top-down and centred structure, always entails “top-down” interpretation and action methods (which appear positive because they are known, repetitive and therefore very strict). Variation and modernization inputs coming from the sensors require creativity to give adequate solutions.

Referring to internal sensors, Lawson and Samson (2001) think that addressing them

with DIALOGUE can lead to a more accurate and efficient resource allocation. As a matter of fact, innovative companies can manage and combine resources that allow them to enter

various markets. Moreover, they can exploit the synergetic effects coming from the experience gained in different fields, thus learning continuously and laying the foundations of future progress.

Furthermore, to promote the development of the entrepreneurship spirit within the company, you need to encourage the realization of personal projects and risks assumption. For example, the 3M product managers can ask their division to finance entrepreneurial ideas suggested by their employees, regardless of their level.

Related Techniques: DIALOGUE

Topic: The new company government (Chapter 5, Paragraph 2.1)

INTERNAL PLANNING COMPETITIONS

REFERENCESFoster R.N., Kaplan S., Creative Destruction: Why Companies That Are Built to Last Underperform the Market – and How to Sucessfully Transform Them, Currency Doubleday, 2001 (it. transl. Roberto Merlini, La distruzione creatrice. Strategie di discontinuità e trasformazione per le imprese che vogliono conservare l’eccellenza, Milano, Etas Libri, 2001).


CLASS: A

PHASE: Internal Mapping

DescriptionThis technique is an efficient tool to involve the bottom level employees –

whose opinions are not usually taken into consideration - in the search for new business concepts, thus taking advantage from their knowledge of the company “periphery”.

It is a kind of competition for business planning that allows to put into practice what Andriopoulos, Lowe (2000) and others call “opportunising”. In other words, employees are free to identify and join creative plans that are commercially interesting. So you can promote ideas “from below” and develop all cognitive resources within your organization. Employees are directly involved in the generation of creative and cost-effective plans and can therefore combine their personal ambitions with a full understanding of the upcoming trends.

So this technique helps you to both generate a large number of suggestions and set up an ideal business climate for the so called personnel empowerment.

To start up the process, the company can create a multi-functional management team supported by the company venture capital unit; it can help to stimulate new ideas and involve the operating personnel. The different business plans will then be selected and winners will be awarded prizes and given funds to carry out their plans. Moreover, they will be offered a coaching about idea development and management.

To confirm the value of this technique, Foster and Kaplan wrote a book called “Creative Destruction: Why Companies That Are Built to Last Underperform the Market – and How to Successfully Transform Them” that shows the case of a European electronic firm that found out 180 new business concepts thanks to an internal planning competition. After carefully examining, selecting and incubating these concepts, four new starts-up were developed within the company.

Related techniques: /

Topic: The company cognitive heritage (Chapter 2, Paragraph 2.1)

44. KNOWLEDGE CONVERSION (CONVERSIONE DI CONOSCENZA)


Class: C


DescriptionIn his book “La creatività dell’impresa. Tra caso e necessità”, Salvatore Vicari

deals with the theme of Knowledge Conversion.

“[…] It is very useful to draw a distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge which is unspoken and therefore cannot be easily conveyed and understood. Some abilities can be transferred through the learning process if they are cognitive abilities, i.e. knowledge related abilities. This kind of knowledge is easily transferable when you can convey it to anybody else explicitly, whereas it is unspoken when you cannot tell which rules or laws generated such knowledge. For instance, a creative advertising agent who develops a number of new and successful ideas cannot always explain why s/he is so creative. On the contrary, you can set the rules for an advertising campaign.

However, given a bigger effort, you can always transfer knowledge to someone else, even when you are dealing with “unspoken” knowledge. For example, think of a young manager who learns something by watching more experienced people at work and cooperating with them. Both examples above show that the learning process is complex and takes a long time.

In this context, knowledge generation is a process developed by single people whose personal knowledge is related to the organization goals and functioning. However, both individuals and organizations are far from being stable; on the contrary, they are always “floating” and innovation is affected by the changeableness and casualness of the relations between individuals and organization. In a way, the interaction between single people and their systems is parallel to implicit knowledge of individuals and explicit knowledge which is a prerogative of organizations. This interaction can be expressed in terms of “conversion” of implicit knowledge into explicit knowledge and vice versa.” (Vicari, 1998)

In particular, the author refers to four knowledge conversion methods:

« Socialization is a process of implicit knowledge sharing which is typical of training on the job, whereas combination increases knowledge through a formal exchange of explicit knowledge between individuals. Externalization is about understanding implicit knowledge, while interiorization is about translating formal knowledge into real behaviour evident to individuals. It is a dynamic process always shifting from implicit to explicit knowledge and vice versa; in other words, it is an ever increasing recursive process.” (Vicari, 1998)


Topic: The company as a cognitive system (Chapter 4, Paragraph 2.2)

45. MAGIC ROD (BACCHETTA MAGICA)

ReferencesJaoui H., Créatifs au quotidien. Outils et méthodes, Paris, Editions «Hommes et Perspectives», 1991 (it. transl. Maria Elisabetta Tonin Dogana, Creatività per tutti. Strumenti e metodi da impiegare nel quotidiano, Milano Franco Angeli, 1993.

Class: C


DescriptionThe author thinks that you should deeply analyze a problem before facing it. So

you can identify the best investigation methods and avoid to waste your energies to solve uncertain situations.

A problem can be compared to a geographical area whose roads correspond to official definitions and conventional solutions. Creative analysis results in new and better roads and can be divided into two phases: a divergent phase of data collection and a convergent phase of data reorganization which leads to a complete problem analysis.

During the divergent phase you can use the “Magic Rod” technique which is about making a list with as many successful conditions as possible after reading a certain number (from 1 to 15) of printout pages.

Related Techniques: REFORMULATE MIND MAPPING

Topic: Analysis (Chapter 8, Paragraph 1.4)

59. PSYCHODRAWING

References:Jaoui H., Créatifs au quotidien. Outils et méthodes, Paris, Editions «Hommes et Perspectives», 1991 (it. transl. Maria Elisabetta Tonin Dogana, Creatività per tutti. Strumenti e metodi da impiegare nel quotidiano, Milano Franco Angeli, 1993.

Class: C


Description:Jaoui states that you need to liberate your feelings and focus on your intuitions

to develop good perception abilities.To this purpose, Psychodrawing suggests to use abstract drawing. So group

members are free to liberate not only their imagination but also their feelings and sensitivity.

Related Techniques: MIND MAPPING

MIMODRAMMA

Topic: Perception techniques (Chapter 8, Paragraph 1.3.1)

62. RANDOM SELECTION (SELEZIONE CASUALE)

ReferencesSutton R.I., Weird Ideas that Work. 111/2 Practices for Promoting, Managing, and Sustaining Innovation, New York, The Free Press, 2002

Class: B

Phase: Evaluation

DescriptionReferring to the evaluation phase, Robert I. Sutton (2002) states that companies

will need to rely more and more on casual processes to generate new opportunities, since forecasts are less and less precise - given a changing competitive climate – and companies must therefore focus on one precise idea. In this uncertain climate, idea and opportunity selection can be therefore conducted through Random Selection; according to the author, it is the best technique to allow the even most recent suggestions to be successful. Indeed, these hints are always risking being put down too early; this risk is triggered by the hesitation in uncertain situations, which is generated by the fear to fail, especially when a company is confronted to its past success and settled practices.


Topic: /

63. REFORMULATE (RIFORMULAZIONE)

References:Jaoui H., Créatifs au quotidien. Outils et méthodes, Paris, Editions «Hommes et Perspectives», 1991 (it. transl. Maria Elisabetta Tonin Dogana, Creatività per tutti. Strumenti e metodi da impiegare nel quotidiano, Milano Franco Angeli, 1993.

Class: C


Description:The author thinks that you should deeply analyze a problem before facing it. So

you can identify the best investigation methods and avoid to waste your energies to solve uncertain situations.

A problem can be compared to a geographical area whose roads correspond to official definitions and conventional solutions. Creative analysis results in new and better roads and can be divided into two phases: a divergent phase of data collection and a convergent phase of data reorganization which leads to a complete problem analysis.

The reformulation method is one of the techniques to be used in such a context. There are different versions of this technique:- write a telegram;- use recurrent wordings like “How could we...”;- write a lipogram, developed by Oulipo, Ouvroir de Littérature Potentielle,

which leaves out one letter;- use progressive semantic shiftings which break down the initial wording

into unities of meaning. Starting from each unity, draw 5 or 6 close but not identical terms. Now you have a new words stock: assemble it random to get a number of new wordings.

Related techniques: MAGIC RODMIND MAPPING

Topic: Analysis (Chapter 8, Paragraph 1.4)

65. RELEVANCE TREE (ALBERO DI PERTINENZA)

References:Joly M., Des idées qui repportent… ca se trouve! Démystifier la crèativité industrielle, Paris, Les Édition d’Organisation, 1992 (it. transl. Adriano Caiani, Idee che rendono… come trovarle, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993).

Class: C

Phase: Evaluation

DescriptionThis method - adopted by various American corporations and the Army, too –

can help you to make the best choice among a number of solutions.Break down your problem into tree branches. You can follow different

procedures: you can divide your problem into processes, systems, techniques, means...Stop only when you have identified your solutions. Obviously, your previous solutions need to be written on the tree (which could not be outlined without them!). Our experience shows that trees are meaningful and their only presence can generate further ideas.

The Relevance Tree is divided into different levels (usually 3-4); each level implies one or more selection criteria that can be objective or subjective but are not to be overlapped.

Combining these criteria allows you to evaluate each technique and attain your final goal by using the branch with your desired solution.

The following example shows this technique:

The silver contacts fairy tale

“A production company for electric appliances wanted to improve its existing solutions for implementing low power contacts.During a normative creative meeting a certain number of potential solutions was generated and added to the already existing solutions. It was impossible to examine all chances in detail. So the project office suggested the most interesting solutions to the management.They needed to implement an electric contact. They soon realized that there were two possible solutions: either to weld or to rivet, through massive silver or gold plated on a less noble metal...Before evaluating these solutions, they made a quick choice and left out too similar or impracticable solutions...So three of them were suddenly put down...Seven solutions were kept and finally evaluated according to two types of criteria:

- the electric quality criteria (welding or riveting) of the relevant technique to fulfil the objective, i.e. making contact;

- three relevance criteria for the solution using a given technique;- the solution implementation costs;- the practicability of the technique;- the mechanical contact resistence.” (Joly, 1993, p. 174-179).

The following table refers to the above mentioned example; it outlines:- the technique relevance in fulfilling your objective;- the solution relevance for the technique (welding or riveting);

- the final outcome.

Figure 3-14: exampleSo

lutio

ns

Technique relevance to fulfil your objrective IISolution relevance for the technique

Fina

l out

com

e I x

II

Cla

ssifi

catio

n

Electric qualityCriteria

Low cost Practicability Good resistance Total0,5 0,2 0,3 1

2

Welding 0,6

0,25 0,125 0,3 0,06 0,15 0,045 0,23 0,138 3°3 0,45 0,225 0,2 0,04 0,4 0,12 0,385 0,231 1°6 0,1 0,05 0,3 0,06 0,25 0,075 0,185 0,111 7°7 0,2 0,1 0,2 0,04 0,2 0,06 0,2 0,12 6° Total 1 1 1 1 8

Riveting 0,40,3 0,15 0,45 0,09 0,4 0,12 0,36 0,144 2°

9 0,4 0,2 0,1 0,02 0,3 0,09 0,31 0,124 5°10 0,3 0,15 0,45 0,09 0,3 0,09 0,33 0,132 4° Total 1 1 1 1

1 1 (Source: Joly M., 1993)

The figure shows that solution 3 stands out from the group; it is immediately followed by three solutions, among which two envisage riveting. As a result, assuming that this technique is to be put down because riveting is electrically worse than welding would prove wrong.


Topic: Selection criteria (Chapter 6, Paragraph.5.1)

69. SCENARIO BUILDING (COSTRUZIONE DEGLI SCENARI)

ReferencesMiller W.C., The Creative Edge: Fostering Innovation Where You Work, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1987.


De Bono E., Serious Creativity Using the Power Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas, The McQuaig Group, 1992 (it. transl. Severo Mosca, Essere Creativi. Come far nascere nuove idee con le tecniche del pensiero laterale, Milano, Edizioni Il Sole 24 ORE, 1998).


Class: B


DescriptionScenarios are different quality models of “plausible futures”. They give a

deeper understanding both of the potential environments in which a company might have to operate and of what a company might have to do today.

On the basis of this information, you can make some predictions about the future and then you can apply them to possible future scenarios which are based upon the present time.

Western companies often rely on single forecasts and market trend analysis. However, these are static predictions and do not provide any information about interactive cycles opportunities.

On the contrary, Scenario Building helps you to identify a range of potential opportunities that can make company planning and decisions more flexible. If you are not able to formulate accurate forecasts about the future, you need to have a flexible approach to any possible situation.

Scenarios address specific problems. To develop scenarios, follow these steps:

1. State the specific decision that needs to be made.

2. Identify the major environmental forces that impact on the decision.

Example:

Suppose your company needs to decide how to invest R&D funds in order to be positioned for opportunities that might emerge by the year 2020. The major environmental forces might include:

- Social bonds;

- Economic growth;

- International trade access;

3. Scenario building. Build scenarios based on the principal forces, by using the information available to you;

4. Identify business opportunities within each scenario;5. Examine the opportunity links and synergies across the range of scenarios.

This will help you to formulate a more realistic strategy for investment.

This technique can be easily implemented and work group members are neither required to be experts in any specific matter, nor to cooperate too close. Scenario building can especially help you to foresee the technological developments of a given company area.


Topic: Market trend analysis (Chapter 3, Paragraph 1.1)

70. SCORE SYSTEM (SISTEMA A PUNTEGGIO)

References:Jaoui H., Créatifs au quotidien. Outils et méthodes, Paris, Editions «Hommes et Perspectives», 1991 (it. transl. Maria Elisabetta Tonin Dogana, Creatività per tutti. Strumenti e metodi da impiegare nel quotidiano, Milano Franco Angeli, 1993)De Bono E., Serious Creativity Using the Power Lateral thinking to Create New Ideas, The McQuaig Group, 1992Michitti M., “Left-brained Marketers Can Achieve Creativity”, Marketing News, Vol. 31, n. 7, pp. 14-19.

Class: B

Phase: Evaluation

Description:When you talk about new ideas, you often overlook the best solution; therefore, you need to make a more conscious choice. This technique is a useful evaluation method to be applied in these situations.It is about assigning a score to each idea, according to some factors (for example, when the idea fully satisfies a factor, it will be scored 5) and to these factors relevance.The problem with this method is that it usually delivers soft solutions with a medium score for each factor.Hereunder follow the selection criteria suggested by Jaoui H.:● Efficiency: to which extent can the idea solve the problem?● Originality: to which extent is the idea innovative?● Feasibility: is the idea really practicable?

Related Techniques: SCREENING MATRIX OUTLINES METHODANGEL’S ADVOCATE

Topic: The final decision (Chapter 3, Paragraph 5.3); Evaluation (Chapter 8, Paragraph 5)

72. SELF-DIAGNOSIS (AUTO-DIAGNOSI )

References:Bertone V., Creatività aziendale. Metodi, tecniche e casi per valorizzare il potenziale creativo di manager e imprenditori, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993

Class: C


DescriptionIt is about filling out a module with the activities of the various company

functions.The function executive must assess him/herself for each activity. Hereunder you

find a possible assessment scale:

1 = inadequate2 = improvable3 = adequate

It is remarkable that a medium-performance activity (see 2) can be defined as improvable; it means that good things are not to be simply accepted as they are but are to be constantly improved.To this purpose, Japanese companies are always stimulating their employees’ creativity, so that they can suggest opportunities for change.In particular, they aim to generate suggestions for the following areas:

● reduction of product costs, through slight product change● improvement of the production process efficiency● removal of any activity duplication.

Related Techniques: CHECKLIST

Topic:Improvement opportunities (Chapter 7, Paragraph 2.1)

74. SET OF QUESTIONS TO ATTRIBUTE RESPONSABILITIES (STRUMENTARIO DI DOMANDE PER L’ATTRIBUZIONE DELLE RESPONSABILITÁ)

References:De Bono E., Serious Creativity Using the Power Lateral thinking to Create New Ideas, The McQuaig Group, 1992 (it. transl. Severo Mosca, Essere Creativi Come far nascere nuove idee con le tecniche del pensiero laterale, Milano, Edizioni Il Sole 24ore, 1998).

Class: C


Description This technique is about using a set of questions like “Who is in charge of the

programme for creativity introduction?”, “Who has to take responsibility for it?” or “Who has to implement it?”. These questions help to identify a process leader, i.e. a person in charge of the creative process. His major qualities are motivation, fairness, seriousness, outstanding and strong organization abilities, ability to build up interpersonal relations, persuasiveness...Yet, s/he is not required to be creative.

Next to the process leader, we find the”concept manager”. As good concepts can make the difference within a competitive company atmosphere, you need to set up a concept management plan. The “concept manager” has to collect, develop and generate concepts.

As regards creativity development, De Bono also suggests to build up a “creativity centre” to involve all employees in the creative process. Some specialists operate in this creativity centre; they are facilitators who lead creative meetings. Furthermore, the centre must promote seminars, meetings, exhibitions...in order to develop a creativity company culture.

Finally, you need to set up a network of people who are in charge of the creative process development at the local level. There are two kinds of network:

1. a network of “process leaders”, i.e. activators for the different divisions2. a network of people who have proved to be interested in creativity and

possibly have creative skills

Related Techniques: SET OF QUESTIONS TO EXTERNAL MAPPING SET OF QUESTIONS TO EVALUATE THE STRATEGIC PLANNING

Topic: Creativity introduction (Chapter 3, Paragraph 3.2)

75. SET OF QUESTIONS TO EVALUATE THE STRATEGIC PLANNING (STRUMENTARIO DI DOMANDE PER LA VALUTAZIONE DELLA PIANIFICAZIONE STRATEGICA)

References:Foster R. N., Kaplan S., Creative Destruction: Why Companies That Are Biult to Last Underperform the Market – and How to Successfully Transform Them, Currency Doubleday, 2001 (it. transl. Roberto Merlini, La distruzione creatrice Strategie di dscontinuità e trasformazione per le imprese che vogliono conservare l’eccellenza, Milano, Etas Libri, 2001).

Class: B

Phase: Evaluation

DescriptionThe two authors developed the following set of questions to assess the quality of the company strategic planning:

1. are you satisfied with your strategic planning efforts?2. do you think that your strategic planning can generate a relevant number

of ideas?3. did you miss any business chance and regretted them later?4. do you feel your strategic planning process has become too

bureaucratic?5. are there two parallel processes in your organization, i.e. a “corporate”

planning approach and a real planning process related to the operative business?

6. has your annual planning process become daily routine? Do you just update your last year plan through the word processor?

7. are your strategic plans more tactical than really strategic?8. do you tend to be more reactive than proactive when you face your

major business challenges?9. are you satisfied with the quality of your strategic planning feedback?10. are your budget, allocation of capitals, compensation and inheritance

plans regulated by your strategic plan?11. does your strategic planning process combine strategies with an accurate prediction about the future of a given company area?

Related Techniques: SET OF QUESTIONS TO EXTERNAL MAPPINGSET OF QUESTIONS TO ATTRIBUTE

RESPONSABILITIES

Topic: Evaluation (Chapter 2, Paragraph 5.1)

76. SETTLEMENT OF SEARCH’S BORDERS (DEFINIZIONE DEI CONFINI DI RICERCA)

References:Bertone V., Creatività aziendale. Metodi, tecniche e casi per valorizzare il potenziale creativo di manager e imprenditori, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993.

Class: B


DescriptionThe author identifies four definitions of research field:

- a field of action- a guideline for research development- a final destination- a risk limit

Field of action:To define this concept, the auhor refers to the case of Tecnocomposit Spa.

“In 1986 Tecnocomposit Spa, a Montedison Group Company, was looking for new business ideas about composite materials. Tecnomare was asked to conduct an opportunity research; this company was specialized in the structural planning of off-shore oil activities. Through this analysis, the company aimed to assess the technical feasibility and the commercial interest for the Montedison group of planning, producing and selling “fibreglass” off-shore structures (or single parts) to replace traditional metal structures. The field of action of the research was outlined according to three major thoughts:

- Fibreglass manufactured products are not exposed to the

corrosion of salted water. For this reason, almost all pleasure boats are made in fibreglass. As a result, the research was limited to off-shore oil plants and did not include any ground activities.

- The company used semiautomation lay up technology which is particularly good for manufacturing customized large-sized products. Therefore, they focused their research on unique large-sized manufactured products or very special products. For example, pipe-lines and other standard products, which can be implemented through full automation technology, were excluded.

- An important quality of fibreglass is that, given the same stress resistance, it is lighter than iron materials. Their research was limited to the uses where lightness is not only a quality but a precondition or even a binding factor for the whole structure.

As Tecnomare was specialized in planning platforms and manufactured products related to off-shore oil activities, the group was silently expected to conduct their research on components and manufactured products for oil platforms, such as

dwellings for the personnel, the helicopter landing platform and so on. However, this restraint had not been expressed. The Venice Tecnomare staff, almost entirely made up of young engineers operating in a stimulating climate for creativity development, interpreted their task in a free and open-minded way. Each member brought his/her personal experience into the group. The work group included sailing boat lovers, experts of the Venice ecoenvironment problems and careful watchers of things and situations from all over the world, experienced during work missions to places like Alaska or Texas.

They found out that: the typical uses related to oil activities were not really interesting in the short term for many reasons:- too conservative attitude of oil companies that do not want to

run any risk. So they reject any new material or supplier, provided that they are not facing a lock-in problem that cannot be solved through common technologies, type-tested materials and regular suppliers;

- need to improve the “non-inflammability” of fibreglass manufactured products and prove the efficiency of new technologies through 1:1 scale prototypes;

- off-shore investment cuts carried out by all oil companies after the slump of the oil price occurred in 1986.

In this context, the products identified for not specific off-shore uses, and therefore outside the research field, turned out to be very useful. Among these products, there are some new “work” boats” (Bertone, 1993, p. 106-108)

Guideline of opportunity researchIf you do not know exactly what you are looking for, you can just

follow a guideline of opportunity research, such as the innovative sport equipment quoted in the Brekka example (see Bertone, 1993, p.108)

Destination of opportunity researchYou can start your opportunity research process by pointing out

your final target.

Risk limitsA further method to outline your research field is fixing the highest risk degree that you are ready to accept.


Topic: Innovation opportunities (Chapter 7, Paragraph 1.1.1)

79. SILENT GROUPS (GRUPPI SILENZIOSI)


Class: C


DescriptionThis technique helps non-experts to present problems. This method can involve up to 80 members with no top-down roles, who are divided into groups of 5 or 6 participants. Each group is leaded by a coordinator who does not formally belong to the group.The major phase of this technique is kept silent by the facilitator who helps participants to talk about as many problems as possible as quickly as they can (15-30 minutes). Afterwards, each group presents the problems on a flow chart. After exchanging their ideas (thus, gathering identical concepts and stressing emerging concepts), each participant casts a vote by writing down the five most relevant problems, according to his view.Such a meeting lasts half a day in all. Votes and lists of problems are collected. Votes are kept secret.The meeting ends with a summary of the method used and an explanation of how the groups’ outcomes will be managed.


Topic: Problem discovery (Chapter 6, Paragraph 1.1)

83. SPONSORSHIP

References:Bertone V., Creatività aziendale. Metodi, tecniche e casi per valorizzare il potenziale creativo di manager e imprenditori, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1993.

Class: C


DescriptionSponsorship is one of the major roles of the top management; indeed, without

its deep involvement proved by signs of trust, no change could be really successful.

Therefore, top management needs to spend time in the development of innovative ideas and ensure an adequate extent of proxy and autonomy to the most creative employees. Finally, top managers have to limit the clashes between creative people and the bureaucratic/top-down mechanisms of the organization.


Topic: Favourable organization climate (Chapter 7, Paragraph 3.1.3)

86. STIMULATING QUESTIONS (DOMANDE STIMOLANTI)


Class: C


DescriptionSi tratta di elenchi di domande che portano a porsi domande in diversi campi,

per identificare i problemi. La seguente lista è proposta dall’autore:

This technique includes lists of questions that challenge different fields to identify problems. Hereunder you find the list proposed by the author:

● The six Army questionsWhy is it necessary?Where?When? Who?What? (what needs to be done exactly?)How?They are otherwise written: W-W-W-W-H: What, When, Where, Who, How?● Reis’ listWhat is your main problem?What troubles, bores and annoys you?What makes you cold or dirty?What do you like to touch, feel, see or hear?When do you need a hand?What do you often forget to do or just overlook?● Flesch’s listWhat am I carrying out?Have I done it before and how?Can I do it otherwise?Can I use less, all, some, one, two or more parts?What if I do the opposite?What if I do nothing?● “Four operations” listWhat to add?Could it be bigger, larger?Can we put some more in?How to reinforce it, make it more resistant and lasting?Can we exaggerate? Can we double it?Can we subtract, reduce?Can we minify it?Can we go faster, slower?Can we add more or less pieces?

Related Techniques: FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

Topic: Flaw analysis (Chapter 6, Paragraph 2.2)

104. VARIABILITY (VARIABILITÁ)

References:Vicari S., La creatività dell’impresa. Tra caso e realtà, Milano, Etas Libri, 1998.

Class: C


Description Together with change locks-in (see Topic), another factor hindering creative development is prejudice, i.e. the inability (or the unconscious unwillingness) to question the existing cognitive scheme, even when it proves to be definitely wrong.The major prolem is that in this way you tend to deny the future itself which is clearly different from the present and its cognitive schemes.This technique was developed to avoid prejudice.It is about adopting the largest number of people, cultures, approaches, technologies, markets, products, organization structures. So, a strict cognitive scheme is much less likely to prevail.

Related Techniques: MIND MAPPING VARIETY FORCED FIELDS ANALYSIS CAUSAL MAPPING

Topic: According to the author, the awareness of change locks-in is preliminary to the creative process.Removal of restraints to development (Chapter 4, Paragraph 3.2)

105. VARIETY (VARIETÁ)

References:Vicari S., La creatività dell’impresa. Tra caso e realtà, Milano, Etas Libri, 1998.

Class: C


DescriptionThis technique was developed to avoid prejudice (see VARIABILITY).It is about often changing our way of thinking, our outlook on reality, thus forcing the organization to systematically change its personnel, processes, structures, operational procedures.So you can avoid routine, habits which could entail automatism and hence prejudice.

Related Techniques: MIND MAPPING VARIABILITY FORCED FIELDS ANALYSIS CAUSAL MAPPING

Topic:According to the author, the awareness of change locks-in is preliminary to the creative process.Removal of restraints to development (Chapter 4, Paragraph 3.2)

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