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Theories of Information Behaviour

- a Finnish perspective

Mariam GinmanFaculty of Economic and Social

Sciences/Information studies Åbo Akademi University

Finland

November 2005

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• Contemporary theories of information behaviour and information seeking span over the whole life cycle of information, that is, from its production to its storage, retrieval and use.

• However, during the evolution of the theories the emphases have been on different parts of the process.

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• The theories have moved from a media and system-oriented approach to more user-centred theories.

Today, the focus is on the constructive and active user coping with professional activities and everyday life.

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Information life cycle

the process

11Ginman:

information

, knowledge construction

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Definitions

• Tom Wilson (2000)

• information behaviour :

• “the totality of human behaviour in relation to sources and channels of information, including both active and passive information seeking and information use”.

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Definitions

• Paul Solomon (1997a, 1997b) has described the patterns of information behaviour as dynamic and nonlinear

• People do not think of information and information behaviour in isolation from what they are coping with at a given time, as information behaviour forms a part of everything that happens in people’s information world.

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During the last decade there have been some confusion over the terminology.

The debate has been whether “information behaviour” is an appropriate term to

describe information seeking and use.

The term, however, seems to have gained general acceptance and is now broadly used for studies on how people need, seek give

and use information

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This presentation will cover three popular, contemporary paradigms

of human information behaviour

• that is:

• the cognitive view

• the social view and

• the socio-cognitive view of information behaviour.

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The cognitive view

• Focuses on explaining variations in information behaviour according to the individual’s characteristics and attributes

• and describes the processes in which the individual is involved

• These models of information behaviour and of the information seeking process are context-independent

• (Pettigrew, Fidel & Bruce 2001).

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The research focus of the cognitive approach is based on theories in

cognitive psychology

Belkin 1978, Belkin, Oddy and Brooks 1982a, 1982b, Brookes 1977, De Mey 1977).

• And can be traced back to the mid 1970-s when several researchers stressed the need of including a cognitive viewpoint on information seeking.

• The paradigm very quickly grew popular even if not all researchers give exactly the same definition to the cognitive viewpoint.

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• However there is according to Belkin a kernel of meaning that is common to most definitions (Belkin 1990)

• The concept of cognition has its name from the Latin word cognoscere (to know)

• and the research of this paradigm studies knowledge-related processes like learning, remembering, perception, making sense or decision-making

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De Mey (1977) puts it like this:

• "any processing of information, whether perceptual or symbolic, is mediated by a system of categories or concepts, which, for the information processor, constitutes a representation or a model of his world".

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An early much aknowledged study of the cognitive paragimis the ASK theory by Belkin,

Oddy and Brooks (1982a, 1982b).

• They defined the information need

as an individual state of mind

when the person involved discovers an anomalous state of knowledge (ASK).

• They describe the base for information need as something that is unknown and disordered.

• By gaining information, the anomalies in the person’s state of knowledge may either be resolved or changed leading to the development of a new ASK.

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Kuhlthau (1993, 1991, 1999)

• studied students’ information seeking by means of cognitive models of the search process.

• She describes information seeking as a learning process including physical, affective and cognitive processes.

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Kuhlthau: six stages in the information search process . Typical feelings, thoughts

and actions in each of these stages.

• The stages are:

• 1. Initiation: the person becomes aware of the lack of knowledge or understanding. Feelings of uncertainty

• 2. Selection: a general topic is defined, and the person becomes ready to begin the search. Feelings of optimism

• 3. Exploration: the person encounters inconsistent, incompatible information that increases the uncertainty. Feelings of confusion, frustration, doubt

• 4. Formulation: the person forms a focused perspective of the problem. Feelings of clarity

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• 5. Collection: the useful information is gathered. Sense of direction, confidence

• 6. Presentation: the search is completed and the person has a new understanding of the problem and can explain this to others. Feelings of relief – and feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

• The feelings of uncertainty, confusion, optimism, frustration, relief, and satisfaction cut across the searching context as a personal profile of the student.

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Kuhlthau’s theories highlight the fact

• that as people become more knowledgeable about a topic

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• they also become more confident and focused in their information seeking and

• also their interest in the topic increases.

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Kuhlthau’s model was discussed,validated and

elaborated by Pertti Vakkari (2000)

• He found that her model predicted the information behaviour of students writing a research proposal for their master theses

• Carol Kuhlthau also opened the door for a research tradition in LIS where the psychological aspects of an information seeker are taken in consideration,

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Jannica Heinström (2002)

• found three very distinct groups of personality-related search behaviours ;"Deep divers", "Broad scanners" and "Fast surfers".

• She describes how personality traits affect our ability to find and absorb information.

• 305 Masters-level students approach to information-seeking in their studies.

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Jannica Heinström finds that

• the neurotic, easily distracted and lazy "Fast Surfers" have difficulties formulating searches and then interpreting what they find.

• "Deep Divers" are identified by their willingness to consider viewpoints and to link ideas.

• Strategic thinkers, or "Broad Scanners", are conscientious and have clear goals.

• The last two categories are highly motivated and often able to find the information they seek

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Jannica Heinström: the connections between personality and information

behaviour :

• Extraversion was related to informal information retrieval as well as preference for thought-provoking documents over documents which confirmed previous ideas.

• Openness to experience was related to broad information seeking, incidental information acquisition, critical information judgement, preference of thought-provoking documents instead of documents which confirmed previous results.

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• Conscientiousness was related to preference for thought-provoking documents instead of documents that confirmed previous ideas and use of effort in information seeking.

• Conservativeness was related to problems with relevance-judgment and preference for confirming documents.

• Competitiveness was related to lack of time being a barrier to information retrieval, problems with relevance judgment and competence in critical analysis of information. Low levels of agreeableness form a base for skeptical and critical thinking.

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• Carelessness was related to problems with relevance judgment, feeling that lack of time was a barrier to information retrieval and preference for documents that confirm previous ideas.

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Objectiv

Stefan Ek &Mariam Ginman the role of uncertainty in human

information behaviour

Background

• the initial assumption on uncertainty and information behaviour has mostly been that an increased sense of uncertainty develops an increased need for information

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However, great individual differences in peoples’ way to deal

with uncertainty has been emphasised

The extremes on the uncertainty scale have been characterised by placing at one end individuals who are extremely uncertainty-oriented and at the other end individuals who are extremely certainty-oriented

Shuper et al (2004), Shuper & Sorrentino 2004)

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• uncertainty-oriented persons go for activities that decrease uncertainty. It is a question of "need to know"-persons who seek information in order to try to understand both themselves and the aspects in their environment that seem uncertain

• A growing uncertainty develops a more intensive acquisition of information in these persons

• These uncertainty-oriented persons have a self-oriented and individualistic approach to life, which probably also is reflected in their activities and in their personal information profile

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Certainty-oriented persons react on uncertainty in a way that to the highest possible degree aims at

maintaining clarity, predictability and certainty

• They are active at a low level of uncertainty

• They become increasingly passive as the stress increases

• They move increasingly towards collective action or leave actions to someone else

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Objective : to analyse to which degree uncertainty due to weakened self-experienced health is reflected in peoples' locus of control

orientation and information behaviour

• The study lokes at the relationship between three components:

- self-experienced health - locus of control - information interest and information

avoidance/angst

• Postal survey based on Stefan Eks statistical analysis

• Representative sample (2500) of the Finnish population aged 18-65 years

• 1287 (52 %) persons returned the questionnaire

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Locus of control

• the conception of locus of control is based on Rotter’s learning theory and concerns the beliefs that individuals hold regarding the relationships between actions and outcomes

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• an internal locus of control is associated with a more active pursuit of valued goals

• the individual believes that he or she is responsible for the reinforcements experienced

- in effect, that the person's actions, characteristics, qualities, etc. are prominent determinants of the experiences being queried

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• an external locus of control indicates that the person views his or her outcomes as being primarily determined by external forces, whether luck, chance, social context or other powerful persons or whatever

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Powerful others (health professionals)

Conclusions• The study confirmed that information interest is

related to uncertainty/certainty orientation

• Our results indicate that individuals with an internal locus of control display an information behaviour based on a "need to know" and a personal, goal-oriented coping strategy;

• i.e., the factors that are consistent with the definitions of uncertainty-oriented persons

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Uncertainty orientation seems to be positively related to:

- the ability to understand the problem or the situation, to make sense in a cognitive way

- the access to internal resources for problem solving and actions

- an (inner) strive to cope and a search for sense in an emotional way

- the interest in information

• And negatively related to:

- information avoidance/angst

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• individuals with an external, chance-oriented locus of control have a profile similar to certainty orientation and information avoidance/angst behaviour

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However, not all information behaviour theories are based on purposeful

information seeking, that is, not all information behaviour is an active,

problem-driven pursuit of information

• Erdelez (1997) focused on accidental information discovery and developed a theory of information encountering.

• this kind of information behaviour occurs when people are browsing or scanning information from the environment.

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Sandra Erdelez collected information

encountering experiences

• from students’ and university employees' recall of information encountering experiences.

• Information about four attributes;

• the user of encountered information

• the environment where the encountering happened

• the characteristic of the encountered information and

• the information need addressed.

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Sandra Erdelez found

• That encountering is quite a frequent phenomenon

• An essential part of people's information behaviour

• Especially in information rich environments such as libraries.

• The encountered information is either problem-related or interest-related without previous seeking experience

• Is either used in some specific action or to address some more general needs

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Erdelez and Rioux in a study of Web users

(Erdelez & Rioux 2000).

• The relevance of information encountering is even more stressed in the digital world.

• The web is full of opportunities to accidentally discover useful information

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The social view

• Studies on information behaviour and information seeking with focus on social contexts emerged slowly during 1990’s.

• They focus on meanings and values associated with social, sociocultural and sociolinguistic aspects on information behaviour.

• These studies consider context as a "carrier of meaning" (Pettigrew, Fidel & Bruce 2001).

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The socio-economic factors are interesting in this context

• People's convictions are to a large extent linked to social patterns

• We are influenced and moulded by our positions within family, profession, professional life, linguistic group membership, and other demographic circumstances

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The ideas shared by the members in a social group or a collective

are a powerful factor

• The groups develop:

• Collectively shared knowledge

• And a group control based on social intercourse, norms, and communication

• The social environment facilitates, shapes or prevents the information seeking

• Morgan & Schwalbe 1990

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Elfreda Chatman’s work on information behaviour in everyday life among out-

dropped and poor individuals (Chatman 1996, 2001, Pettigrew, Fidel & Bruce 2001).

• She developed three frameworksfor her studies on information seeking;

• 1. theory of information poverty

• 2. theory of life in the round

• 3. theory on normative behaviour

• She started by describing information behaviour and life characteristics of poor people.

• These questions led to the description of many new theories based on theories from social sciences.

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Chatman described the everyday information

flow in different small word settings: • the working poor (1985, 1987)

• female janitors at a large university (1987a, 1990, 1991b)

• elderly women residing in a retirement complex (1991a, 1992)

• female prisoners (1999).

• She found that people who live in a "small world" ignore information that could be good for them in their everyday life.

• Their hesitation to reveal their need of information is due to a fear to be considered less competent.

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• The theory highlights how information behaviour is affected by experiences from life in surroundings where no-one can be trusted

• the information behaviour is a part of the self-protection of the individual.

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• Chatman’s studies of female prisoners ("the life in the round") showed that life in "a small world" is predictable.

• The members of “a small world” have a common worldview that is shaped by the norms of the social world they live in.

• The members share a common language, habits, values and social norms.

• This sharing is a must if a member wants to be considered "normal".

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Information becomes a performance, a story, with a content that is easily accepted and

understood by the members.

• There is a collective appreciation of what kind of information is important.

• External information has little value for "the life in the round".

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The idea of Chatman’s theory of social types is that people are divided into

categories on the basis of their behaviour

• The collective memory of the members in “the small world” has knowledge of different types

• and also instructions on how these different types have to be treated and what to expect from them

• Through social norms, normative behaviour dictates a predictable, routine and manageable approach to everyday reality.

• In this sense, it contains the lessons that one must learn in order to cope successfully in a particular social world (Pettigrew, Fidel && Bruce, 2001).

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A combination of the theories of the small world and the social network theory is

presented by Maija-Leena Huotari and Elfreda Chatman ().

• They combined Chatman’s small world theory and the social network theory to explain organizational behaviour.

• They discovered: ”The small world theory" provides a promising social dimension for a new theory of Strategic Information Management.

• They conclude: organisations are made up by individuals who must connect with each other and also go outside the organisations and individuals to create value.

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The information poverty phenomenon on a macro-lebel is discussed by Britz (2004)

• The gap between information rich and information poor societies is growing as is also the "digital divide" between individuals.

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• The digital divide is an enormous threat for the economic, cultural and socio-political development in many societies.

• A divide between the information rich and information poor is not only a gap between societies and countries but also a gap between individuals of the same culture and context.

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Savolainen & Tuominen (1997)

• Using a social constructionist approach, they developed a model for the study of the concept of information as a discursive action

• They define information as a communicative construct, which is produced in a social context

• The construction of information and its use depend on the interactive nature and objectives of the communication.

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Kimmo Tuominen abandons the thought that knowledge is constructed on the basis

of an information transfer model (Tuominen 2000, Tuominen et al. 2002).

• Knowledge production does not take place when an expert (e.g., the journalist) contemplates the world

• produces information, which reflects his image and worldview and

• conveys it to the rather passive recipient.

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• Neither is it sufficient just to activate the recipient’s mental structures

• if the parties are still to act autonomously and rather independently from each other.

• There would be no guarantee that the recipient’s constructed knowledge turns out to be even remotely similar to the knowledge that the sender tried to transmit.

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• In the framework of such a conception of the production of knowledge it is not possible to consider:

• -how the socio-discursive process influences the production of knowledge

• -or to analyse different knowledge conceptions in society

• Knowledge production on the basis of social constructionism provides a better understanding of how knowledge is constructed

• In this model the constructed knowledge is neither objective nor subjective but a negotiated discursive construction created among people.

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The socio-cognitive view • Many researchers have pointed out that a

model of information behaviour based on only one viewpoint, whether cognitive or social, is not powerful enough to describe this complex phenomenon

• Anthony Gidden‘s theory of structuration notes that social life is more than random individual acts, but is not merely determined by social forces.

• Human agency and social structure are in a relationship with each other, and it is the repetition of the acts of individual agents which reproduces the structure

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• This means that there is a social structure

• - traditions, institutions, moral codes, and established ways of doing things;

• but it also means that these can be changed when people start to ignore them, replace them, or reproduce them differently (http://www.theory.org.uk/giddens.htm).

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One of the consequently developed theories is the socio-cognitive view

• It focuses on how cognition interacts with the socio-cultural environment

• that is, how the worldview of a learning and thinking person is affected by the social context.

• This research tradition has also been very much influenced by Vygotsky

• who stressed that both cognitive processes and the social milieu are equally important for the construction of knowledge.

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• In line with Vygotsky’s theories, Talja, Tuominen and Savolainen also stress the superior importance of knowledge producing, sharing and delivering in groups compared to the individual knowledge constructs.

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Dervin’s Sense-Making theory (1992, 1999, 1986).

• It is a theory of people’s need to make the world understandable and to cope with their everyday life.

• Everyone is repeatedly experiencing situations where the internal sense runs out and information is needed to create a new sense.

• A knowledge gap has been created, which has to be bridged by new information.

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Dervin labels her model as SITUATION-GAP-USE

(Dervin & Nilan 1986). • where the sense-maker is seen as

potentially making some kind of use of whatever bridge is built across the "gap" that the user faces

• Dervin sees sense-making as a meta-theory that can be used as a basis in methodological applications in research on information seeking.

• It guides the researcher when collecting data on how people make sense of the world.

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• The sense-making approach focuses on situations, the gap, the bridge and factors affecting the bridging.

• Sense-making is a continuous process where action and reflection are important ingredients.

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Many of the studies with multiple approaches are about motivation, ability

and interest for seeking information.

• Wilson (1981, 1997) has identified several categories of barriers of information seeking behaviour:

• 1. personal barriers (physiological or demographic)

• 2. Role barriers at work or in social life or

• 3.environmental barriers.

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• Butriss (1997) has pointed out that the reliability and trustworthiness of information sources may act as a barrier that influences their use.

• Also, selective exposure may affect information seeking.

• This means that people may choose to seek information that confirms and supports their previous knowledge, interest and opinions (Wilson 1997).

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Pettigrew, Fidel & Bruce (2001) state

• that another quantum leap has occurred within information behaviour research.

• A distinct, unifying theoretical body is emerging

• and

• beyond its strong, user centred core, it emphasizes the contextual interplay of cognitive, social, cultural, organizational, affective and linguistic factors

• and

• asserts that information behaviour phenomena are part of the communicative process

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Thank You!