1 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2:...

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Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider

Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition

Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development

Chapter 2

Theories of Development

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The Nature of Developmental Theories

• Theory: A set of ideas proposed to describe and

explain certain phenomena

- Provides organization of facts and observations

- Guides collection of new facts and observations

• A good developmental theory should be

- Internally consistent

- Falsifiable: Hypotheses which can be tested

- Supported by data

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Assumptions About Human Nature

• Theories & the nature of human development

- Hobbes (1588-1697)

- Society must civilize inherently selfish, bad children

- Rousseau (1712-1778)

- Society should allow children to follow their naturally good instincts

- Locke (1632-1704)

- “Tabula Rasa” or blank slate

- Children will be good/bad based on experiences

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Other Assumptions About Human Nature

• Nature/Nurture: Heredity or Environment

• Active or Passive Development

- Humans shape their lives

- Humans are products of forces beyond their control

• Continuity/Discontinuity: Stages or gradual change

- Quantitative Changes: Degree of trait or behavior

- Qualitative Changes: Transformational changes

• Universal or Context Specific Development

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Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Instincts and Unconscious Motivation

• Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (libido)

- Id represents human’s instinctual nature

- Ego is rational and objective

- Superego: Internalized moral standards

• Regular conflicts between them

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Freud’s Psychosexual Development

• Child moves through five stages

- Conflict between Id and Superego

- Conflict creates anxiety- Ego defends w/ defense mechanisms

• Early experiences impact personality

- Oral: Optimistic & gullible v. hostile

- Anal: Fastidious & orderly v. messy

- Phallic: Flirty & promiscuous v. chaste

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

• Strengths

- Awareness of unconscious motivation

- Emphasized importance of early experience,

emotions

- Neo-Freudians have been influential

• Weaknesses

- Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable (falsifiable)

- Not supported by research

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Erik Erikson

• Most influential Neo-Freudian, especially for

development

• Some differences with Freud

- Less emphasis on sexual urges

- More emphasis on rational ego

- More positive and adaptive view of human nature

- Believed development continues through life

- Emphasized psychosocial conflicts

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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

• Trust vs. Mistrust: responsive caregiver key

- Learn to trust caregiver to meet needs

• Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

- Learn to assert will and do for themselves

• Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool

- Devising/carrying out plans without hurting others

• Industry vs. Inferiority: School-Age children

- Master social academic skills on par with others

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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

• Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence

- Establish social and vocational identities

• Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young Adult

- Establish intimate relations with others

• Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle Age

- Feel productive and helping next generation

• Integrity vs. Despair: Older Adult

- View their life as meaningful to face death w/o regret

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson

• Strengths

- Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature

- Interaction of biological and social influences

- Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still relevant

• Weaknesses

- Sometimes vague and difficult to test

- Does not explain how development comes about

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget

• Intelligence = Ability to adapt to environment

• Constructivism: Understanding based on experience

• Interaction of biology and environment leads to each stage

- Sensorimotor (age 0-2)

- Preoperational (age 2-7)

- Concrete operations (age 7-11)

- Formal operations (age 12+)

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• Sensorimotor (age 0-2)

- Use senses/motor beh to understand world

- Begin w/ reflexes but learn symbolic use of

language & can plan solutions mentally

• Preoperational (age 2-7)

- Language devleopment, pretend play, solve

problems mentally

- Not yet logical, are egocentric, fooled by perception

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• Concrete operations (age 7-11)

- Logical operations, mentally classify/act on concrete symbolized objects

- Solves practical problems via trial and error

• Formal operations (age 12+)

- Think abstractly, hypothetical, trace long-term effects of beh

- Form hypotheses and test them empirically

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Cognitive-Developmental Theory

• Strengths

- Well accepted by developmentalists

- Well researched, mostly supported

- Influenced education and parenting

• Weaknesses

- Ignores motivation and emotion

- Stages not universal

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Contextual and Systems Theories

• Psychobiological, evolutionary theories

- Historical context

• Sociocultural Perspective – Vygotsky

- Cognitive development a social process

- Problem solving aided by dialogues

• The Bioecological Approach – Bronfenbrenner

- Reciprocal influence of person and environment

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Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Approach

• Microsystem: Immediate environment

• Mesosystem: Linkages between

microsystems

• Exosystem: Indirectly experienced linkages

• Macrosystem: Culture of systems

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Figure 2.4

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Bronfenbrenner

• Strengths

- Emphasis on context

• Weaknesses

- Partially formulated

- Too many generalizations

• Should be combined with stage theories

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