1) The Treaty of Versailles Aims of the Big 3: France: Clemenceau wants a harsh peace, huge reparations, a limited German military, the Rhineland and Alsace-Lorraine. Britain: David Lloyd George wins the election promising to “Make Germany Pay.” This includes wanting German colonies, a weak German navy and to be able to trade with Germany again. USA: Woodrow Wilson, the US President, wants the 14 points. These include no secret treaties, freedom of the seas, a League of Nations, self-determination and independent Poland and Belgium.

Terms of the Treaty: War Guilt Clause – Germany was blamed for the war. Reparations of £6,600,000,000. German army reduced to 100,000 men, 6 battleships, no air force or submarines. German land restricted by c.13% including the Polish Corridor to Poland, Alsace Lorraine to France, the Saarland placed under League of Nations control, Danzig made an independent city. All German colonies handed over to the Allies. A League of Nations to be set up. Germany was not allowed in it.

German reaction: Diktat: The Treaty was forced upon them and they had no say in it’s preparation. They were forced to accept it or Germany would be invaded. November Criminals: Term used to describe the German government who agreed to surrender. Dolchstoss: The myth that the German army was never defeated but was instead stabbed in the back by the Weimar politicians. Unfair: The Germans surrendered expecting to receive Wilson’s 14 Points. But only Germany was blamed, only Germany had to disarm, German people did not get self-determination in the land that was taken away. All of this led Germans to think the Treaty was horribly unfair and many were determined to do away with the Treaty as soon as they could.

2) The League of Nations in the 1920s

The formation of the League 1920 – The League of Nations was formed. The main aims were to stop wars, improve living and working conditions, disarmament and to enforce the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France were the most powerful members of the League, and formed the Council with Japan and Italy. The US senate would not sanction the USA’s involvement because the League was seen to be European, they were isolationist and did not want to join any more wars, because the US people were against the Treaty and also due to the number of German immigrants in the USA. Russia had just turned Communist in 1917 and were wary of the rest of Europe. Germany were not invited as part of their punishment in the Treaty. LEAGUE POSSIBLE ACTIONS:- 1) CONDEMNATION 2) ECONOMIC SANCTIONS 3) MILITARY FORCE

The structure of the League:- THE COUNCIL – consisted of 5 permanent members of the League. This included Britain, France, Italy and Japan. They met 5 times a year. THE ASSEMBLY – The League’s parliament. All countries sat in it. It met once a year and all decisions had to be unanimous. THE SECRETARIAT – The League’s civil service which enforced decisions. PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE met in the Hague to settle disputes. Solved the Aaland islands dispute. MANDATES COMMISSION – Managed new colonies. REFUGEES COMMISSION – Returned an estimated 400,000 refugees home after the war. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION – empowered to improve working conditions. HEALTH COMMITTEE – Focussed on the eradication of Malaria and Leprosy.

DID YOU KNOW that the League achieved social improvements in the 1920’s? REFUGEES – 400,000 people were returned home after the war. WORKING CONDITIONS – Poisonous paint was banned, child labour hours reduced and a maximum 48 hour working week was set up. HEALTH – The League helped to eradicate Malaria and Leprosy. It helped with the Plague in Siberia. The League fought successful campaigns against drug trafficking and human slavery. It was responsible for freeing the 200,000 slaves in British owned Sierra Leone.

3) The League of Nations in the 1920s International Disputes

VILNA – 1920 Vilna was given to Lithuania although the population were Polish. Poland occupied the city. The Lithuanians appealed for help and the League did nothing. Poland kept it.

CORFU – 1923 In 1923 a group of Italian surveyors led by General Tellini were murdered on the Greek/Albanian border. Mussolini blamed the Greeks and ordered compensation to be paid by Greece. They refused until evidence proved that the Greek people were to blame. Mussolini bombed and occupied the Greek island of Corfu. The Greeks appealed to the League for support. The League initially supported Greece and told Mussolini to leave Greece alone. But France was unwilling to act being more focused on it’s issue in the Ruhr in Germany. Britain was willing to intervene, but would not act without the backing f France. Mussolini claimed the League had not authority to intervene and bullied the Conference of Ambassadors and the Greeks to apologise and pay compensation directly to Italy. There was anger in the League, but the ruling was never overturned.

Failures Successes

UPPER SILESIA – 1921 Dispute between Germany and Poland over ownership. League oversaw a plebiscite (vote) and divided the region between Germany and Poland. Both countries accepted the decision.

AALAND ISLANDS – 1921 Both Finland and Sweden claimed the islands. Both sides threated to go to war. Eventually Sweden accepted the League’s ruling that the islands should belong to Finland.

GREEK-BULGARIAN DISPUTE – 1925 In 1925 Greek soldiers were killed on the border of Bulgaria. Greek troops invaded and Bulgaria appealed to the League for help. The League demanded that both sides stand down and told Greek forces to withdraw from Bulgaria. Both Britain and France backed the League’s judgement. Greece obeyed, but pointed out that there seemed to be one rule for large states such as Italy and another one for smaller states such as Greece. The outcome was seen as a major success for the League.

4) The League in the 1930s 1929 - WALL STREET CRASH leads to US and worldwide depression. Germany hit hardest as loans need to be repaid. The crash leads to the collapse of the world markets and the lack of trade between USA and the rest of the world. This leads to global unemployment and the need for change in countries. Countries created policies of protectionism (raising tariffs to limit imports and protect their own business), but as more countries did this foreign trade began to dry up. They also pursued the policy of rearmament (boosting industry and finding jobs for the unemployed in the army).Afraid of looking weak, other states followed and more countries did the same. Electors look for strong leaders who wish for change and this generally leads to the growth of the power of the dictator. Dictator’s become stronger with aggressive foreign policies that will put pressure on the already weak league. The dictators are:- Mussolini – Italy Hitler – Germany Stalin – USSR Hirohito – Japan Franco – Spain

1931- The Japanese invade Manchuria after an explosion on the jointly owned South Manchurian railway at Mukden. Chiang Kaishek, the Chinese Emperor appeals to the League for help. The League send Lord Lytton to investigate. He takes a year to file a report blaming Japan. In 1932 the Japanese re-name Manchuria as Manchukuo and place Pu Yi, an ex-Chinese Emperor, in charge of the region. The League can’t agree on sanctioning the sale of arms so the condemn Japan and ask them to leave the Manchuria. In 1933 the Japanese left the league. Britain still relied on trade with Japan and would not stand firm.

1931-1933 – The failure of the World Disarmament Conference. In 1931 Germany asked the members of the conference to disarm to their Treaty of Versailles level. Countries refused for the following reasons:- France still saw Germany as a threat. Japan were at war in China and needed the army. Britain needed an army to protect the empire. Italy had plans to use their army in Africa. In October 1933 Hitler withdrew from the World Disarmament Conference and began to re-arm secretly.

DID YOU KNOW? In 1935 Britain and France signed the Stresa Pact with Italy. They agreed to protect each other from Germany.

5) The League in the 1930s The Abyssinian Crisis – 1935 Why did Italy wish to invade? 1) Abyssinia had fertile lands and

mineral wealth. 2) Mussolini wanted to restore Italy to

the glory of the Roman Empire. 3) The Italians wanted to use the Suez

Canal as a transport route through to their African Empire.

Events In October 1935 the Italians attacked the oasis town of Wal Wal with gas, planes and tanks. The Abyssinian Emperor, Haile Selassie, complained to the League. The League stalled as Britain and France wanted to protect their own interests. They signed the Stresa Pact with Italy. Mussolini perhaps took this as a sign that his actions in Abyssinnia would be ignored.

League’s response 1935-1936 The League met in 1935 an the British foreign secretary, stressed Britan’s commitment to collective security. A committee was sent to investigate the Wal-Wal incident and after 8 months reported that neither side should be blamed and Italy should be given some Abyssinian territory. Mussolini rejected these proposals. The League met in late 1935 to discuss sanctions. Britain vetoed the sanction of coal on the basis that the coal miners would lose their jobs at Christmas. The League could not sanction oil as they suspected that the USA would supply it. Eventually they sanctioned the sale of arms. Britain did not close the Suez Canal which could have stopped Italy’s supplies to Abyssinia.

In 1936 the crisis spiralled out of control. Sir Samuel Hoare, the British Foreign Minister, and Pierre Laval, the French Foreign minister, discussed a plan to give Mussolini 2/3 of Abyssinia if he would allow the Abyssinians to retain 1/3. The plan was leaked by the press and both politicians resigned from their jobs. In 1936 the Italians took the Abyssinian capital, Addis Ababa and Selassie fled. Italy took the country.

The USA Congress was appalled by the Hoare-Laval Pact and blocked a move to support sanctions against Italy. In March 1936 the German leader Adolf Hitler marched his troops into the Rhineland, in open defiance of the Treaty of Versailles. The hope of French sanctions against Italy collapsed as France now needed Italian support against the German threat.

6) HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY – The Road To Appeasement

1933 – Hitler becomes Chancellor with 5 main aims:- 1) To reverse the Treaty of Versailles. 2) To create a pure German race by uniting all the German speaking peoples of Europe. 3) To re-arm. 4) To create Lebensraum (living space) where the Aryan race would rule over an inferior race of Jews and Slavs. 5) Communism was a disease that needed to be wiped out. At some point Germany would clash with the USSR.

1935 – The Saar Coalfield returns to Germany following a plebiscite. 98% of the Saarlanders vote to return to Germany. Hitler will use the coal to fire up his armaments factories.

1936 – In March 1936 Hitler marches nto the Rhineland – directly breaking the Treaty of Versailles. It is a calculated risk based on the failure of Britain and France to act over Abyssinia. Britain and France do nothing. Many British people feel that the Treaty was harsh and that Germany might be useful against the bigger threat of the USSR. The French are in social turmoil with strikes and riots in Paris. Hitler describes the invasion as the “most nerve wracking 48 hours of my life.” Lord Lothian famously adds that Germany is only walking in their own backyard. Hitler claimed that he needed this to protect himself, as he claimed he was being encircled following France and the USSR signing the Mutual Assistance Pact in 1936.

Italy and Germany sign the Rome-Berlin axis 1936-7 Hitler and Mussolini had shown that their armed forces were effective and they were ready to use them. Japan was effectively also now under the control of the nationalist leader General Tojo, under the Emperor Hirohito. The leaders saw that they had much in common. In 1936 Germany and Japan signed the anti-Commintern Pact to pledge their opposition to Communism. In 1937, Italy also signed the pact. The three countries now became known as the Axis alliance

In October 1933 Hitler walks out of the World Disarmament Conference and prepares to re-arm secretly. In the same year he pulls Germany out of

Rearmament 1933-35 Hitler began to rearm Germany in 1933 in defiance of the limits placed by the Treaty of Versailles. He drafted thousands of unemployed workers into the army to reduce unemployment and begins to create a stockpile of weapons, in secret at first. By 1935 he no longer bothered to hide the rearmament programme, boosting his prestige and gaining support in Germany.

1936 - Spanish Civil War Civil War broke out between the republicans and nationalists. The USSR supported the republicans with weapons and aircraft. Britain and France refused to intervene. Germany and Italy said the same, but still supplied Franco, the nationalist leader, with troops, aircraft and other equipment. Franco had a similar ideology to both Hitler and Mussolini. Because Britain and France did not get involved, Hitler assumed that he could take the same attitude to war. The terrible impact of the modern weapons, particularly bombing, convinced the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, that war must be avoided at all costs. Therefore the Civil War encouraged Hitler in his plan to reverse the Treaty of Versailles. The USSR also became increasingly suspicious of Britain and France because of their reluctance to oppose Hitler and Mussolini.

7) Appeasing Hitler

March 1938 – Germany marches through the Brenner Pass to complete the Anschluss with Austria. Mussolini allows the event to happen after stopping it in 1934. Hitler achieves the Anschluss by instructing the Austrian Nazis to riot in protest of Chancellor Schuschnigg’s government. Shuschnigg appealed to Britain and France to put pressure on Hitler, but they did nothing. Schuschnigg wants a vote of the Austrian people until he is manoeuvred out of power. Britain is happy for Hitler to intervene as he is keeping peace. France ignores the situation after political turmoil caused by changing governments. A plebiscute was organised, in which 99.75% of the population agreed to the Anschluss. This was a significant success for Hitler.

In September 1938 Hitler instructs Nazis in the Sudetenland to cause riots and demand to join with Germany. The Sudetenland was part of Czechoslovakia, but the population was 74% German. Hitler demanded fair treatment for the German Sudetens, and threatened to invade if Czechoslovakia did not hand over the region to German control. The Sudetenland was rich in raw materials and minerals. It contained the fortresses that protected Czechoslovkia and contained the Skoda Arms factory. Benes, the Czech leader, was worried about the situation as Hitler threatened war. He asked Britain and France to intervene at once. This leads to APPEASEMENT.

APPEASEMENT and MUNICH – Appeasement means to resolve an argument with diplomacy rather than war. Neville Chamberlain, the British PM, flew to Munich three times to resolve the Sudeten dispute. The reasons he chose to appease Hitler were:- 1) Britain was not ready for war. 2) 66% of the British population were against going to war over Czechoslovakia. 3) The feeling was that Hitler could still be useful against the threat from Communist Russia. 4) Chamberlain wanted to avoid a repeat of WW1. He was a government member then and it saddened him to remember the lost lives.

The meetings at Munich, 1938 15 September: Chamberlain flew to meet Hitler. It appeared to go well. Hitler moderated his demands, saying he was only interested in parts of the Sudetenland and only if a plebiscite showed that the Sudeten Germans wanted to join Germany. Chamberlain thought that this was reasonable , and that if Hitler got what he wanted, he would be satisfied. 19 September: France and Britain put to Czechoslovakia their plans to give Hitler the parts of the Sudetenland what he wanted. 22 September: Hitler increased his demands. He said that he wanted the whole of the Sudetenland. Chamberlain told Hitler that his demands were unreasonable. War seemed imminent. 29 September: Mussolini agreed to join Hitler, Chamberlain and Daladier (the French leader) at a Four Power summit in Munich. The other leaders agreed to give Hitler the Sudetenland. This became known as the MUNICH AGREEMENT. The Czechs were not consulted, nor was the USSR. The following morning, Chamberlain and Hitler published a joint declaration, which Chamberlain said would bring ‘peace for our time’.

Many newspapers hailed the Munich Agreement as a triumph. Chamberlain was greeted by cheering crowds upon his return to Britain. However, there was still some criticism. Opinion polls in September 1938 show that a majority of the British people did not think appeasement would stop Hitler.

8) HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY – The Road To War

March 1939 – Six months after the Munich Agreement Germany began to prepare their forces for an invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia. Benes, the Czech President, appealed to Britain and France for help. They were not in a good military position to provide support. The Czechs were strong and prepared to fight the Germans. Hitler threatened to bomb Prague and Benes relented. The Germans marched peacefully to take the rest of Czechoslovakia. Many Czechs wept as the Germans marched in.

August 1939 – Hitler wanted to invade Poland, but feared the might of the USSR. In August 1939 the world was stunned when Nazism and Communism, the fiercest of political rivals, joined together in the Nazi-Soviet Pact. The pact was signed one week before the planned invasion of Poland. The pact was agreed by Ribbentrop and Molotov the German and Russian foreign ministers. In the pact the Germans agreed to attack Poland from the west with the Russians attacking from the East. The reasons the pact was signed was:- 1) Germany was afraid of the might of the Russian army. 2) After Munich Stalin felt that he could not trust Britain and France. 3) Both benefited by gaining Poland. 4) Stalin feared Hitler’s Germany and thought it better to have them on side.

On September 1st 1939 the Nazis launched a shockingly brutal attack on Poland. They used the new tactics of blitzkrieg which involved air bombing and tank attacks. The British and French gave Hitler an ultimatum. He was told to withdraw from Poland by 11 am on September 3rd or face war. On 3rd September at 11am Chamberlain announced that Britain was at war. He was followed by a speech by King Edward. The Polish resistance continued to fight, but Warsaw was destroyed in the attack.

Did Appeasement fail? YES – It did not stop war and led to the destruction of Czechoslovakia. Appeasement drove Stalin to seek a pact with Hitler which led to the destruction of Poland, NO – It brought Britain time to prepare for war and the British people did not want to fight over Czechoslovakia. Nobody wanted a repeat of the loss of life that WW1 brought

What were the causes of World War Two? Treaty of Versailles caused German bitterness which fuelled revenge in the form of the Nazi party. The Wall Street Crash caused the Great Depression which affected Germany badly due to their economic position caused by reparations and their reliance on the USA. This eventually gave President Hindenburg no choice but to offer Hitler the Chancellorship. Hitler was a dictator with an aggressive foreign policy aiming at revenge and the destruction of the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France and the League of Nations were slow to react to events, lacked punitive measures and allowed Hitler too much freedom over the Rhineland, Austria and the Munich Agreement. The Munich Agreement encouraged Hitler to invade further and disregard Britain and France as a threat to his plans which they ultimately were .

Chamberlain and appeasement, 1938 GCSE Interpretations

Interpretation 1 Popular majority view – 1937-1938

Well done Chamberlain! Chamberlain kept war at bay and gave peace a chance

Challenge – Winston Churchill…

“We have suffered a total defeat. I think you will find

that in a period of time Czechoslovakia will be

engulfed in the Nazi regime.” Summary • In 1938 most people approved

of Chamberlain’s actions. • He was treated as a hero when

he returned from Munich. • He received 40,000 letters of

support. • Lord Halifax was a strong

supporter of Chamberlain’s policies as were most of parliament.

Context • Most British people were

haunted by their memories of World War One.

• Newspaper polls indicated that the majority of the population were against going to war with Germany over Czechoslovakia.

Impact • The hero worship of Chamberlain and

the euphoria of securing “peace in our time” was short lived.

• Most people soon felt Czechoslovakia had been given away too cheaply.

• Opinion polls showed that in 1938 very few British people trusted Hitler.

• Chamberlain only created a tiny chance of peace.

Fun fact! Chamberlain is likely to have not really trusted Hitler either. When he returned from Munich he doubled Britain’s arms expenditure and started to prepare for the possibility of war.

Interpretation 2 Popular & political view – 1939-1949

The Guilty Men Appeasement was foolish, cowardly and immoral. It weakened Britain.

Challenge – Derek Dutton

“ Guilty Men has few claims to historical

scholarship. It showed no understanding of

the terrible dilemmas which confronted the policy makers in the

1930s” Summary • During WW2 a view developed that

appeasement was immoral and cowardly.

• Three journalists who called themselves Cato started this view in their 1940 book, Guilty Men.

• The view was that Britain had been weak against Japan, Italy and Germany.

• The appeasers had left Britain weak and unprepared for war.

Context • When Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia, attitudes turned against

appeasement. • When war broke out in 1939 attitudes hardened even more. • By May 1940 British forces had been defeated in Norway. It looked as

if Germany might invade. • There were suggestions Britain was unprepared for war. • Chamberlain was the scapegoat and resigned. • A leadership battle between Lord Halifax (who wanted to stop the

war) and Churchill broke out. • Guilty Men was published and promoted by Lord Beaverbrook to

help Churchill remain in power since Halifax had been an appeaser.

Impact • Guilty Men had huge impact in the short term as it

helped Churchill defeat Halifax. • In 1945 the Labour party used appeasement to

challenge the party Churchill was leading and it helped to see him defeated in the election.

• In the longer term it made appeasement a dirty word. An idea that peace making was not acceptable and dictators should be challenged with force immediately.

THINK// It is easy to condemn appeasement in hindsight as we know it failed, but is it fair? Britain could not go to war in 1938 and assume it could win.

Interpretation 3 The orthodox view of Churchill – 1948-1960s

The appeasers misjudged Hitler The appeasers had good motives, but they got

Hitler wrong and miscalculated the situation.

Challenge – Joe Charmley, 2011

“ The central flaw in Churchill’s version of

events is that it amounts to no more than self-promotion. His whole reading of events leading up to World War Two was

badly flawed.”

Summary • Britain won the Second World War in

1945. However, despite being successful in war, Churchill lost the 1945 General Election to the Labour Party.

• This gave him more time to write his version of history.

• Churchill was softer than guilty men on Chamberlain by claiming he had good intentions, but got Hitler wrong.

• Churchill claimed he was the only politician to challenge appeasement.

Context • Churchill was a “legacy” Prime Minister who wanted to go down well in

history. He wrote a version of events that were kind to him and attacked Chamberlain and Halifax.

• He was bitter about losing the 1945 General Election and wanted an opportunity to write his own history to prevent his reputation from suffering.

• In the Cold War (USSR vs USA) Churchill believed that the USA & Britain should always stand up to the aggressor, in this case, Josef Stalin. Exactly what Chamberlain was accused of not doing in Munich.

Impact • Churchill was the man who won the war in many

peoples eyes. He was a true hero and anything he said was popular in the 1950s.

• His view became the accepted view and no historian challenged it.

• In the 1960s the view was contained in a TV programme about Churchill called, “The Gathering Storm”. This was watched by millions.

• This view influenced politicians such as Harry Truman and John F Kennedy (US Presidents) over the Cold War and Cuban Missile Crisis. Tony Blair referred to the view when promoting his decision to go to war with Iraq in 2003.

THINK// Churchill was so popular after winning the war he could influence most people. Is this why this view took hold and became popular for so long?

Interpretation 4 Rehabilitating Chamberlain– 1960s-1990s

Rehabilitating Chamberlain Chamberlain was in an impossible position and did the best that

he could under the circumstances.

Challenge – Robert Parker, 1993

“ Chamberlain made big mistakes after Munich. He could

have built a strong alliance with France.

He could have tried to ally with the USSR,

but he refused in any serious way”

Summary • In the 1960s

Churchill’s orthodox view was questioned.

• AJP Taylor was the first historian to revise the view claiming that Hitler was an opportunist with no clear plan and Chamberlain could not have known what Hitler intended.

Context • In the 1960s new radical views were challenging old versions of history. • The US had been drawn into the Vietnam War in an effort to avoid appeasement.

The war went badly and was hugely unpopular. • In the 1960s new government documents and source material became available to

allow for a re-interpretation of events. • New ideas – ECONOMY - Britain did not have the economy for war since it was

fighting the debt of World War One and the depression. • PUBLIC OPINION – You cannot enter a war the public do not support and war over

Czechoslovakia was hugely unpopular. • THE USA – The USA would not help Britain in a war at this stage. • THE ARMY – Military officials were not confident that the army was ready for war

in 1938. Appeasement gave Chamberlain a chance to prepare the military. • FEAR OF THE USSR – Chamberlain’s records showed that he feared the USSR would

join Germany if war broke out. • THE EMPIRE – The Empire nations, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New

Zealand were against war.

Impact • Churchill’s view remained the popular view. • The new revisionist view which rehabilitated

Chamberlain was hugely popular among historians.

• The view re-started the debate about Chamberlain and appeasement.

THINK// How does the revealing of new sources alter the way we think about history? Does this prove that history is better written much later than the event or time?

In 1965 historian Donald Cameron-Watt claimed that Hitler was only one of many problems Chamberlain faced. In the late 60s some historians argued appeasement was right.

Interpretation 5 Counter-revisionists– 1990s – 2000s

Chamberlain back on trial Chamberlain was the problem. His own personality and

assumptions meant that he could not deal with the Munich crisis.

Challenge – Andrew Steadman, 2011

“ In his ultimate failure Chamberlain’s

achievements need to be recognised. It is difficult to

believe that the Nazis could have been deterred. War was the main aim of

the regime. At least in following appeasement,

Chamberlain made it clear to all that Hitler was to

blame for war”

Summary • In 1993 Robert Parker formed the counter-revisionist view by re-visiting the sources from the 1930s. • The view contended that Chamberlain had many problems to deal with, but his personality and

miscalculations led to him being controlled and manipulated by Hitler. • They argued that Chamberlain was self-important and was wrong to think he could control Hitler into

changing his ways. • Chamberlain failed to grasp what Hitler wanted and what was motivating Hitler to act the way he did. • Chamberlain ignored the advice of his colleagues. • Chamberlain did betray Czechoslovakia in 1938 and left Poland at the mercy of a fierce German army and

air force.

Context • The counter-revisionists felt it was their job to attack the historians that had tried to

rehabilitate Chamberlain. They felt Chamberlain could not be let off the hook. • In 1989 the Cold War ended and new sources appeared in the USSR. Some of these

were taken from Berlin and showed Chamberlain’s dealings with Hitler.

Impact • This was not a dramatic re-writing of history so the view had limited

impact. • In 1991 revisionist Donald Cameron-Watt, who had defended

Chamberlain, modified his view and conceded that Chamberlain’s personality was a problem.

THINK// What are the advantages to going back to the original sources for historians writing several decades later? What are the difficulties?

15) COLD WAR BEGINNINGS

1945 – The Grand Alliance of Britain, Russia and the USA are winning World War Two. The USA and Britain are advancing from the west with Russia advancing from the east. They have encircled Nazi Germany and are closing in fast. February 1945 – The big 3 meet at Yalta. The leaders are Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt. They agree to:- Divide Germany into 4 zones Divide Berlin into 4 sectors Free elections in Poland Form a United Nations Investigate reparations for Germany May 1945 – The USSR end the war by reaching Berlin first and placing their flag on the Reichstag. July/August 1945 – the big 3 meet at Potsdam. The leaders are Truman, Stalin and Atlee. Stalin now wants Eastern Europe to be in the USSR’s sphere of influence. They agree to:- Establish the 4 zones in Germany Set reparations Establish the border of Poland near the River Oder Bring Nazi war criminals to trial. They argue about Eastern Europe, the atomic bomb and how much reparations Germany should pay.

The USSR takeover of Eastern Europe begins using Salami tactics:- Poland becomes Communist in 1947 after the Communists intimidate the electors. Romania becomes Communist in 1947 after the monarchy was abolished and elections were fixed. Bulgaria becomes Communist in 1946 when the monarchy was abolished. Hungary becomes Communist in 1947 with fixed elections and the banning of other parties. Czechoslovakia becomes Communist in 1948 by controlling the media and arresting other political leaders. Albania becomes Communist in 1945 without USSR help.

1946 – Winston Churchill, no longer British Prime Minister, undertakes a lecture tour of the USA. In Fulton, Missouri he makes a speech announcing that an iron curtain has spread across Europe which separates East and West. He explains that the USSR are controlling these countries. US President Truman is aware that the speech is being made beforehand.

1947 – The Domino Effect of spreading Communism has reached Greece. Until 1947 the British were fighting the Communists in Greece. The British tell the USA that they can no longer afford to keep this fight going. President Truman makes a speech to Congress called the Truman Doctrine. In the speech he warns of the need to support Europe financially in order to prevent freedom being lost in the form of Communism. The Doctrine has two main ideas:- Containment – The idea that from 1947 the USA would fight to prevent Communism spreading. Co-existence – The USA would accept Communist countries existing in Eastern Europe. They would not fight to make them free again. Congress are impressed and $400 million is given for the fight in Greece. The money helps the Communist forces to be defeated and halts the domino effect in Europe. This leads to George Marshall setting up the Marshall plan to fend off Communism, promote trade and improve US relations with Europe. $13,150m is available and Britain, France and West Germany borrow the most money. The Marshall Plan ends the spread of Communism in Europe.

1948 – COLD WAR CRISIS BERLIN In June 1948 Stalin decided to blockade Berlin to prevent the USA, Britain and France supplying their zones. Why did he do this? 1) The USSR were angry that the USA introduced a new currency to Berlin called the Deutschmark. It made the Soviet Ostmark obsolete. 2) 3,500 skilled workers were leaving the Soviet sector of Berlin to work in the west. 3) The Communists wanted to test USA, Britain and France and gain control of the council. 4) The USSR were upset at the way Marshall Plan money was making Germany strong. The USSR wanted to keep Germany weak to allow for Communism to thrive.

Who was to blame for causing the Cold War? TRADITIONAL HISTORIANS blame the USSR. The evidence they use is Stalin’s refusal to allow elections in Poland and the takeover of Eastern Europe using harsh salami tactics. MARXIST HISTORIANS blame the USA. They say that Stalin had a right to demand a sphere of influence after WW2. The USSR did suffer badly. They blame Truman’s attitude, the Truman Doctrine, the use of the atomic bomb to scare the USSR and the Marshall Plan as evidence of the USA threatening the USSR. MODERN HISTORIANS blame circumstance for the Cold War. They say that it was bound to happen after the collapse of Nazi Germany. Both the USA and USSR had opposing political ideologies (Communism vs Capitalism) and different aims after the war. The USA wanted to rebuild a free Europe against the USSR’s desire to protect themselves by controlling Europe and spreading Communism (an ambition of Stalin).

16)THE COLD WAR IN THE 1950’s

May 1949 – The Berlin Blockade fails. The reasons it fails are:- The US/British airlift worked in supplying Berliners with essentials for 11 months. Very few Berliners accepted the USSR’s offer to live in the east and adopt a Communist way of life. The Counter blockade against the USSR on tools and machinery damages the USSR’s industrial output. Stalin has no bargaining power since he does not possess an atomic bomb. The USA have them. The consequences of the Berlin Blockade were:- C – Cold War got worse E – East and West Germany were now split permanently. N – NATO and the Warsaw pact were formed as two opposing military alliances. A – Arms Race got serious! After the Berlin Blockade the USSR developed an atomic bomb. 12 months later the USA developed the hydrogen bomb which was 10,000 times more powerful.

1953 – Stalin dies and is replaced with Khrushchev. Khrushchev is determined to prove himself and accelerates the Russian space and arms programmes. In the same year Harry Truman is replaced by Dwight Eisenhower. Eisenhower is concerned at the cost of the arms race and wants to get more value for money. This shift leads to the USSR passing the USA in space and weapons development during the 1950’s

1957 – The USSR put the first man in space. His name is Yuri Gagarin. The USSR also launch the first successful satellite called Sputnik. The satellite will be used to direct ICBM’s. The USA and USSR develop ICBM’s at the same time. However, the initial tests of the US missile is unsuccessful. The USA begins to fear that the USSR are leading the arms race.

1959 – Khrushchev is on holiday in the Black Sea when he notices US ICBM’s on the opposite shore pointing at the USSR. The missiles are on NATO bases in Turkey. Khrushchev realises that he will never be able to balance the arms race unless he can get USSR missiles closer to the USA. The problem is that there are no Communist countries in North or South America at this time.

1960 – Gary Powers, a US U2 spy plane pilot, is shot down spying on the USSR. The USSR interrogates Powers until he reveals the information about his mission. Eisenhower lies and says that Powers was flying a weather plane that ran into trouble and ended up in Russian airspace. Khrushchev calls Eisenhower a liar and walks out of the Paris summit meeting they were using to improve their relationship. Relations between the US and USSR are now at their worst.

17) The Berlin Wall Berlin

Germany was split into two in 1949, and so was Berlin. As time went on, people became disillusioned with the Soviet regime in East Germany. They lived in fear of the Stasi, and there was also large amounts of government corruption. The greatest cause of dissatisfaction was the low standard of living, in direct contrast to the living standards of West Germany in Berlin. In the 1950s East Germans could travel into West Berlin. Thousands did, but many defected and never came back. This was a propaganda gift to the USA. This came to be known as the Brain Drain, as it was largely skilled and educated workers who were able to leave, seeking better employment in the West.

Causes JFK: In January 1961 a young new president, John F Kennedy was elected in the USA. He recognised the importance of Berlin. However, his presidency did not start well. In April 1961 he launched a disastrous attempt to invade Cuba and remove Castro in the Bay of Pigs. Khrushchev thought he was weak. Khrushchev’s demands: Following the Bay of Pigs, Khrushchev called on JFK to remove US troops in Berlin. But Kennedy stood firm. The two leaders met in Vienna in July 1961, where Khrushchev repeated his demands. Kennedy refused, but he also ordered 150,000 US reservist troops to be called up for action in Germany and he increased funding to the US armed forces. It looked like he was preparing for war over Berlin. Accusations: Khrushchev accused JFK of provoking conflict. He claimed that the USA and its allies were using Berlin as a base for spies and for agents to cause trouble in the GDR (East Germany). Whilst true, the Soviets were also doing the same.

The Wall Through the night and day of 13th August 1961, East German soldiers and workers created a barbed wire fence all along the border between East and West Berlin. All crossing from East to West were sealed, except one: Checkpoint Charlie. In official announcements, Khrushchev claimed the wall was being built to protect East Berlin and East Germany from US spies and agents. However, this was a way of diverting attention away from his main reason: to stop the flow of people leaving East Germany. But, Khrushchev was not willing to risk war, at this point he was behind the USA in the Arms Race.

Consequences There was a genuine fear of war. Over the following weeks, both sides increased their military presence in Berlin. The most worrying day of the crisis came on 27th October 1961. Soviet tanks refused to allow any further access to the East for US forces. All day, Soviet and US tanks, fully armed, faced each other at Checkpoint Charlie. After 18 hours of a tense stand-off, slowly they pulled back. Khrushchev ordered the East German leader, Walter Ulbricht, to avoid any action that would increase tension. Kennedy said ‘It’s not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war.’ The wall became a symbol of division between the Communist East and the Democratic West.

18) The Cuban Missile Crisis In May 1959 Fidel Castro leads a Communist revolution in the Cuban capital, Havana. He replaces Fulgencio Batista, an American supported leader. The USA funded Batista who in return allowed US business and industries thrive on the island of Cuba. Cuba became America’s playground during this time. Castro executes 500 of Batista’s supporters which leads to many Cubans fleeing Cuba for Florida, USA. These people become known as the Cuban exiles. Castro asks to meet President Eisenhower to get money. Eisenhower refuses. Castro meets Khrushchev and visits the USSR. They agree a trade deal to swap Cuban sugar and tobacco for farm machinery. The USA end diplomatic relations with Cuba. When Khrushchev sends oil to Castro the US refuse to allow their refineries on Cuba to get involved. Eisenhower now orders the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) in the USA to train the Cuban exiles to attack Cuba and remove Castro from power.

In April 1961 the new US President Kennedy orders the Cuban exiles to attack the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. The aim of the mission is to remove Castro from power. The attack is a disaster with the exiles being defeated very easily. Why did the Bay of Pigs invasion fail? 1) The exiles were outnumbered 1,700 to 200,000. 2) The exiles were inexperienced and poorly trained for the difficult task of attacking a country. 3) President Kennedy reduced the air cover from several hours to 40 minutes. This left the exiles exposed and vulnerable. Kennedy did not the attack traced back to the USA. 4) Castro heard about the invasion beforehand as it was leaked by the Cubans living in the USA. With this information he fortified the area around the Bay of Pigs.

The result of the Bay of Pigs affair:- Kennedy lost prestige with the CIA. Castro agreed to allow the USSR to place missiles on Cuba - within 90 miles of Florida.

14 Oct – Kennedy is handed U2 spy plane pictures which show the presence of nuclear missile bases on Cuba. They are 10 days from completion. Further pictures show USSR ships heading for Cuba with missiles on board. 16 Oct – Kennedy forms EX-COM (a group of chief advisers to discuss the problem). The main ideas at this stage revolve around bombing and invading Cuba. Eventually they decide on a blockade of Cuba using US warships. 22 Oct – Kennedy appears on US television to announce the crisis. He offers the USSR the chance to negotiate whilst threatening to use “full retaliatory power” if they attack the blockade line. Khrushchev denies the existence of the bases. 24 Oct – The USSR ships slow down or stop. It is the first sign that the USSR might back down. Dean Rusk, Secretary for State, makes the famous quote, “We’re eyeball to eyeball and the other guy just blinked.” 25 Oct – No word from the USSR. The public are expecting a nuclear war and begin to panic buy food. 26 Oct – Khrushchev makes contact to negotiate a solution with Robert Kennedy, John’s brother. 27 Oct – The deal is nearly wrecked when a US U2 spy plane is shot down over Cuba. 28 Oct – The crisis is declared over when the USSR and USA sign a deal.

Why did the USSR place missiles on Cuba? 1) To test JFK – he looked weak over the Bay of Pigs. 2) To make the arms race more equal by cutting down missile detonation time to US cities. 3) To support Communist Cuba. 4) To provide Castro with better security after the Bay of Pigs affair.

THE DEAL TO END THE CUBAN CRISIS:- The USSR promised to dismantle nuclear bases on Cuba. The USA promised to remove missile bases from Turkey and to not attack Cuba. IMPORTANT – Please remember that the US part of the bargain was kept secret..

The consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis were:- 1) The USA and USSR set up a telephone hot line to ensure that they could speak about any crisis before it developed. 2) In 1963 they agreed the nuclear test ban treaty. 3) Relations between the USA and USSR now improved. There was a determination never to get that close to war again. 4) In 1964 Khrushchev was retired from his position as Soviet leader. He emerged as the loser from the crisis.

WHO WON THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS? The USA emerged as victors at the time because Kennedy’s agreement to remove missiles from Turkey was kept quiet. With fresh evidence coming to light it would now be fairer to consider it a draw. Some historians still believe Kennedy won because the missiles on Turkey were old and due to be removed anyway. They say that Kennedy knew this and cleverly used it to bargain with the USSR. Many historians think that Kennedy handled the crisis superbly. The blockade was clever because it put the ball in Khrushchev’s court and his speech to the US public was strong, but also offering a way out for the Russians. The USSR looked weak at the time with the dismantling of bases on Cuba looking like a defeat. However, Khrushchev did get the missiles removed from Turkey and this was a long standing aim of his. Do give credit to the fact that Khrushchev negotiated a deal rather than fight a war when he was under extreme pressure. It can be argued that neither side really won. The public won because a nuclear war was averted and the world became marginally safer afterwards with the test ban treaty and reduction of missiles. Castro, of course, probably won since he remained the Communist leader of Cuba until 2010 – untouched by the USA.

19) THE CAUSES OF THE VIETNAM WAR Vietnam is in Indo-China. It was traditionally a French colony although the French leaders were often corrupt and unpopular. The country had Catholic leaders in a Buddhist country. In 1949, the same year of the Berlin Blockade ending, China became Communist. In 1953 North Korea became Communist. The USA now feared that the domino effect was taking hold in Asia. With their containment policy they needed to stop it.

During WW2 the Japanese invaded most of South-East Asia. They started this empire building in Manchuria in 1931. Ho Chi Minh created a fighting force to remove the Japanese. He called this the Vietminh. Ho Chi Minh had lived in many countries in the world, but he spent time training to be a Communist leader in Russia. The Vietminh were successful in driving the Japanese out of Vietnam by the end of WW2.

After the war Ho Chi Minh was dismayed to see the return of the French. Nothing changed and the peasant farmers became weaker and poorer as the corrupt government thrived. Many Buddhist monks started to protest by committing immolation in the streets. Ho Chi Minh’s Vietminh declared war and between 1946 and 1954 fought the French. In 1954 the French were defeated after losing 74,000 lives and spending 435 million francs per year. They surrendered at DIEN BIEN PHU.

1954 – THE GENEVA CONFERENCE – With the French defeated the major powers of the World met in Geneva to discuss South East Asia. It was agreed that Vietnam would be split. The North would be led by Ho Chi Minh and would be run on Communist lines. The South would be led by Ngo Diem and would be Capitalist. The USA agreed to fund and support Diem’s government and President Eisenhower of the USA was happy

1958 – THE VIETNAM WAR STARTS. One of the agreements at Geneva was that elections would be held in the South. In 1958 elections were due to be held but the USA feared a Communist victory. With China starting the domino effect in Asia they could not afford to see another country turn Communist. In 1958 Eisenhower banned elections. This infuriated HO CHI MINH and the North Vietnamese forces invaded the South. The Vietminh had now become the VIETCONG. They had built a 300km network of underground tunnels which went as far north as China. The VIETCONG were supplied by China and the USSR.

20) The Vietnam War Part 1 (to 1968) 1960 – Kennedy alerted about the increasing influence of VietCong in South Vietnam. The VietCong inspire the loyalty of the South Vietnamese people by giving schools, telephone exchanges, banks and post offices. In the day the VC farm the land with the South Vietnamese peasants. At night they are fighting the South Vietnamese army. Kennedy agrees to use a “safe village policy.” All villages are evacuated and the villagers are taken to a new location. If the empty village become occupied then they must be VC. Kennedy sends advisers and money to Diem.

1963 – Both Kennedy and Diem are murdered. Diem is killed by his own troops. The VietCong are now taking an increasing control of South Vietnamese villages.

1964 – It is estimated that 65% of South Vietnamese villages are controlled by the VC at this stage. President Johnson needs an excuse to get into the war. He places the US destroyer, the USS Maddox, in the Gulf of Tonkin provoking the North Vietnamese navy. It works as they are attacked. Johnson approaches Congress to ask for the “necessary measures” to react to the situation. This is called the TONKIN RESOLUTION. It is passed 504-2. The USA can now send troops to Vietnam.

1965 – The first 3,500 troops arrive in March. They are led by General Westmoreland. The troops are drafted by the government. The average age of the US soldier was 19. Operation Rolling Thunder starts with the US bombing North Vietnamese ports. At La Dreng Valley the first open battle between the US and VC occurs. The USA win easily. This prompts Ho Chi Minh to change his tactics. Meanwhile the first peace protests start quietly outside the White House. These were to grow during the next few years.

From 1965 onwards the US used two main attack strategies. Both were highly controversial. SEARCH and DESTROY was the thorough search of a South Vietnamese village by the US marines. They arrived in helicopters, machine gunning the landing area as they landed, before proceeding to search villages. After the search the village houses, possessions and animals were destroyed by fire. The idea was that the VC would not be able to live off the land. The South Vietnamese peasants were angry by this policy. From 1965 onwards the US used napalm and Agent Orange in increasing amounts. They were designed to burn the jungle to reveal the Ho Chi Minh trail and to wear the VC down psychologically. Kim Phuc, a 9 year old South Vietnamese girl, was photographed by the US burning as she escaped a napalm attack in her village. That image started the process of changing US public attitudes towards the war.

1968 – THE TET OFFENSIVE In January 1968 there was supposed to be a ceasefire during the Chinese New Year. The VC used this to launch a surprise bid to win the war. In the Tet Offensive the VC used the trail to launch an attack on 7 major cities in South Vietnam. The offensive even reached Saigon where the media (ABC and NBC) were. Suddenly film footage of the street fighting and the views of the young men were aired across America. At Khe Sanh 5,400 US marines were surrounded by 40,000 North Vietnamese army members. The US launched OPERATION NIAGARA, the most intense bombing raid in history, and after 77 days the marines managed to break out. The Tet Offensive failed in that the North Vietnamese did not make the breakthrough to win the war. However, it changed public opinion and turned Vietnam into a MEDIA WAR. A TURNING POINT had been reached.

Why did the US get involved in Vietnam? (KEY QUESTION) 1) CONTAINMENT – US policy since 1947 to stop Communism spreading. 2) GENEVA CONFERENCE in 1954 – The US became self-appointed guardians of the South Vietnamese government. Remember that Eisenhower banned elections. 3) DIEM – His death left a power vacuum in which it was likely that Vietnam would become Communist quickly. The US wanted to prevent this from happening. 4) TONKIN RESOLUTION – The attack on the Maddox and the solution offered by Congress

THE VIETCONG GO GUERRILLA – After defeat at the La Dreng valley in 1965, Ho Chi Minh reverted the VC back to the tactics that had worked to drive out the Japanese and French. Guerrilla warfare involved secret attacks and ambushes. When the enemy slept or retreated the VC attacked. If the US attacked the VC went into hiding in the Ho Chi Minh trail tunnels. Remember that China and the USSR were still supplying the VC and North Vietnamese army with the weapons to fight the war.

The pressure on President Johnson became too much and in 1968 he announced that he would not stand for re-election. 100,000 protesters were routinely protesting outside the White House each day chanting, “ Hey, Hey, LBJ, How many kids you gonna kill today?”

21) VIETNAM WAR PART 2 (To 1969-1974) 1969 – President Nixon arrives in office and is the 4th President to tackle the problem of Vietnam. He wins the election promising to end the war, but the US generals want to keep fighting. He decides to keep both the generals and public happy. Nixon introduces VIETNAMISATION. The idea is that South Vietnamese troops will be trained to fight the Vietnam war with funding and weapons from the USA. At intervals, a few thousand US troops will be brought home at a time. It takes four years for Vietnamisation to be completed. Nixon starts peace talks in Paris with Le Duc Tho of North Vietnam. Henry Kissinger represents the US in the talks, but they fail.

1970 – John Lennon reaches number 1 in the charts with Give Peace A Chance. The protest movement gathers pace. At Kent State University the National Guard kill 4 students protesting against the Vietnam War. The killings do more damage to the government since it draws comparison with the deaths in Vietnam. Nixon starts bombing Laos and Cambodia. Every day the US air force complete huge bombing raids on the length of the Ho Chi Minh trail. The bombing of Laos and Cambodia will lead to those governments eventually choosing to become Communist.

1972 – China and the USSR fall out. Nixon is the first US President to visit a Communist country when he goes to China. The purpose of the visit is to encourage the Chinese to stop the supply to the VC. The USSR and USA sign the SALT treaty. SALT stands for STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TREATY and is the first reduction of nuclear weapons since the arms race began.

1973 – The USA finally pull out of Vietnam after agreeing peace terms with the North Vietnamese army. At this point in the war Saigon was about to come under the control of the VC forces. Despite this Nixon declares that the Vietnam was has been a huge success. Many returning US soldiers are disrespected by the US public.

1974 – Nixon resigns as US President over the Watergate scandal. Gerald Ford becomes the 5th President to lead the USA during the Vietnam war. Ford chooses not to support Vietnamisation and cuts funding and weapons supply to South Vietnam by 700 million dollars. Despite this the South Vietnamese have three times more weapons than the VC. In April 1975 Saigon falls and all of Vietnam becomes Communist. The last US diplomats flee the scene in helicopters sent to evacuate the area.

MY LAI MASSACRE – In 1968 Charlie Company, led by Lt. William Calley, went to My Lai village on a Search and Destroy mission. They has word from the army that all the villagers were at market and any remaining persons in the village needed to be destroyed. Calley and his troops rounded up and shot 300-400 South Vietnamese villagers and shot them into an irrigation ditch. The army celebrated it as a success and nicknamed My Lai, Pinkville. In 1969 Ronald Ridenhour, who had a friend who was present at My Lai informed the government that something needed investigating. Calley was arrested and charged with killing 109 civilians. The army stated that Calley made the decision to commit murder. Calley was sentenced to 20 years hard labour. He was released in 1974 after an appeal. He wrote a book about My Lai called, “Body Count”. In the book he talked of how the soldiers were put under pressure to report the number of people they killed and reach targets.

VIETNAM WAR: THE CONSEQUENCES FOR USA 1) They were defeated and Containment had failed for the first time since 1947. 2) Communism spread to Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. 3) 74,000 US troops were killed and many returned with psychological issues stemming from the war. 4) Many US soldiers that handled Agent Orange later contracted cancer. 5) The US public had a long period of reflection about their position in the world. Many wanted to thaw the Cold War and that certainly started to happen in the 1970’s. FOR VIETNAM 1) 1 million civilian of North Vietnam were killed and 600,000 of South Vietnam were killed. 2) Many South Vietnamese fled abroad in hand crafted rafts when Saigon fell. These people were called BOAT PEOPLE and they settled in countries all over the world. 3) The use of Napalm and Agent Orange caused huge famines in Vietnam for many years after the war. 4) The US broke off diplomatic relations with Vietnam between 1975 and 1993. 5) The Vietnam war increased the already dire poverty that peasants lived in.

22) The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979

The Kabul Revolution, 1978 Pro-Soviet Afghan army officers led by Taraki overthrew the government and established a Communist regime. The new government wanted to modernize Afghanistan. It brought in new reforms to land ownership and introduced education and social reforms. These were opposed by Islamic leaders in the countryside, who saw communism as an affront to their faith. Powerful warlords opposed Taraki. But he reacted harshly, executing an estimated 27,000 political prisoners.

Why did the USSR invade? In 1979 there was an Islamic Revolution in Iran, where the shah was replaced by militant Islamic clerics. Soviet leaders were concerned about their southern borders in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and did not want radical Islamic views to spread there from Iran and to the USSR itself. Iran gave support to the Afghan warlords who became knownas ‘mujahidin’ or ‘soldiers of God’.

By March 1979 the Communist government in Afghanistan was in trouble. The USSR was divided about how to respond, but eventually sent advisors and equipment to help the Afghan government, along with helicopter gunships and paratropers disguised as technicians. This had little effect. By September 1979 the situation was critical. Soviet military commanders did not want to send troops into Afghanistan, thinking it would be the equivalent of the Soviet Union’s Vietnam. Taraki was then assassinated. The new Afghan leader Hafizullah Amin, began to lose patience with the USSR. There was a fear in the USSR that Amin would switch sides and ally with the USA, Pakistan and Chine to defeat his enemies. By December 1979, even though intervention was risky and the military were against it, the danger of Afghanistan becoming pro-USA or militantly Islamic ensured that the Soviet Union felt forced to invade Afghanistan on 12 December 1979, depose Amin and set up their own pro-Soviet government. On 25 December, Soviet tanks rolled over the border into Afghanistan.

The USA helped the mujahidin against Taraki’s government by secretly channelling funds and arms through Pakistan..

23) The Afghan War, 1979-89 The US Reaction

The Carter Doctrine: • Trade sanctions to the USSR. • Economic and military aid and

supplies to the mujahidin through Pakistan.

• Abandoned Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (SALT II) and began increasing spending on weapons.

• Official boycott of Moscow Olympics in 1980.

Why did the USSR fail in Afghanistan? Geography: Afghanistan is a country of mountains and deserts. It was difficult to move and supply a large army. The Afghan people knew the land very well and used this against the Soviets. The strictly Muslim rural Afghan people distrusted Communism because it was atheist and were against the Communist government for the modernising reforms it brought in which challenged traditional views. The Soviets were seen as foreign invaders. Hearts and Minds: It was impossible to locate the Afghan targets despite the overwhelming Soviet airpower. They killed thousands of civilians and destroyed many homes and towns in an effort to hit mujahidin targets. They could not keep control of the territory they captured a the local people would not co-operate with them. Money: The mujahidin were supported by Saudi Arabia economically (about $600 million a year throughout the war). In 1981 the fiercely anti-Communist President Reagan took office and began sending money and supplies of weapons to the mujahidin via Pakistan. Pakistan recieved £3.2 billion in military and economic aid. USA pressure: By 1982 the Soviets had lost around 5000 men and offered to withdraw if the USA and Saudi Arabia stopped supplying the mujahidin. However, Reagan refused, hoping to weaken the Soviets. The mujahidin were also now being supplied with US Stinger anti-aircraft missiles, which could destroy Soviet helicopters. This became their most important weapon. It was clear the USA would do whatever it took to defeat the Soviets in Afghanistan.

Consequences A new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, took over in 1986 who was a radical reformer. He lightened the restrictions on the media so they reported more accurately about the war. Public pressure to end the war increased. So in 1987 the Soviets withdrew their last forces. The cost had been terrible: 15,000 Soviet soldiers dead and around 35,000 wounded. An estimated cost of $20 billion to the USSR. Over 1 million Afghans killed and around 5 million displaced as refugees. Afghanistan was a humiliating defeat, damaging confidence in Soviet foreign policy and in the leadership. It also virtually bankrupted the USSR. Gorbachev made it clear he would no longer use the military to prop up Communist regimes around the world, cutting the size of the USSR’s armed forces and scrapping many of it’s nuclear missiles. These reforms had a dramatic effect on the relationship with the USA.

Who was to blame for the Cold War? GCSE Interpretations

Interpretation 1 US orthodox view – late 40s to early 60s

The USSR are to blame..(Stalin’s post war behaviour in Eastern Europe proves it)

Summary • Writers and politicians in the US

formed this view. • Truman, the President, disliked and

feared Communism. He viewed Stalin as another Hitler.

• The USSR wanted to control Eastern Europe as a buffer zone of protection. The USA viewed this as aggressive expansion.

Context • Historians were writing about

events as they happened. They were involved in them.

• In the US there was a “Red Scare” with professionals, actors, politicians and writers because accused of being Communist.

• Containment was seen as essential. If Communism was stopped abroad then it would never reach the USA.

Challenging this interpretation – There were a lack of sources at the time since there was restrictions on Soviet sources. Therefore, this interpretation was based on fear and a lack of understanding of Soviet intentions.

Where did this view originate from? Much of this view came from George Kennan, US Ambassador in Moscow, who continued to write that the USSR could not be trusted and that Stalin was a threat.

• In the early 1950s Senator Eugene McCarthy in the USA started the Red Scare by claiming Communists were everywhere. He put famous people such as, Joe Di Maggio and Arthur Miller, on trial without success.

• By the mid 50 McCarthy’s political career was over and he was shamed for his activities.

Interpretation 2 US Revisionist View Mid 60s- Mid 70s

The USA was to blame. It was caused by US aggression and wish to dominate Europe economically

Challenge The Marshall Plan

could be seen to be an honest attempt to help Europe recover from the war. After

all, money was offered to Communist

countries and was accepted by Tito in

Yugoslavia. Summary • US provoked the Cold War by its

actions after the war. • This can be proved by the Truman

Doctrine which proposed containment of Communism.

• This is further evidenced by the Marshall Plan loan of $13,150 million to Europe.

• It can be further enhanced by the formation of NATO in 1949.

Context • In the 60s US historians re-evaluated sources and considered that

evidence proved that the US were to blame. • The Vietnam War had caused many US historians and members of the

public to consider that the US government could not be trusted. • The second reason for this view was the US reaction to the Cuban

revolution by Castro in 1959. The attack on the Bay of Pigs was seen as American aggression to try to expand its empire by removing Castro from power.

• The US government was now seen as corrupt.

Impact • After Vietnam there was much consideration of the

role of the US in the Cold War. • American writers, historians and journalists mirrored

the anti-government stance by the public. It was a popular decision to attack the US government.

• Vietnam showed that Truman’s policy of Containment had failed and had led to an embarrassing defeat.

• Kennedy’s handling of Cuba with the Bay of Pigs could have caused a nuclear war.

THINK Is this is a question of both sides misinterpreting the actions of one another or could it be conceived that the US were more aggressive?

Interpretation 3 Post-revisionist view – Early 1970s-1989

They just couldn’t understand each other Both the USA and USSR reacted to the other side based on misunderstanding and mistrust.

Summary • The USSR are mostly to blame for their

actions post-war. • Gaddis focuses on the aggressive

takeover of Eastern Europe and the breaking of the Yalta agreement to allow free elections in Poland.

• However, Gaddis argues that the USA should have been more understanding about the Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe. It was obvious that Stalin would want buffer zones of protection after being ravaged and destroyed by Germany at the end of World War Two.

• Gaddis suggests that the Red Scare drove the US to act with open hostility with the Truman, Doctrine, Marshall Plan, the formation of NATO and the Bay Of Pigs invasion.

Context • Much of this views stemmed from John Lewis Gaddis.

He wanted to create a more considered and balanced view.

• Gaddis believes that the USSR must take a large amount of the blame for most of the Cold War.

• However, Gaddis argues that the USA were guilty of over-reacted to the actions of the USSR which created even more hostility.

• Ultimately, the Cold War was due to the fear, confusion and misinterpretation on both sides.

Impact • The post-revisionist school of historians were more

considered. • At the time there were debates surrounding the causes

of the Cold War. • They were also influenced by the thawing of the Cold

War in the 70s. At this time US presidents were reaching out to Communist countries to improve details.

THINK This view takes into account the best of the orthodox and revisionist views.

Interpretation 4 New Cold War historians – 1989 onwards

We still can’t be sure…New sources confirm what people already thought – that the USA/USSR was most to blame.

Context – • In 1989 the Communist regime began to collapse which eventually

led to the opening of the Soviet archive. • The Soviet archive produced many documents which polarised

historians. • There were many documents showing that the USA had acted

aggressively and recklessly particularly at the end of the Cold War. • In the 80s Reagan, the new US President issued the Reagan

doctrine. In this doctrine he promised to “roll back” Communism in Africa, Asia and South America.

• In effect Reagan moved against détente to challenge Communism again. He only relaxed this stance in 1985 when Gorbachev became the President of the USSR. Orthodox historians agreed with Reagan and found material to prove that he had been right in his beliefs.

• In the 80s Reagan ploughed billions of dollars into investigated a scheme called SDI (Strategic Defence Initiative). This was also known as the Star Wars project in which plans were made to design a system that could shoot down Soviet ICBMs in space. It never was created.

• Some (mainly revisionist) historians thought Reagan had been reckless and taken unnecessary risks by being too provocative towards the USSR. They found documents that supported their views.

THINK How important was it that historians were able to gain access to the Soviet archive?

Why then? The end of the Cold War led to

new Soviet sources

29) Ronald Reagan and the Second Cold War Policies:

Reagan was a new type of US leader. Simplistic but determined view of the politics – the USA were the good guys, the USSR were the bad guys. He described the USSR as an ‘Evil Empire’. The majority of his views were shaped by a think-tank of hard-line anti-Communist advisers called the Committee of the Present Danger. He supported anti-communist forces in Afghanistan and Nicaragua. More importantly, he increased the US defence budget dramatically (by $36 billion in the first two weeks in office!). He also introduced new weapons systems, such as the B1 nuclear bomber. In 1982 he gave the go-ahead for the Strategic Defence Initiative (Star Wars). This was a multi-billion dollar project to create a system using satellites and lasers that could destroy missiles before they hit their targets. This was controversial. His supporters argued it would escalate the arms race in order to end it, as the USSR could not compete with US spending on nuclear technology and would have to admit defeat. His critics suggested his policies were simply about generating money for donors from the defence industry.

Impact: Reagan’s spending on weapons development left the USA $4 trillion in debt. Many of Europe’s leaders supported his tough line against the USSR. The USSR was in crisis. The leadership of the USSR was constantly replaced in the 1970s and 1980s by ageing politicians who had no real response to Reagan’s policies, who thought of him as a warmonger. But Reagan was supported by the rest of the world. The Soviet economy was also suffering due to the war in Afghanistan and their support for allies in Cuba and Vietnam. They could not keep up in the Arms Race anymore.

30) Gorbachev’s New Thinking Aims:

Gorbachev became the new Soviet leader in 1985. He had fresh ideas for the Cold War. He knew that the USSR was spending too much money on the arms race and was locked in a costly and unwinnable war in Afghanistan. He needed to revise the Soviet economy. Gorbachev was also aware that the standard of living in the West was significantly better than in the USSR. This was humiliating because Communism was meant to make life for the people of the USSR better. Gorbachev passionately believed in Communism and that it could work. He believed that a reformed Communist style of government could give people pride and belief in their country.

Policies: Glasnost (openness): Reduced state control of the media and, for the first time, the Soviet people began to get realistic reporting about the issues such as the economy and the war in Afghanistan. Perestroika (restructuring): introduced economic reforms that allowed the people in the USSR to trade for profit – a massive challenge to one of the basic beliefs about Communism. This also reduced state spending on the arms race as he realised it was a huge drain on the economy and he could never match the US spending on nuclear weapons. He also began to withdraw Soviet forces from Afghanistan as a result of this. In addition, Gorbachev launched a campaign against corruption in the USSR and began to attack the privileges that party and police officials had over ordinary citizens. Finally, he began talks with the US President Ronal Reagan.

Reagan – Gorbachev summits Geneva 1985: Both leaders met and got on well. While their was no agreement, as Reagan would not back down over SDI (Star Wars), they agreed to a second meeting. Reykjavik 1986: Both leaders met and came to the realisation that they both supported the ‘Zero option’ about nuclear weapons. In other words, both were willing to reduce and even stop the nuclear arms race. However, when pressed by Gorbachev, Reagan would still not back down about his plans for SDI. But both leaders now showed a willingness to halt the arms race. Washington 1987: Gorbachev no longer pressed Reagan to stop his SDI policy as he could no longer afford to match the Arms Race spending, and perhaps because it was unrealistic. Significantly, they both signed the INF Treaty (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty), where both sides agreed to reduce and limit their missile stockpiles. Both sides agreed to co-operate fully with an inspection regime, which would ensure they kept to the terms of the Treaty. Moscow 1988: This was mainly symbolic. It was the first time Reagan had been to the USSR. Reagan previously had called the USSR an ‘evil empire’. He now gave a statement saying that this was no longer the case as the USSR was a very different country.

31) The collapse of the Soviet Union Gorbachev’s new thinking

In 1985 Gorbachev called the leaders of the Warsaw Pact together. He announced that he was now committed to a policy of non-intervention in the affairs of other countries. He followed this in 1988 at the Warsaw Pact Summit, where he announced his intention to withdraw large numbers of Soviet troops, tanks and aircraft from other Communist states. Finally, in 1989 he made it clear that he would not prop up the regimes of the Warsaw Pact members with the Soviet army, and they would have to listen to their own people.

Consequences of ‘new thinking’ in Eastern Europe May 1989: Hungarians begin dismantling the barbed-wire fence between Hungary and non-Communist Austria. June 1989 In Poland, free elections are held for the first time since the Second World War. Solidarity, a trade union group seeking greater freedom, wins all the seats it contests. Eastern Europe gets its first non-Communist leader, President Lech Walesa. September 1989 Thousands of East Germans on holiday in Hungary and Czechoslovakia refuse to go home. They escape through Austria into West Germany. October 1989 There are enormous demonstrations in East German cities when Gorbachev visits the country. He tells the East German leader Erich Honecker to reform. Honecker orders troops to fire on the protestors but they refuse. November 1989 East Germans march in their thousands to the checkpoints at the Berlin Wall. The guards throw down their weapons and join the crowds. The Berlin Wall is dismantled. November, 1989 There are huge demonstrations in Czechoslovakia. The Czech government opens its borders with the West, and allows the formation of other parties. December 1989 In Romania there is a short but very bloody revolution that ends with the execution of the Communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu. The Communist Party in Hungary renames itself the Socialist Party and declares that free elections will be held in 1990. In Bulgaria, there are huge demonstrations against the Communist Government. March 1990 Latvia leads the Baltic republic in declaring independence from the USSR.

The collapse of the USSR October 1990 The Berlin Wall had been torn down and East and West Germany were reunited. The new Germany was even allowed to become part of NATO. 1990-1991Many of the republics in the USSR demanded independence. Gorbachev did not want to break up the USSR, but in the end he had little choice. August 1991 A group of hard-line Communists called the Gang of Eight tried to overthrow Gorbachev as they believed he was threatening Communism, but failed. December 25th 1991 Gorbachev survived the coup, but his authority was weakened. In a televised speech, he announced his resignation and the end of the Soviet Union

32) The roots of al-Qaeda and 9/11 Part 1 Background: Conflict In the Middle East

Israel: Israel was founded in 1948, and was carved out of the land which had been inhabited by Muslim Arabs for centuries. Most of the Muslim Arab states in the region were hostile to Israel. Probably the only reason for Israel’s survival was it’s close links with the USA. This in turn led to resentment towards the USA among many Muslims. Afghanistan: After the Soviet army withdrew from Afghanistan, civil war broke out between different factions. By the mid-1990s the most powerful group was the radical Muslim organisation the Taliban. They had support from Pakistan and were very suspicious of and hostile towards outside influence. In particular they believed that US cultural influence was a threat to Islam. Many of the Taliban had been in the mujahidin, so they had been armed and trained by the Americans during their involvement in the Soviet war against Afghanistan. Iraq and the Gulf War: Iraq was ruled by Saddam Hussein from 1976. In 1990 he invaded neighbouring Kuwait, an ally of the USA. The USA led a coalition against Iraq and defeated Saddam in the first Gulf War of 1991. The USA stated that it was fighting to defend a country that had been illegally attacked. But most Muslims in the region believed that the USA was trying to control the region and its valuable oil supplies. Iran: Iran had been hostile to the USA since an Islamic revolution overthrew the US supported shah in 1979. The country had also long been a rival with Saudi Arabia as the most important country in the region. Iran was extremely hostile to Israel because Israel was in conflict with Muslim Palestinian Arabs. Both Israel and Saudi Arabia were important allies of the USA.

Impact of the Afghan war 1979-89: When the Soviets invaded, most people in rural, conservative Afghanistan fought against the Soviets and flocked to join the mujahidin (fighters of God) The mujahidin were supported by neighbouring Muslim states like Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. The Saudis saw the war as a JIHAD, or holy war. Osama bin Laden was one of many young Saudis who joined the Afghan war effort. At first he was involved in fundraising, but he eventually became a Mujahidin fighter. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan the USA gave money, supplies, training and political support for the mujahidin. After defeating the Soviets, the Mujahidin split into several organisations, including Al-Qaeda, who used their training and equipment from the USA to promote terrorism across the world. After the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan civil war broke out. The Taliban was the most powerful group to rise up. They disliked American influences and allowed and encouraged terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda to operate in Afghanistan.

The beliefs and nature of al-Qaeda • Whilst in Afghanistan, Bin Laden came under the influence of the radical Muslim preacher Abduall Azzam, who

argued that Islam was under threat from enemies everywhere and that it was the responsibility of every Muslim to resist these attacks by taking part in jihad.

• Bin Laden was from an immensely rich family and used his wealth to support the movement. They also had generous funding from Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, and the drug trade in Afghanistan.

• Al-Qaeda believes that most Muslim leaders are not sufficiently Islamic. They hoped an attack would wake people up to “true” Islam.

• Some Muslim preachers such as Sayyid Qutb saw America and the west as corrupt, immoral and evil. They feared that many Muslim people would copy American ways.

• In 1998 Bin Laden, with the advice of Al-Zawahari (his deputy in Al-Qaeda) proclaimed a Fatwa saying that every American and every Jew were targets of their campaign.

• Al-Qaeda’s Fatwas of the 1990s stated that they should wage war against western democracies, communism, Jews and the state of Israel, and Muslim governments that were not strict enough or who co-operated in any way with Al-Qaeda’s enemies (the greatest of all was the USA).

33) The roots of Al-Qaeda and 9/11 Part 2 US economic influence around the world

Israel was formally created in 1948 with American support. The Jews of Europe after the Holocaust was given land in the Middle East that was traditionally occupied by Muslim Arabs. The USA gives huge political, financial and military support to Israel. Many in the middle East see Israel as an occupying nation and want to remove it from the map. In 1967, Israel launched the 6 day war against its Muslim neighbour’s s a pre-emptive strike against their gathering forces. They were supported by the USA. Many Muslims in the Middle East were dismayed following the defeat in the 6 day war of 1967. Their idea of ‘Arabic nationalism’ was destroyed, and they now replaced it with new Islamist aims.

Impact of the Gulf War By 1990 Saudi Arabia was divided between those who wished to modernise and accept US ideas and values, and those who rejected them and demanded a strict observance of traditional Muslim practices. In 1990 Iraq invaded the oil rich area of Kuwait. Osama Bin Laden offered the services of his fighters to King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, but the king refused. Instead he accepted the support of the USA and its allies to liberate Kuwait. Bin Laden was outraged that US troops would be allowed on sacred Muslim land and publicly criticised King Fahd. As a response, he was stripped of his citizenship and forced into exile in Sudan. Following his exile, Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda intended to provoke a ‘cowboy response’ from the USA. Following the suicide bomb attacks in Kenya and Tanzania, the USA attacked terrorist forces in Afghanistan and the Sudan. Al-Qaeda believed that if America invaded the middle East then the people of the Middle East would rise up in the name of Islam.

Terrorist attacks inspired by Al-Qaeada In 1993 a Pakistani militant called Ramzi Yousef attacked the World Trade Centre in New York with a truck bomb. The bomb killed six people and caused $300 million in damage. Yousef claimed to have been inspired by bin Laden’s teaching. He was not directly connected to al-Qaeda but did share their views. He had also attended a training camp in Afghanistan. 4 October, 1993 18 US servicemen are killed in the Black Hawk Down incident in Somalia. Al-Qaeda fighters are thought to have aided those who shot down the helicopters 1994. In Saudi Arabia in 1995 there was an attack on the Saudi National Guard and US troops who were training them. The Saudi security services arrested four men, who claim to have been inspired by Bin Laden. They were later executed.

Al-Qaeda in action 1996: Bin Laden called for his followers to ‘launch a guerrilla war against American forces and expel the infidels from the Arabian Peninsula’. 1998: Bin Laden announced the formation of the World Islamic Front. He made very clear statements warning of attacks on the USA and hinting at the methods that might be used. 7 August 1998: US embassies in Nairobi (Kenya) and Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) were hit by truck bombs. The Nairobi attack was particularly well planned, with some of the Al-Qaeda operatives settling in to the area for years before the attack tok place, and even marrying local women. The Nairobi attack killed 213 and wounded around 4,600 people. In Dar es Salaam, 11 people died and 85 were wounded. October 2000: suicide bombers drove a boat packed with explosives into the side of the US warship USS Cole, killing 17 sailors. Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack. September 11, 2001: 19 militants hijacked four airliners and carried out suicide attacks against targets in the United States. Two planes were taken over and flew into the World Trade Centre in New York. Another was flown into the Pentagon, the US military headquarters in Washington DC. A fourth was forced to crash land in Pennsylvania. It was believed that the passengers overpowered the hijackers and took back control of the plane. The attacks resulted in the deaths of around 3,000 people. After 9/11, Islamic militants celebrated what they saw as a great victory. Four weeks later, Bin Laden issued a video praising the attackers. It was broadcast on the Arabic TV station Al-Jazeera, although there were some doubts about whether it was genuine.

34: The War on Terror Military response

On 20 September the US President George W. Bush issued a demand to the Taliban leader Mullah Omar calling on him to turn over Bin Laden to the US. The Taliban refused. The US built a coalition of allies and attacked Afghanistan in October 2001. Following a huge bombardment of long-range missiles and airpower, the Taliban and Al-Qaeda bases and training camps were soon destroyed. The land campaign began in November 2001 by a coalition of US, British and Northern Alliance forces. The Afghan capital, Kabul, fell quickly. The Taliban’s stronghold fell in December, and Mullah Omar fled to Pakistan. Other Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces fell back to their mountain stronghold, including the Tora Bora complex. In hard fighting, this was taken on 17 December but there was no sign of Bin Laden, who had probably escaped through the mountains into Pakistan. Osama Bin Laden was finally discovered and killed by US forces in 2011. However, Islamist fundamentalism did not die with Bin Laden. Around the world, large numbers of independent groups and individuals have continued the campaign, most recently the Islamic State group who emerged and took control of significant areas of Syria and Iraq.

Consequences for Afghanistan Afghanistan proved very difficult to control. Taliban and al-Qaeda forces continued to mount hit-and-run attacks on western forces in an INSURGENCY. Innocent Afghans were rounded up and interrogated as suspected militants. This made them reluctant to co-operate with the security forces or provide the intelligence so important when fighting an enemy like Al-Qaeda. It proved difficult to win the hearts and minds of the Afghan people. They were often caught in the crossfire between Allied forces and militants. There were many civilian casualties as well as thousands of refugees from the fighting. Heroin production had fallen under the Taliban, but it rose again and Afghanistan now supplies 90% of the world’s heroin.

Increasing support for militancy Some US tactics, such as torture and detention, also undermined sympathy for the USA and increased support for militancy. The War on Terror has caused tension between the media and the governments in Britain and the USA, who feel that the media has been too quick to criticise US forces and has ignored the actions of the terrorists. Reactions have been even more extreme on websites that support the War on Terror. Although many governments in Asia and the Middle East allied with the USA, there was also much sympathy for Islamic militancy. The government of Pakistan struggled to control elements within its intelligence services and armed forces that were sympathetic towards the Taliban.