1 SC/STS 3760, VI The Long Pause to Regroup The transition from Antiquity to the Renaissance, with...

11SC/STS 3760, VI SC/STS 3760, VI

The Long Pause to The Long Pause to RegroupRegroup

The transition from Antiquity The transition from Antiquity to the Renaissance, with to the Renaissance, with

influences from the Near Eastinfluences from the Near East


RomeRome

Italian peninsula occupied by 1000 Italian peninsula occupied by 1000 BCE by Latin speaking tribesBCE by Latin speaking tribes 800 BCE: 800 BCE:

Greeks arrive in southGreeks arrive in south Etruscans in northEtruscans in north

Rome became a republic in 509 BCERome became a republic in 509 BCE Power invested in a SenatePower invested in a Senate


Roman TechnologyRoman Technology

Romans were great Romans were great engineersengineers Roads, aqueducts, Roads, aqueducts,

buildings, citiesbuildings, cities The Rule of LawThe Rule of Law

The authority of The authority of Roman government Roman government was based upon was based upon written laws written laws enacted by its enacted by its senate. senate.

A surviving Roman aqueduct at Nîmes in France.


Roman ScienceRoman Science

"Greek science written in Latin""Greek science written in Latin" Transmitted to Rome in the Transmitted to Rome in the

Hellenistic period (300 BCE - 200 CE)Hellenistic period (300 BCE - 200 CE) Mostly via the Museum in Alexandria Mostly via the Museum in Alexandria

and those trained there.and those trained there.


Biological ScienceBiological Science

Herophilus of Alexandria (250 BCE?)Herophilus of Alexandria (250 BCE?) Dissection of live human bodiesDissection of live human bodies

Galen (b. 129 CE)Galen (b. 129 CE) Worked in Roman EmpireWorked in Roman Empire Sought principles of medicineSought principles of medicine Wrote definitive treatise on anatomy Wrote definitive treatise on anatomy

and physiologyand physiology Became the standard text for over 1400 Became the standard text for over 1400

yearsyears


Roman MathematicsRoman Mathematics Very difficult to find anything novel.Very difficult to find anything novel. Calculation in the Roman Empire was Calculation in the Roman Empire was

hampered by the system of Roman numerals:hampered by the system of Roman numerals:

I=1I=1 II=2II=2 III=3III=3 IV=4IV=4 V=5V=5 VI=6VI=6 VII=7VII=7 VIII=8VIII=8 IX=9IX=9 X=10X=10

X=10X=10 XX=20XX=20 XXX=30XXX=30 XL=40XL=40 L=50L=50 LX=60LX=60 LXX=70LXX=70 LXXX=80LXXX=80 XC=90XC=90 C=100C=100

C=10C=1000

CC=20CC=2000

CCC=30CCC=3000

CD=40CD=4000

D=50D=5000

DC=60DC=6000

DCC=70DCC=7000

DCCC=8DCCC=80000

CM=90CM=9000

M=100M=10000


Imagine the difficulty of arithmetic Imagine the difficulty of arithmetic operationsoperations

Compare 3629 x 2983 Compare 3629 x 2983 To MMMDCXXIX x MMCMLXXXIIITo MMMDCXXIX x MMCMLXXXIII Note: Note:

Like the Egyptians, the Romans used a decimal-Like the Egyptians, the Romans used a decimal-based system and had separate symbols for the based system and had separate symbols for the units, tens, hundreds, thousands, millions, etc.units, tens, hundreds, thousands, millions, etc.

Like the Babylonians, the Romans had place Like the Babylonians, the Romans had place value in that the larger numerals were always to value in that the larger numerals were always to the left of lesser numerals, with the exception of the left of lesser numerals, with the exception of the special symbols for the 4 and 9 position: IV the special symbols for the 4 and 9 position: IV and IX, XL and XC, CD and CM, etc.and IX, XL and XC, CD and CM, etc.


Romans were practicalRomans were practical

The only interest that Romans took in The only interest that Romans took in mathematics was what was mathematics was what was necessary for commerce and necessary for commerce and engineering.engineering.

They had no interest in, say, They had no interest in, say, geometry for its own sake. geometry for its own sake. Theoretical knowledge was little Theoretical knowledge was little valued.valued.


Roman engineeringRoman engineering

Roman engineering was amazing for its Roman engineering was amazing for its time. But it required relatively little time. But it required relatively little mathematics. Roman engineers learned mathematics. Roman engineers learned only what they deemed necessary to only what they deemed necessary to know.know.

The famous engineer-architect Argippa, The famous engineer-architect Argippa, who undertook a survey of the entire who undertook a survey of the entire Roman empire, had to call in specialists Roman empire, had to call in specialists from Alexandria to carry out the from Alexandria to carry out the measurements and calculations.measurements and calculations.


The Julian CalendarThe Julian Calendar

Introduced 45 BCE, by Julius Caesar Introduced 45 BCE, by Julius Caesar 365-day year with leap years every 365-day year with leap years every

fourth yearfourth year Much better than all previous Much better than all previous

calendarscalendars Recognition that the year is not Recognition that the year is not

evenly divided into days.evenly divided into days.


EncyclopaedistsEncyclopaedists

In the late Roman Empire.In the late Roman Empire. Attempted to write down Attempted to write down

“everything” they knew in “everything” they knew in “Epitomes.”“Epitomes.”

Often totally disorganized, but great Often totally disorganized, but great source for historians to figure out source for historians to figure out what people knew and believed.what people knew and believed.


Martianus CapellaMartianus Capella

An exception: Martianus Capella’s An exception: Martianus Capella’s organization of knowledge into the 7 organization of knowledge into the 7 Liberal ArtsLiberal Arts TriviumTrivium

Grammar, Dialectic, RhetoricGrammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric QuadriviumQuadrivium

Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, MusicGeometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Music


The Roman Empire at its heightThe Roman Empire at its height


ByzantiumByzantium

In 395 C. E., the Roman Empire was In 395 C. E., the Roman Empire was divided into an Eastern and a divided into an Eastern and a Western branch.Western branch.

The Eastern Empire, “Byzantium,” The Eastern Empire, “Byzantium,” based in Constantinople, thrived, based in Constantinople, thrived, lasting until 1453.lasting until 1453. Largely Greek influenceLargely Greek influence


Emperor Justinian 527-565Emperor Justinian 527-565

Emperor of the Eastern Roman Emperor of the Eastern Roman EmpireEmpire Called later the "Byzantine Empire"Called later the "Byzantine Empire"

Justinian tried to re-unite the Eastern Justinian tried to re-unite the Eastern and Western empires, unsuccessfullyand Western empires, unsuccessfully Tried to establish Latin across his Tried to establish Latin across his

empire.empire. After his death, Greek became the After his death, Greek became the

official language.official language.


The Corpus JurisThe Corpus Juris

Justinian Justinian commissioned a summary of commissioned a summary of Roman LawRoman Law.. Part of his effort to re-unite the empire.Part of his effort to re-unite the empire. Was completed by a team of scholars in Was completed by a team of scholars in

only eight years, but was a fraction of the only eight years, but was a fraction of the body of law.body of law.

Centuries later, in the west, the Centuries later, in the west, the Corpus JurisCorpus Juris was taken to be the final was taken to be the final and perfect expression of Roman Law.and perfect expression of Roman Law.


The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire

Successfully defended itself from attack Successfully defended itself from attack from North, East, and West when other from North, East, and West when other cultures fell.cultures fell. Superior knowledge of military Superior knowledge of military

technologies, technologies, notnot involving guns. involving guns. Finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in Finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in

14531453 Famous victory for guns.Famous victory for guns. One of the traditional dates for the end of One of the traditional dates for the end of

the Middle Ages and the beginning of the the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era.Modern Era.


Greek FireGreek Fire

A Byzantine terror weapon.A Byzantine terror weapon. A petroleum based liquid.A petroleum based liquid.

Caught fire when it hit the water. It was a mainstay of Caught fire when it hit the water. It was a mainstay of Byzantine defence from both Arabs and Slavs from as Byzantine defence from both Arabs and Slavs from as early as the 7th century.early as the 7th century.


The Decline of the (Western) The Decline of the (Western) Roman EmpireRoman Empire

The Roman Empire had spread across Europe, North Africa, and The Roman Empire had spread across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East during the thousand years from 500 BCE to 500 CE.the Near East during the thousand years from 500 BCE to 500 CE.

The western empire then collapsed, leaving a governmental void The western empire then collapsed, leaving a governmental void across much of Western civilization. across much of Western civilization.


The Fall of RomeThe Fall of Rome

Many reasons Many reasons are given for are given for the fall of the the fall of the Roman Empire.Roman Empire.

Possibly they Possibly they were no longer were no longer able to feed able to feed themselves by themselves by importing food importing food from their from their colonies.colonies.

Ruins of Leptis Magna (now in Libya). A great city in a region that supplied food to Rome. Overfarming made the land unproductive. It is now a desert.


Europe in the Dark AgesEurope in the Dark Ages The period between antiquity (ancient The period between antiquity (ancient

times), marked by the fall of Rome around times), marked by the fall of Rome around 500 C.E., and the beginning of the modern 500 C.E., and the beginning of the modern era (around the middle of the 15era (around the middle of the 15thth century) century) is called the Medieval period, or the Middle is called the Medieval period, or the Middle Ages.Ages. The first 500 years of that is called the Dark The first 500 years of that is called the Dark

Ages (about 500-1000 C.E.).Ages (about 500-1000 C.E.). During this time Europe was overrun by During this time Europe was overrun by

nomadic tribes from the north and west.nomadic tribes from the north and west. Literacy was lost, farming techniques Literacy was lost, farming techniques

forgotten, infrastructure deteriorated.forgotten, infrastructure deteriorated. Villages became isolated from each other.Villages became isolated from each other.


CharlemagneCharlemagne

Europe began to Europe began to recover under Charles recover under Charles the Great the Great ((CharlemagneCharlemagne).).

In 800 he was crowned In 800 he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor.Holy Roman Emperor.

He saw illiteracy as one He saw illiteracy as one of the major problems of the major problems facing Europe.facing Europe.


SchoolsSchools

Charlemagne founded schools in Charlemagne founded schools in cathedrals all over Europe.cathedrals all over Europe. The language of instruction was Latin.The language of instruction was Latin. The curriculum was the seven liberal The curriculum was the seven liberal

arts, using Martianus Capella’s work.arts, using Martianus Capella’s work. When Charlemagne died many of his When Charlemagne died many of his

reforms were lost, but some of the reforms were lost, but some of the schools remained and became the schools remained and became the bases of later European universities.bases of later European universities.


The Recovery of EuropeThe Recovery of Europe

By the early 1400s, Europe had pulled By the early 1400s, Europe had pulled itself out of its disorganization after the itself out of its disorganization after the fall of Rome.fall of Rome.

The feudal system provided stable The feudal system provided stable government and protection from government and protection from raiders.raiders.

The economy was flourishing and the The economy was flourishing and the population rising and in good health.population rising and in good health.

But there was little literacy and almost But there was little literacy and almost no knowledge of ancient science.no knowledge of ancient science.


The Rise of IslamThe Rise of Islam

Before MohammedBefore Mohammed Arab culture disorganizedArab culture disorganized

nomadic, polytheisticnomadic, polytheistic centered in Meccacentered in Mecca

MohammedMohammed born 570 in Meccaborn 570 in Mecca at age of 40 had revelation, became prophet and at age of 40 had revelation, became prophet and

fled Mecca in 622 (traditional date for start of Islam)fled Mecca in 622 (traditional date for start of Islam) Mohammed's revelations = the Koran (Mohammed's revelations = the Koran (Qu’ranQu’ran))

One God, one Prophet, one BookOne God, one Prophet, one Book


The The Spread of IslamSpread of Islam

In 100 years (630-730) Islam spread from Arabia In 100 years (630-730) Islam spread from Arabia to India in the East and to Spain in the West.to India in the East and to Spain in the West.


The founding of BaghdadThe founding of Baghdad

In 762, the rulers of the Islamic In 762, the rulers of the Islamic empire, the caliphs (i.e., empire, the caliphs (i.e., “successors”), then in Damascus, “successors”), then in Damascus, decided to found a new capital on decided to found a new capital on the Tigris river at the site of a small the Tigris river at the site of a small town known by the Persian name, town known by the Persian name, Baghdad.Baghdad.

By the ninth century, Baghdad had a By the ninth century, Baghdad had a population of 800,000, making it population of 800,000, making it larger than Constantinople. larger than Constantinople.


The rise of ArabicThe rise of Arabic

Arabic became the language of Arabic became the language of learning.learning.

All Moslems had to learn Arabic to All Moslems had to learn Arabic to read the Koran.read the Koran.

Anything written in Arabic carried the Anything written in Arabic carried the prestige previously reserved for prestige previously reserved for works in Greek.works in Greek.


The House of WisdomThe House of Wisdom

Caliph al-Ma’mûn established a great Caliph al-Ma’mûn established a great academy, the House of Wisdom, in academy, the House of Wisdom, in Baghdad, comparable to the Museum in Baghdad, comparable to the Museum in Alexandria.Alexandria.

The House of Wisdom set out to acquire The House of Wisdom set out to acquire all the great Greek manuscripts and all the great Greek manuscripts and works of other cultures.works of other cultures. An emissary was sent to Constantinople to An emissary was sent to Constantinople to

obtain a copy of Euclid’s obtain a copy of Euclid’s Elements Elements from the from the Byzantine Emperor.Byzantine Emperor.


The House of Wisdom, 2The House of Wisdom, 2

By the beginning of the tenth century, By the beginning of the tenth century, almost all the available Greek scientific almost all the available Greek scientific and philosophical works had been and philosophical works had been translated into Arabic at the House of translated into Arabic at the House of Wisdom.Wisdom.

Copies of these and other works were then Copies of these and other works were then made and sent to Islamic libraries made and sent to Islamic libraries throughout Islam.throughout Islam.

Islamic scholars then began to extend and Islamic scholars then began to extend and refine all these works, creating a huge refine all these works, creating a huge body of scholarship.body of scholarship.


Arab mathematicsArab mathematics

One of the greatest Arab One of the greatest Arab mathematicians whose work was mathematicians whose work was preserved in these libraries was preserved in these libraries was Mohammed ibn Mûsâ al-Khowârizimi, Mohammed ibn Mûsâ al-Khowârizimi, who lived approximately from 780 to who lived approximately from 780 to 850. His patron was Caliph al 850. His patron was Caliph al Ma’mûn.Ma’mûn.

He was the court astronomer to the He was the court astronomer to the Caliph and one of the early scholars Caliph and one of the early scholars at the House of Wisdom.at the House of Wisdom.


Al-Khowârizimi’s worksAl-Khowârizimi’s works

Al-Khowârizimi wrote two works that Al-Khowârizimi wrote two works that became enormously influential in became enormously influential in both the Islamic world and later in both the Islamic world and later in Europe when they were translated Europe when they were translated into Latin.into Latin.

One was on arithmetic, the other on One was on arithmetic, the other on algebra.algebra.


Al-Khowârizimi’s ArithmeticAl-Khowârizimi’s Arithmetic

Al-Khowârizimi’s book on arithmetic Al-Khowârizimi’s book on arithmetic had a title that could be translated as had a title that could be translated as Book of Addition and Subtraction Book of Addition and Subtraction According to the Hindu Calculation.According to the Hindu Calculation.

It explained the Hindu method of It explained the Hindu method of writing numerals and the decimal writing numerals and the decimal system.system.


0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 00, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0

Al-Khowârizimi mentions “nine Al-Khowârizimi mentions “nine letters” meaning the symbols for the letters” meaning the symbols for the numerals 1 to 9.numerals 1 to 9.

He also introduces the symbol and He also introduces the symbol and use of the place holder, zero:use of the place holder, zero: ““When nothing remains [in subtraction], When nothing remains [in subtraction],

put down a small circle so that the place put down a small circle so that the place be not empty, but the circle must be not empty, but the circle must occupy it.”occupy it.”


The influence of al-Khowârizimi’s The influence of al-Khowârizimi’s arithmetic textarithmetic text

All copies of al-Khowârizimi’s original All copies of al-Khowârizimi’s original Arabic text have been lost.Arabic text have been lost.

We have only a Latin translation We have only a Latin translation Algoritmi de numero IndorumAlgoritmi de numero Indorum by John by John Seville from the early 12Seville from the early 12thth century. century.

So great was its influence that the So great was its influence that the new numerals were misnamed new numerals were misnamed “Arabic” because of al-Khowârizimi’s “Arabic” because of al-Khowârizimi’s book, despite being referred to there book, despite being referred to there as of Indian origin.as of Indian origin.


Al-Khowârizimi’s algebra textAl-Khowârizimi’s algebra text

Though the Though the ArithmeticaArithmetica of Diophantus, a of Diophantus, a Greek, was written long before al-Khowârizimi’s Greek, was written long before al-Khowârizimi’s and, despite the name, was really about and, despite the name, was really about algebra, Western Europe first learned about algebra, Western Europe first learned about algebra from al-Khowârizimi’s book.algebra from al-Khowârizimi’s book. Diophantus’s work was not translated into Latin until Diophantus’s work was not translated into Latin until

long after al-Khowârizimi’s.long after al-Khowârizimi’s. Did al-Khowârizimi learn algebra from Did al-Khowârizimi learn algebra from

Diophantus’s Greek text?Diophantus’s Greek text? Unlikely, since their approaches are entirely Unlikely, since their approaches are entirely

different.different.


Al-jabrAl-jabr

The title of al-Khowârizimi’s algebra The title of al-Khowârizimi’s algebra text, in transliterated Arabic, is text, in transliterated Arabic, is Hisâb al-Hisâb al-jabr w’al muqâbalahjabr w’al muqâbalah, which means , which means something like “the science of reunion something like “the science of reunion and reduction.and reduction. Reunion meaning transferring negative Reunion meaning transferring negative

terms to the other side of the equation.terms to the other side of the equation. Reduction meaning combining like terms on Reduction meaning combining like terms on

the same side into a single term, or the same side into a single term, or cancelling like terms on both sides.cancelling like terms on both sides.


AlgebraAlgebra

The title, The title, Hisâb al-jabr w’al muqâbalahHisâb al-jabr w’al muqâbalah, , was translated into Latin aswas translated into Latin as

Liber Algebrae et Almucabola, Liber Algebrae et Almucabola, from which from which we have taken “algebra” as the we have taken “algebra” as the mathematics of solving equations for mathematics of solving equations for unknowns.unknowns.

Likewise our work “algorithm”, meaning a Likewise our work “algorithm”, meaning a specified procedure to follow to solve a specified procedure to follow to solve a problem is merely a Latinized version of al-problem is merely a Latinized version of al-Khowârizimi’s name.Khowârizimi’s name.


Al-Khowârizimi the transmitter, not Al-Khowârizimi the transmitter, not the inventorthe inventor

Just as Euclid’s work was the means Just as Euclid’s work was the means by which much of Greek by which much of Greek mathematics became known to a mathematics became known to a wider world, al-Khowârizimi’s books wider world, al-Khowârizimi’s books were the vehicles for the were the vehicles for the transmission of the old Persian transmission of the old Persian mathematical knowledge to the rest mathematical knowledge to the rest of the world.of the world.


Algebra as divine revelationAlgebra as divine revelation

Algebraic formulae and algorithms Algebraic formulae and algorithms were expressed as rhetorical were expressed as rhetorical pronouncements, in verse, or as pronouncements, in verse, or as aphorisms. No symbols were used. aphorisms. No symbols were used. No proofs were supplied.No proofs were supplied.

Any demonstrations given as Any demonstrations given as justification were usually in a justification were usually in a geometric form, inspired by Euclid.geometric form, inspired by Euclid. Perhaps it was felt that an argument Perhaps it was felt that an argument

had to be geometric to convince.had to be geometric to convince.


A geometric solutionA geometric solution Consider a problem that we Consider a problem that we

would write aswould write as x x22 + 10x = 39 + 10x = 39

The central square is xThe central square is x22 The four rectangles equal 10xThe four rectangles equal 10x The four small squares at the The four small squares at the

edges have area 4(10/4)edges have area 4(10/4)2 2

=100/4=25=100/4=25 Therefore the entire large Therefore the entire large

square is equal to xsquare is equal to x22 + 10x + + 10x + 25.25.

Since xSince x22 + 10x = 39, then + 10x = 39, then x x22 + 10x + 25 = 39 + 25 = + 10x + 25 = 39 + 25 = 6464

Therefore the side of the large Therefore the side of the large square is √64 = 8.square is √64 = 8.

Therefore x = 8 – 10/2 = 3.Therefore x = 8 – 10/2 = 3. This is the method called This is the method called

completing the square.completing the square.


The CrusadesThe Crusades

The Byzantine Empire, feeling The Byzantine Empire, feeling threatened by the encroaching threatened by the encroaching Islamic Caliphate appealed to Islamic Caliphate appealed to Christian Europe for military Christian Europe for military assistance.assistance.

Thus began the Crusades to free the Thus began the Crusades to free the Holy Land, starting in 1092, and Holy Land, starting in 1092, and lasting about 300 years.lasting about 300 years.


The Surprise DiscoveryThe Surprise Discovery

Much to the surprise of the invading Much to the surprise of the invading Christians, the Muslim world was much Christians, the Muslim world was much more literate and culturally advanced than more literate and culturally advanced than Europe. Europe.

Europeans discovered a wealth of Europeans discovered a wealth of literature, much of it originally written in literature, much of it originally written in Greek, that was unknown in medieval Greek, that was unknown in medieval Europe.Europe. Among these were works of Euclid, Ptolemy, Among these were works of Euclid, Ptolemy,

and much of Aristotle.and much of Aristotle.


Greek texts in ArabicGreek texts in Arabic

Euclid’s Euclid’s ElementsElements was available in was available in Arabic by the year 800.Arabic by the year 800.

Ptolemy’s Ptolemy’s Megale Syntaxis Megale Syntaxis (“Great (“Great Composition”) appeared in Arabic in Composition”) appeared in Arabic in 827, where the title was 827, where the title was transliterated as “Al Magest”transliterated as “Al Magest” The Arabic title stuck when it was The Arabic title stuck when it was

translated into Latin later. We know it in translated into Latin later. We know it in English as English as The Almagest.The Almagest.


The Great Translation ProjectThe Great Translation Project

A huge project was undertaken to translate A huge project was undertaken to translate much of this literature from Arabic into much of this literature from Arabic into Latin to be accessible to European scholars.Latin to be accessible to European scholars. At Toledo, Spain, over 150 years.At Toledo, Spain, over 150 years. The typical process: The typical process:

Jewish rabbis, fluent in Arabic and Spanish, translated Jewish rabbis, fluent in Arabic and Spanish, translated into Spanish.into Spanish.

Christian scholars, fluent in Spanish and Latin, Christian scholars, fluent in Spanish and Latin, translated from Spanish to Latin.translated from Spanish to Latin.

The translated works were sent to Italy and The translated works were sent to Italy and became the foundation for scholarship at became the foundation for scholarship at the new European universities.the new European universities.


ScholasticismScholasticism

The European universities tried to The European universities tried to digest the new learning in a Christian digest the new learning in a Christian context.context.

Aristotle’s world view was taken as a Aristotle’s world view was taken as a base for Christian dogma, and all base for Christian dogma, and all scientific understanding was fit to scientific understanding was fit to that context, including Ptolemy’s that context, including Ptolemy’s AlmagestAlmagest, which therefore became , which therefore became theologically correct.theologically correct.


The Black DeathThe Black Death

Bubonic plague hit Bubonic plague hit Europe in 1346.Europe in 1346.

The Black Death The Black Death eliminated 1/3 to eliminated 1/3 to 1/2 of population of 1/2 of population of Europe.Europe.


The Black Death as RetributionThe Black Death as Retribution

This illness was called the Black Death because sores, This illness was called the Black Death because sores, skin, blood, vomit, etc., all turned black before the skin, blood, vomit, etc., all turned black before the patient died, often within a few hours of becoming ill.patient died, often within a few hours of becoming ill.

At the time it was widely thought to be divine At the time it was widely thought to be divine retribution for sinful living. It was worst in port cities.retribution for sinful living. It was worst in port cities.


A New Beginning for EuropeA New Beginning for Europe

After the Black Death, the economy After the Black Death, the economy of Europe took off.of Europe took off.

Fewer people sharing the same Fewer people sharing the same resources.resources.

Emphasis on labour-saving devices.Emphasis on labour-saving devices. The Renaissance began in earnest.The Renaissance began in earnest.


The Demand for BooksThe Demand for Books

When the Renaissance got When the Renaissance got underway, more and more people in underway, more and more people in Europe wanted access to the mass Europe wanted access to the mass of written scholarship that was of written scholarship that was accumulating from the translations accumulating from the translations of Moslem works from Arabic and of of Moslem works from Arabic and of Byzantine works from Greek.Byzantine works from Greek.


The Demand for Books, 2The Demand for Books, 2

Paper from Linen was readily available.Paper from Linen was readily available. But scribes were in great demand and could But scribes were in great demand and could

not keep up.not keep up.


Printed Block BooksPrinted Block Books A means of printing any A means of printing any

written material written material mechanically would be in mechanically would be in demand.demand.

Mechanical printing was Mechanical printing was known in China for at known in China for at least 1000 years. least 1000 years.

But the method required But the method required making a woodcut of an making a woodcut of an entire page (in mirror entire page (in mirror image), then inking the image), then inking the woodcut, then applying it woodcut, then applying it to a piece of paper.to a piece of paper.


Printing from Movable TypePrinting from Movable Type

Some “block books” were printed in Some “block books” were printed in Europe in the 15Europe in the 15thth century. century.

But the process was cumbersome, But the process was cumbersome, and error-prone.and error-prone. A single mistake on one page required A single mistake on one page required

that the entire page be re-carved.that the entire page be re-carved. A method was needed to assemble a A method was needed to assemble a

page, letter by letter.page, letter by letter.


Gutenberg’s Printing PressGutenberg’s Printing Press

Johann Gutenberg Johann Gutenberg (1400-(1400-1468)1468).. Goldsmith from Mainz, Germany.Goldsmith from Mainz, Germany. Found a method of manufacturing Found a method of manufacturing

individual letter slugs (that print individual letter slugs (that print the letter) of a uniform height so the letter) of a uniform height so they could be lined up on a bed, they could be lined up on a bed, inked, and a sheet of paper inked, and a sheet of paper pressed against them to print a pressed against them to print a page.page.


Gutenberg’s matrixGutenberg’s matrix Gutenberg’s trick was to use Gutenberg’s trick was to use

the same mould for all letter the same mould for all letter slugs, but placing a different slugs, but placing a different letter impression on the end letter impression on the end to make different letters.to make different letters.

A molten lead alloy is poured A molten lead alloy is poured into a matrix with the letter into a matrix with the letter impression on the end, held impression on the end, held together with a firm spring.together with a firm spring.

The matrix adjusts to the The matrix adjusts to the width of the letters desired.width of the letters desired. Wide for “M”, narrow for Wide for “M”, narrow for

“I”, etc.“I”, etc.


The Bed of the PressThe Bed of the Press

The desired letters for The desired letters for a page are then a page are then arranged and lined up arranged and lined up on a flat bed, secured on a flat bed, secured in place and inked.in place and inked.

A sheet of paper is A sheet of paper is loaded into a frame loaded into a frame held above the bed held above the bed and then pressed onto and then pressed onto the inked letters with the inked letters with a forceful screw press.a forceful screw press.


The finished productThe finished product

The printed page can contain any text whatsoever that The printed page can contain any text whatsoever that can be written in Latin letters.can be written in Latin letters.

When sufficient copies are made, the letter slugs are When sufficient copies are made, the letter slugs are removed and sorted ready for another page to be removed and sorted ready for another page to be composed.composed.


A 16A 16thth century print shop century print shop

Printing was immensely successful. In the 50 years from Printing was immensely successful. In the 50 years from 1450 to 1500 more than 10 million volumes were printed.1450 to 1500 more than 10 million volumes were printed.


Printing changed the worldPrinting changed the world

The character of The character of education, general education, general knowledge, the knowledge, the dissemination of dissemination of information, and all information, and all the infrastructure of the infrastructure of civilization changed civilization changed dramatically with dramatically with the invention of the invention of printing.printing.


Influence of Printing on ScienceInfluence of Printing on Science

More texts available, to a wider More texts available, to a wider audience.audience.

Publishing scientific discoveries Publishing scientific discoveries became the norm.became the norm.

Interest in new knowledge (e.g., from Interest in new knowledge (e.g., from exploration).exploration).


The woodcutThe woodcut Soon after the invention of Soon after the invention of

printing with movable type, the printing with movable type, the woodcut was invented, woodcut was invented, providing a method of printing providing a method of printing illustrations in a book.illustrations in a book.

This was of major benefit to This was of major benefit to biology, where illustrations of biology, where illustrations of animals and plants could be animals and plants could be compared to the real things.compared to the real things. Especially the “Herbals,” Especially the “Herbals,”

pharmaceutical texts on pharmaceutical texts on preparing medicines from wild preparing medicines from wild growing herbs.growing herbs.

The illustration here is from The illustration here is from Otto Brunfels’Otto Brunfels’Living Portraits of Living Portraits of PlantsPlants, 1530., 1530.


ComparativComparative anatomy e anatomy diagramsdiagrams

Illustrations, Illustrations, side-by-side, side-by-side, of the of the skeletons of skeletons of different different animals (here animals (here a human and a human and a bird) showed a bird) showed relationships relationships that would not that would not have occurred have occurred to the ordinary to the ordinary observer.observer.


Renaissance Illustrations ofRenaissance Illustrations ofPreviously “Unknown” AnimalsPreviously “Unknown” Animals

A creature resembling a bull, but larger. And, a scaly “fish man.”


The Revival of LearningThe Revival of Learning

Started with the 12Started with the 12thth century translation project. century translation project. Translated works formed basis of curriculum at medieval Translated works formed basis of curriculum at medieval

universities.universities. In the 15In the 15thth century Byzantine manuscripts were century Byzantine manuscripts were

imported into Western Europe.imported into Western Europe.


HumanismHumanism

Replaced theology in status.Replaced theology in status. Relations of people in society.Relations of people in society. Activity: reworking Classical Activity: reworking Classical

literature.literature. Rebellion against Scholasticism.Rebellion against Scholasticism. Worshipped remote past.Worshipped remote past.


Early HumanismEarly Humanism

Manuel Manuel Chrysoloras Chrysoloras came to Italy came to Italy in 1397 from in 1397 from Byzantium.Byzantium. Taught Greek Taught Greek

in Italy.in Italy. Sources dried Sources dried

up after 1453.up after 1453. Ptolemy's Ptolemy's GeographyGeography not known not known before 1406 when brought from before 1406 when brought from Constantinople.Constantinople.


Printing of Ancient Scientific Printing of Ancient Scientific ClassicsClassics

Early printing was of very old texts:Early printing was of very old texts: Bible, theology, law, medicineBible, theology, law, medicine Few contemporary worksFew contemporary works Few scientific worksFew scientific works

Need for Latin translationsNeed for Latin translations Very few Western Europeans literate in Greek Very few Western Europeans literate in Greek

even into the 16even into the 16thth and 17 and 17thth centuries. centuries. Greek science had to be translated into Latin.Greek science had to be translated into Latin. Among the first to be translated:Among the first to be translated:

EuclidEuclid Medical works: Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Galen, etc.Medical works: Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Galen, etc.


Scientific Atmosphere in Early Scientific Atmosphere in Early RenaissanceRenaissance

Little interest in science among Little interest in science among humanistshumanists

Had to wait for translations from Had to wait for translations from GreekGreek

Scholasticism gave way to Scholasticism gave way to EmpiricismEmpiricism Closer study of nature became the Closer study of nature became the

norm.norm.


The Founding of the The Founding of the UniversitiesUniversities

The original The original universitasuniversitas was merely a collection of was merely a collection of individuals who came together to communicate individuals who came together to communicate ideas.ideas.

The original The original universitasuniversitas were located at the were located at the monastery and cathedral schools founded by monastery and cathedral schools founded by Charlemagne, and their purpose was to prepare Charlemagne, and their purpose was to prepare students for the priesthood.students for the priesthood.

Their function was to preserve, not advance, Their function was to preserve, not advance, knowledge.knowledge.

The reputation of a particular school depended The reputation of a particular school depended largely on the reputation of its teachers. Teachers largely on the reputation of its teachers. Teachers were paid directly by the students. A famous teacher were paid directly by the students. A famous teacher attracted large numbers of students and enriched attracted large numbers of students and enriched the town where the school was located.the town where the school was located.


Student organizationStudent organization Students banded together to protect Students banded together to protect

themselves from extortion by local citizens themselves from extortion by local citizens and to secure legal rights. These and to secure legal rights. These associations formed the administrative associations formed the administrative structure of the emerging universities.structure of the emerging universities.

Eventually they gained legal recognition Eventually they gained legal recognition through a charter from the king or the through a charter from the king or the pope.pope. All the early medieval universities were formed All the early medieval universities were formed

this way: Bologna (1158), Paris (1200), Padua this way: Bologna (1158), Paris (1200), Padua (1222), Oxford (1214), and Cambridge (1231).(1222), Oxford (1214), and Cambridge (1231).


The Seven Liberal ArtsThe Seven Liberal Arts As at Charlemagne’s cathedral schools, the As at Charlemagne’s cathedral schools, the

curriculum at the new universities followed curriculum at the new universities followed the seven liberal arts of Martianus Capella:the seven liberal arts of Martianus Capella: The TriviumThe Trivium

Grammar, Dialectic, RhetoricGrammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric The QuadriviumThe Quadrivium

Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, MusicGeometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Music This would suggest that mathematics was This would suggest that mathematics was

given a high place of importance, but in fact given a high place of importance, but in fact little attention was given to the Quadrivium little attention was given to the Quadrivium on the grounds that those subjects were on the grounds that those subjects were “practical” and a university education was “practical” and a university education was held to be “general.”held to be “general.”


Perspective in MapsPerspective in Maps

Paolo Toscanelli Paolo Toscanelli (1396-1482)(1396-1482) Brought Brought

Ptolemy's Ptolemy's GeographyGeography to to ItalyItaly


Engineering marvelsEngineering marvels

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) Renaissance ManRenaissance Man Built Dome of cathedral in Florence.Built Dome of cathedral in Florence.


Perspective in ArchitecturePerspective in Architecture

Brunelleschi built Brunelleschi built churches with churches with perspective tricks to perspective tricks to make them grandermake them grander The Church of San The Church of San

Lorenzo in Florence Lorenzo in Florence looks longer than it looks longer than it is.is.

Popularised Popularised perspective in art perspective in art and architecture.and architecture.


Perspective in artPerspective in art

Leone Battista Alberti (1404-1472)Leone Battista Alberti (1404-1472) Discovered mathematical laws of perspective.Discovered mathematical laws of perspective.

Albrecht Dürer of Nuremberg (1471-1528)Albrecht Dürer of Nuremberg (1471-1528) Used Alberti’s analysis to portray the proportions Used Alberti’s analysis to portray the proportions

of human body accurately by age and sex.of human body accurately by age and sex.


Leonardo da VinciLeonardo da Vinci

1452-15191452-1519 Genius in some Genius in some

areas, barely areas, barely functioning in functioning in othersothers Small artistic outputSmall artistic output Intense working Intense working

style and attention style and attention to detailto detail

Very secretiveVery secretive



Scientific Scientific interests:interests: Flying machineFlying machine HelicopterHelicopter ParachuteParachute Designed Designed

parabolic parabolic compasscompass

Designed guns, Designed guns, other engineering other engineering apparatiapparati


Leonardo da Vinci’s Parabolic Leonardo da Vinci’s Parabolic CompassCompass



Perspective and realism in artPerspective and realism in art Worked out principles of perspectiveWorked out principles of perspective Studied physiology, embryologyStudied physiology, embryology


Practical Arts in the 16Practical Arts in the 16thth century century

Greatly advanced by the printing of technical Greatly advanced by the printing of technical manuals.manuals.



Waterwheel operating mechanical bellows for a blast Waterwheel operating mechanical bellows for a blast furnace.furnace. From Vanocchio Biringuccio (1460-1539), From Vanocchio Biringuccio (1460-1539), PirotechniaPirotechnia (1540). (1540).



Agricola (1490-Agricola (1490-1555)1555) (George Bauer)(George Bauer) De re MetallicaDe re Metallica

(1556)(1556)


MedicineMedicine

Medicine followed the teachings and Medicine followed the teachings and practices of the ancient authorities, practices of the ancient authorities, Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna.Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna.

Renaissance physicians began to Renaissance physicians began to throw off blind adherence to throw off blind adherence to authority in favour of direct authority in favour of direct observation and new theories.observation and new theories.


An anatomy An anatomy lessonlesson

An anatomy An anatomy demonstration from demonstration from the 15the 15thth century. century.

The professor reads The professor reads from the text, while from the text, while the demonstrator the demonstrator (surgeon) displays (surgeon) displays the appropriate the appropriate organs.organs.

From Mondino’s Anathomia, 1493


ParacelsusParacelsus

1493-15411493-1541 Actual name: Aureolus Actual name: Aureolus

Philleppus Theophrastus Philleppus Theophrastus Bombastus von Bombastus von HohenheimHohenheim

Founded Iatrochemistry, Founded Iatrochemistry, i.e. medical chemistryi.e. medical chemistry Curing diseases with Curing diseases with

specific drugs, instead of specific drugs, instead of curing the body as a curing the body as a whole.whole.


Andreas VesaliusAndreas Vesalius 1514-15641514-1564

Studied anatomy Studied anatomy (i.e., Galen) in Paris, (i.e., Galen) in Paris, 1533-15361533-1536 In 1537 began In 1537 began

teaching surgery in teaching surgery in Padua.Padua.

Vesalius emphasized Vesalius emphasized actual actual demonstrations of demonstrations of anatomy in the anatomy in the (new) anatomy (new) anatomy theatre in Padua.theatre in Padua.


De FabricaDe Fabrica PublishedPublished On the Fabric of On the Fabric of

the Human Bodythe Human Body, in , in 1543. 1543. Note: This is the same year as Note: This is the same year as

that in which Copernicus that in which Copernicus published published On the Revolutions On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.of the Heavenly Spheres.

An illustrated anatomy text.An illustrated anatomy text. Raised biological observations Raised biological observations

to new level.to new level. Artist for book probably from Artist for book probably from

school of Titian.school of Titian.

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