1 of 23© Boardworks Ltd 2011 The Brain and Learning.

1 of 23 © Boardworks Ltd 2011

The Brain and Learning


The brain processes information that arrives from the body via neurones. Different parts of the brain have different functions.

The brain

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, which initiates conscious actions such as voluntary movements.

The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain most involved in memory, language, consciousness and intelligence.

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord.


Mapping the brain

Scientists have been able to map regions of the brain to particular functions.

By studying patients with brain damage, scientists can examine how damage to certain areas affects normal functioning, then draw conclusions about healthy brains.

Scientists can also use electrodes to stimulate different parts of the brain and observe resulting behaviour.

MRI scans can reveal brain activity while a patient carries out a specific task or experiences a certain emotion.


The effects of brain damage


What are reflexes?

Reflexes are fast, automatic protective biological control systems that link a stimulus to a response.

Reflex reactions happen without you having to think about them – they are involuntary. This is because the CNS sends electrical signals to the muscles before the brain can pick up the message.

Reflexes can happen so quickly because they often involve only three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay neurone and a motor neurone.


A reflex arc


Modifying reflexes

Reflexes need to be fast in order to protect you from harm.

If you pick up a hot mug, your reflex will be to drop it to protect your hand from burning. The quicker you drop the mug, the less damage will be done to your hand.

However, it is possible to override reflexes. If that hot mug held your tea, you might try to resist the reflex to drop it long enough to put it down safely.

How does this modification take place?


A modified reflex arc


Conditioned reflexes


The importance of conditioned reflexes

Like Pavlov’s dogs, many human behaviours have been learned through conditioned reflexes.

Imagine someone is blowing up a balloon near your face. As the balloon grows, you will probably turn away or close your eyes.

You have learned that overinflated balloons often burst, and your reflexive response is to protect your eyes.

Learning to avoid things that might cause harm is important as it increases an animal’s chances of survival.


The brain and learning

The evolution of a larger brain allowed some early humans to learn more, giving them a better chance of survival.

The human brain is made up of a complex network of billions of neurones.

At birth, neurones are not fully organized. As humans interact with their environment, the neurones form pathways. There are specific pathways for all tasks and behaviours.

Behaviour with beneficial consequences tends to be repeated. Behaviours with negative consequences tend not to be repeated. Over time, these pathways disappear from the brain.


Forming pathways


Early development

As humans age, their neurones become less able to form new pathways.

Scientists have found evidence that humans can acquire some skills only at a particular age.

For example, studies have shown that feral children (children raised without human contact) are often unable to develop language later in life.

This suggests that language skills can only develop during childhood.


Memory

What is your earliest memory?

Humans begin to form memories at an early age. A memory is stored information that can be retrieved when it is needed at a later stage.

Short-term memory is a record of stimuli we have just received. We can keep information in short-term memory by rehearsing it – for example by repeating a phone number while looking for a pen to write it down.

If information is rehearsed enough, it might pass into long-term memory. Long-term memories can be temporarily ignored and recalled later as needed.


How well can you remember?


Memory models


Glossary


Multiple-choice quiz

1 of 23© Boardworks Ltd 2011 The Brain and Learning.

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