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Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas regarding growth and development in many cultures and societies. However,
today’s researchers believe the following:
1. Development is a continuous process.2. Children express their mental abilities and
operations at an earlier age.3. Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition.
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Social Development
Stranger anxiety: fear of strangers develops at around 8 months.
This is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face.
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So how does attachment develop?
• Harry Harlow– One of the first to study attachment– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I – Where do ethics play a role in this experiment?
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Origins of Attachment
Harlow’s conclusion: infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and not because of nourishment.
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Secure Attachment
Relaxed and attentive caregiving becomes the backbone of secure
attachment.
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Insecure Attachment
Harlow’s studies showed that monkeys experience great anxiety if their terry-
cloth mother is removed.
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Attachment Differences: Why?
Why do these attachment differences exist?
Factor Explanation
Mother
Both rat pups and human infants develop secure attachments if
the mother is relaxed and attentive.
Father
In many cultures where fathers share the responsibility of raising
children, similar secure attachments develop.
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Baumrind: Child-Rearing PracticesPractice Description
AuthoritarianParents impose rules and
expect obedience.
PermissiveParents submit to children’s
demands.
AuthoritativeParents are demanding but responsive to their children.
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Parenting types can affect self-concept
• ______________: demands unquestioned obedience. Do as I say!! Tend to be unresponsive.
• ______________: allow children to make own decisions without supervision. Submit to children’s whims, get them what they want.
• Rejecting-neglecting: disengaged, vest little, give little.
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Parenting types
• Authoritative: both demanding and responsive. Exert control by setting limits, but encouraging input from the child and negotiation of rules, particularly with older children. Encourages discussion and cooperation.
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Behavioral Outcomes correlated with Parenting style
• Authoritarian: lacks good decision-making, tend to be moody, low self-esteem. Will cooperate with the group.
• Permissive: lack self-discipline and confidence; trouble making decisions.
• Authoritative: self-reliant, friendly and self-confident. Higher self-esteem. Feel in control of their lives.
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Parental style and behavioral outcome: Correlational, so...
• Not necessarily causation.
• Perhaps temperament creates parenting style or the combination of parental temperament and children’s temperament creates parenting style.
• Do your parents treat your siblings differently?
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Parental Influence
• Children heavily influence attitudes toward faith, politics and other social attitudes. (excluding sex and drug use).
• Parents provide children with much of their non-family environment (neighborhood, schools, friends, etc.)
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Criticism of Parental Influences
• Recent studies of questioned the affects of child rearing on human development: generally, within extremes, other environmental influences have more power than parents: (friends, personal experiences, teachers, etc.)
• Which two theories fit into this social theory of development?
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Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parenting correlates with social competence — other factors like common genes
may lead to an easy-going temperament and may invoke an authoritative parenting style.
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Crafting an essay response -
• Can you explain how Ainsworth’s attachment research can lead to a self-reliant child?
• Can you explain how Baumrind’s research in parenting styles can lead to a positive outcome in terms of self-esteem?
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Adolescence
Adolescence is defined as a life
between childhood and adulthood.
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Physical Development
Adolescence begins with puberty (sexual maturation).
Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). Thus height in females increases before males.
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Primary Sexual Characteristics
During puberty primary sexual characteristics — the reproductive organs and external genitalia — develop rapidly.
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Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Also secondary sexual characteristics—the nonreproductive traits such as breasts and
hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop. Pubic hair and armpit
hair grow in both sexes.
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Puberty Landmarks
• first period for girls (menarche)
• first ejaculation by boys (spermarche).
• Feelings associated?
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Frontal CortexDuring adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin,
which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic
system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness.
If this is true, how do you biologically explain Piaget’s formal operational stage?
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Cognitive Development
Adolescents’ ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In particular,
they may think about the following:
1. Their own thinking.2. What others are thinking.3. What others are thinking about them.4. How ideals can be reached. They
criticize society, parents, and even themselves.
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Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person
steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development.
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• Preconventional (Before 9) based on rewards and punishments.
• Will I get into trouble?
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Conventional : Early adolescence, rules are rules, right and wrong. What would your friends think?
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Postconventional (formal op). Larger universal issues of morality and right and wrong, justice and fair play enter the process. What’s right? What’s fair?
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Formal Operational morality questions
• You go through the checkout at Harris Teeter and give a 10 dollar bill and receive change for a 20?
• Is cheating wrong?• Do you copy homework?• Do you ask for questions on a test?• Would you mark that you’d given money to
church/charity to receive money back on your taxes?
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Social influence and expediency will change behavior that is reasoned to be moral.
• Have you ever cheated because you saw others cheating?
• Is cheating right? Why or why not?
• Have you ever cheated?
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Kohlberg Critics
• There is a discrepancy between moral thought and action
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• cognitive dissonance: we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent– Smoking and cancer
– End of the world cult members
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Cultural Criticisms• postconventional reasoning appears mainly in
– Educated
– Western middle and upper class
– Males
– value individualism.
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Interdependent/collectivist cultures
• respect group norms more than western individualistic cultures and therefore are less likely to post-conventional moral reason.– Group cohesion more important than
individual codes.
• African, Asia, Middle East more interdependent in thinking.
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Moral Development, and Gender
• while men tend to make judgments based on their view of justice, women tend to make decisions based on relationships.
• Ex: Who chooses a movie? Who’s likely to cave first in arguments?
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Other Kohlberg Complaint: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist
• Are there some things that are viscerally disgusting, or innately immoral?
• Do they require moral reasoning?
• Examples?
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Social Intuitionist Theory
• Moral paradoxes
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Morality and Social Influences
• Doing the right thing dependent on social situations– Nazi concentration camp guards
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Gender Bias in Kohlberg
• Gilligan complains that girls are more concerned with relationships and therefore develop identity through their relationships
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Gilligan’s Stages of Ethic CareApprox. Age Range
Stage Goal
Not listed Preconventional Individual survival
Not listed Conventional Self sacrifice is goodness
Maybe never Postconventional Principle of nonviolence; do not hurt others or self
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Erik Erikson: Social Development
• psychosocial task to complete at each level of development throughout our lifetimes.
• If we do not achieve one level, it creates problems in our lives.
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Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust
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Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqLMcyU
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Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j9nZ4j1yLmk
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Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
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Stage 5: Identity vs. role confusion
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Forming an Identity
In Western cultures, many adolescents try out different selves before settling into a consistent
and comfortable identity. Having such an identity leads to forming close relationships.
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Parent and Peer Influence
Although teens become independent of their parents as
they grow older, they nevertheless relate to
their parents on a number of things,
including religiosity and career choices. Peer approval and
relationships are also very important.
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Stage 6: Intimacy vs. isolation
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Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pc6e5igbUds
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Stage 8: Integrity vs. despair
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIysXLiA5s0
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Marcia’s Levels of Identity Achievement
• Extends Erikson’s work – identity determined by choices and
commitments rather than social traits
• Marcia believed that teens fall into four categories in their search for identity
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Marcia’s Stages of Development
• Diffused: not really searching, living day to day, no direction.
• Foreclosed: a little parent, unquestioning, never searched for personal identity.
• Moratorium: actively searching and trying on new roles routinely.
• Achieved: developed a separate and unique identity they feel comfortable with.
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Emerging Adulthood
Emerging adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may live with their
parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties.
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Adulthood
Although adulthood begins sometime after
a person’s mid-twenties, defining
adulthood into stages is more difficult than defining the stages of
childhood or adolescence.
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Physical Development
The peak of physical performance occurs around 20 years of age, after which it declines imperceptibly for most of us.
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Middle Adulthood
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to decline
after the mid-twenties. Around age 50, women go through menopause, and men experience decreased levels of hormones and fertility.
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Old Age: Sensory Abilities
After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and
stamina. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks.
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Old Age: Motor Abilities
At age 70, our motor abilities also decline. A 70-year-old is no match for a 20-year-old individual.
Fatal accidents also increase around this age.
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Cognitive Development
Do cognitive abilities like memory, creativity, and intelligence decline with age
the same way physical abilities do?
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Aging and Memory
As we age, we remember some
things well. These include recent past events and events that happened a
decade or two back. However, recalling
names becomes increasingly
difficult.
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Aging and Memory
Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is
recalled better than meaningless material.
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Aging and Intelligence
It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with
age, but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) does
not. We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more
slowly.
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Aging and Intelligence
A number of cognitive abilities decline with age.
However, vocabulary and
general knowledge increase with age.
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Social Development
Many differences between the young and old are not simply based on physical and cognitive
abilities, but may instead be based on life events associated with family, relationships, and work.
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Adulthood’s Ages and Stages
Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence
of age-bound stages. Mid-life crises at 40 are
less likely to occur than crises
triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage).
Neuroticism scores, 10,000 subjects(McCrae & Costa, 1996).
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Adulthood’s Commitments
Love and work are defining themes in adult life. Evolutionary psychologists believe that
commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a
viable future generation.
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Adulthood’s Commitments
Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment.
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Well-Being Across the Life Span
Well-being and people’s feelings of satisfaction are stable across the life span.
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Successful Aging
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Death and Dying
The “normal” range of reactions or grief
stages after the death of a loved one varies widely. Grief is more
severe if death occurs unexpectedly. People who view their lives
with a sense of integrity (in Erikson’s
terms) see life as meaningful and
worthwhile.
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Reflections on Two Major Developmental Issues
Researchers who view development as a slow, continuous process are generally those who emphasize experience and learning. Those with a biological perspective, on the other
hand, view maturation and development as a series of genetically predisposed steps or stages. These include psychologists like
Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson.
Continuity and Stages
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Developmental Issues
Lifelong development requires both stability and change. Personality gradually stabilizes as people age. However, this does not mean that our traits do not change over a lifetime. Some temperaments are more stable than
others.
Stability and Change