Metacognition

Prof. S. Hartati R. Suradijono, MA; Ph.D.

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What is METACOGNITION? HOTS Bloom Taxonmy IPT

Components in metacogniton Metacognition and Intelligence Metacognition and Self-regulation Strategies

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Meta-analysis

Metaphysics

METAKOGNISI

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Metacognition ??? "Metacognition" is one of the latest buzz words in

educational psychology, but what exactly is metacognition?

Metacognition enables us to be successful learners, and has been associated with intelligence (e.g., Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b).

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What is metacognition?

thinking about thinking Knowledge and understanding of what we

know and how we think, including the ability to regulate our thinking as we work on a task

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Why is metacognition important?

...if it happens of its own accord anyway?

Shapes active rather than passive learners Gives pupils sense of control over learning Learning how to learn. Helps to promote deep learning

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Why is metacognition important?

Learning how to learn. Helps to promote deep learning A key component of Assessment for Learning

emphasises the childs active role in his/her own learning, in that the teacher and child agree what the outcomes of the learning should be and the criteria for judging to what extent the outcomes have been achievedThis level of involvement in shaping their own learning can heighten childrens awareness of themselves as learners and encourage them to take more personal responsibility for, and pride in, their learning

NCCA, 2007

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Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.

planning how to approach a given learning task monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task.

Metacognition is:"thinking about thinking.

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HOT (higher order thinking) Higher order thinking involves a variety of

thinking processes applied to complex situations and having multiple variables.

Logical thinking Reflective thinking, Critical thinking, Creative thinking Metacognitive

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The concept of higher order thinking skills (HOTS) became a major educational agenda item with the 1956 publication of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.

HOTS

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Blooms Taxonomy

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Blooms Taxonomy

CreateGenerating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things

Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.

EvaluateJustifying a decision or course of action

Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging

AnalyseBreaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships

Comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding

ApplyUsing information in another familiar situationImplementing, carrying out, using, executing

UnderstandExplaining ideas or concepts

Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining

RememberRecalling information

Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding

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any knowledge or cognitive activity

that takes as its cognitive object, or that

regulates, any aspect of any cognitive

activity (Flavell, 1993)

METACOGNITION

peoples knowledge of their own information-processing

skills, as well as knowledge about the nature of cognitive

tasks, and about strategies for coping with such tasks.

it also includes executive skills related to monitoring and

self-regulation of ones own cognitive activities. (Schenieder, 2008)

METACOGNITIONcognition

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Metacognition:

awareness and control overyour own thinking behavior

planning, monitoring, andevaluating

SELF-REFLECTION* 17s hartati s

The term "metacognition" is most often associated with John Flavell, (1979).

active monitoring & consequent regulation and orchestration of cognitive processes

GOAL /OBJECTIVES

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Thinking about thinking

eg. Reading

knowing what you dont know

Awareness of knowing

Key Metacognition:

Selfawareness of ones own thinking and learning

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I think Im thinking about what you mean.

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Play with different combinations of these words and you'll be forming mental pictures of metacognition.

Thinking about knowing ... Learning about thinking ... Control of learning ... Knowing about knowing ... Thinking about thinking ...

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Its like arguing with yourself.

Metacognition = Argumentation turn inward.

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John Flavell, (1979): Metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation.

Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy variables.

Components in Metacognition

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Metacognitive Knowledge (1) Knowledge of person variables refers to general knowledge

about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning processes.

Knowledge of task variables include knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. Eg. you may be aware that it will take more time for you to read and comprehend a science text than it would for you to read and comprehend a novel.

Knowledge about strategy variables include knowledge about both cognitive and metacognitive strategies, as well as conditional knowledge about when and where it is appropriate to use such strategies.

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Flavell acknowledges that metacognitive knowledge may not be different from cognitive knowledge. The distinction lies in how the information is used.

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Knowledge is considered to be metacognitive if it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure that a goal is met.

E.g., a student may use knowledge in planning how to approach a math exam: "I know that I (person

variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable)."

Simply possessing knowledge about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task without actively utilizing this information to oversee learning is not metacognitive.

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Metacognitive experiences (2)

Metacognitive experiences involve the use of metacognitive strategies or metacognitive regulation(Brown, 1987).

Metacognitive strategies are sequential processes that one uses to control cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive goal (e.g., understanding a text) has been met. These processes help to regulate and oversee learning, and consist of planning and monitoring cognitive activities, as well as checking the outcomes of those activities.

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Metacognitive experiences usually precede or follow a cognitive activity. They often occur when cognitions fail, such as the recognition that one did not understand what one just read.

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Metacognition and Intelligence

Cognitive psychologists divide mental phenomena into cognition and metacognition (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979).

processes of monitoringand control, to which regular cognitive processes are executed in the appropriate order and according to some superordinate rules.

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Metacognition, or the ability to control one's cognitive processes (self-regulation) has been linked to intelligence (Borkowski et al., 1987; Brown, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b).

Sternberg refers to these executive processes as "metacomponents" in his triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1984,1986a, 1986b).Metacomponents are executive processes that control other cognitive components as well as receive feedback from these components.

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According to Sternberg, metacomponents are responsible for "figuring out how to do a particular task or set of tasks, and then making sure that the task or set of tasks are done correctly" (Sternberg, 1986b, p. 24).

These executive processes involve planning, evaluating and monitoring problem-solving activities. Sternberg maintains that the ability to appropriately allocate cognitive resources, such as deciding how and when a given task should be accomplished, is central to intelligence.

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(1)problem finding, (2)problem definition,

(3) choice of the set of necessary performance components, (4) choice of the optimal strategy of composition of these components, (5) appropriate mental representation of the problem,(6) attention deployment, (7) monitoring of the problem-solving implementation,(8) feedback reception, (9) feedback processing, and (10) practical implementation of feedback information.

Ten specific functions from metacomponents:

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Metacognitive functions usually require at least some amount of consciousness (e.g., the feeling of knowing), although there seem to exist processes of monitoring and control of which we are not fully aware (Moses & Baird, 1999).

Example, we can be aware of feedback information that is vital for efficient control of our mental aswell as motor actions, although we are usually not able to know any details of the execution of the control processes

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Sternberg believes that the proper use of meta-components is responsible for the adequacy with which people tackle complex cognitive tasks, including intelligence tests.

He also formulates the hypothesis that the general mental ability (g factor) may be explicable in terms of the general nature of metacomponents, which take part in every mental activity.

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Empirical studies of the relationships between metacognition and intelligence belong to two categories: cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies (cognitive control).

Cognitive Strategies: a distinctive mode of dealing with a task or class of tasks. People are capable of accomplishing various cognitive tasks using many different tactics.

Strategies are not abilities because, instead of referring to the betterworse dimension of intellectual performance, which is typical of psychometrics, they pertain to the manner in which cognitive tasks are performed.

There is usually no reason to treat some strategies as better than others; their choice and use is therefore a matter of preference rather than abilities.* 35s hartati s

Metacog. Strategies (Cognitive Control) processes (that) are responsible for the supervisory operations, attributed by Allan Baddeley (1986, 1996) to the central executive part of the working memory system and by Norman and Shallice (1986) to thesupervisory attentional system (SAS).

attention deployment, attention switching, updating of the content of the short-term store, and inhibition of irrelevant information or unwanted behavioraltendencies (Miyake&Shah, 1999).

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Metacognitive strategy (cognitive control) is believed to be crucially important for execution of the processes that are resourceful, effortful, and not automatic.

this mechanism is a natural candidate for the job of being responsible for the development of human intelligence.

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Metacognition is referred to as "thinking about thinking" and involves overseeing whether a cognitive goal has been met.

Cognitive strategies are used to help an individual achieve a particular goal (e.g., understanding a text) while metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached (e.g., quizzing oneself to evaluate one's understanding of that text.

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Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap in that the same strategy, such as questioning, could be regarded as either a cognitive or a metacognitive strategy depending on what the purpose for using that strategy may be.

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Eg. the use of self-questioning strategy while reading as a means of obtaining knowledge (cognitive), or as a way of monitoring what you have read (metacognitive).

Because cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely intertwined and dependent upon each other, any attempt to examine one without acknowledging the other would not provide an adequate picture.

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Cognitive-developmental changes in the child that allow for metacognitive acquisitions are:

developing sense of the self as an active agent and as the causal center of ones own cognitive activity (internal locus of control).

an increase in planfulness: an individual who can creates conscious and explicit representations of the past, present, and the future

direct practice in metacognitive activity

childs experiences

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Tacit use : children make decisions without really thinking about them

Aware use: children become consciously aware of a strategy or decision-making process

Strategic use: children organize their thinking by selecting strategies for decision-making

Reflective use: children reflect on thinking, before, during and after the process, pondering on progress and how to improve

(Swartz and Perkins (1989)

Levels of awareness

Higher-order cognition is information processing phenomena in which the metacognitive factors of monitoring and control play the fundamental role.

Higher-order cognition vs.metacognition

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The study of metacognition includes two broad components: a knowledge-based component, and a process-based component. The knowledge-based component focuses on

information ranging from specific knowledge about personal learning strategies to more general knowledge about strategies and their use.

The process-based component emphasizes the application of knowledge involving self-monitoring and self-regulation, and use of metacognitive strategies,

Maximum learning outcomes are realized when the learning includes both knowledge and process components (Corno, Collins, & Capper, 1982; Jacobs & Paris, 1987).

only when one becomes aware of his/herown behaviour, can he/she begin to beself-regulatory about that behavior

SELF-REGULATION

metacogntion and self-regulation

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Why are some students more motivated to learn than others? Why do some students learn more effectively than others?

The answers to these questions are likely to be found by combining knowledge in many fields, for example personality, cognition, and learning (Boekaerts, 1986).

Self-regulated learner is "organized, autonomous, self-motivated, self-monitoring, self- instructing, (in short), behaves in ways designed to maximize the efficiency and productivity of the learning process" (Lindner and Harris,1992).

metacognition, learning strategies, and personality variables.

approach educational tasks with confidence, diligence, and resourcefulness;

are aware when they know a fact or possess a skill and when they do not;

proactively seek out information when needed and take the necessary steps to master it;

find a way to succeed even when they encounter obstructions;

view learning as a systematic and controllable process; accept responsibility for their achievement outcomes;

and monitor the effectiveness of their learning methods or strategies.

Self-regulated learners:

Self-regulated learning strategies

self-evaluation, organization and transformation, goal setting and planning, information seeking, record keeping, self-monitoring, environmental structuring, giving self-consequences, rehearsing and memorizing, seeking social assistance, and reviewing. (Zimmerman, 1990)

metacognition, motivation and behavior are considered to be components of self-regulated learning.

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Biggs (1987) defined metacognition as "knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes . . . and the active monitoring and regulation of these processes" (p. 2). His model combines a student's motive in approaching a learning task with a metacognitive strategy to produce a distinct approach to learning. He recognized three separate approaches: a surface approach, a deep approach, and an achieving approach. A surface approach is usually composed of a surface motive, which is an attempt to meet minimum institutional requirements, and a surface strategy, limited to rote memor- ization of bare essentials.

A deep approach combines a deep motive, such as actualizing interest and competence, with a deep strategy, such as relating information to previous knowledge. An achieving approach

joins an achieving motive, such as ego enhancement through good grades, with an achieving strategy, such as organizing time and work space and regulating behaviour to that expected of a good student. Both the deep and achieving approaches are considered to involve high level uses of metacognition while the surface approach involves a shallow use of metacognition.

When faced with a learning task, students use a learning strategy that corresponds to their motivation for learning (Biggs, 1985; Watkins & Hattie, 1992). The first decision students must make is to recognize which strategy works best with their motive in approaching the learning task. Once the learner is aware of what the task demands, he or she may exercise control over his or her strategic options. Usually, students adopt a surface approach as an unthinking and short-term reaction to a learning task resulting in a strategy characterized as a shallow use of meta- cognition.

The use of metacognition appears to be related to academic achievement and enhanced learning outcomes (Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Vermunt, 1987; Wittrock, 1983)

From a developmental perspective, Biggs (1987) and Bondy (1984) suggested that age varies directly with capacity to understand and apply metacognitive knowledge and strategies. Metacognition does not appear, however, to be related to gender (Biggs, 1987; Otero, Hopkins 8c Campanario, 1992).

RESEARCH

There appears to be a relationship between metacognition and certain personality variables including motivation, locus of control, and self- efficacy (Biggs, 1987; Corno, et al., 1982; Garcia & Pintrich, 1991). high levels of motivation, high levels of self-

efficacy and an internal locus of control (Harter, 1981; Schneider, Borkowski, Kurtz, & Kerwin, 1986).

intrinsic motivation has been linked to high levels of self-efficacy and self-esteem (Bandura, 1977; Johnson, 1979), an internal locus of control (Tzuriel 8c Haywood, 1985) and autonomy or self-determination (Clifford, Chou, Mao, Lan, & Kuo, 1990; Garcia & Pintrich, 1991).

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METACOG STRATEGIES

Strategy How to Use When to Use What is it for?

Skim/Survey Search for headings, highlighted words previews, summaries

Before you read a long piece of text

Gives an overview of the key concepts, helps you to focus on the important points

Slow down Stop, read and think about information

When information seems important. If you realise you dont understand what you have just read.

Improves your focus on important information.

Activate prior knowledge

Stop and think about what you already know about a topic.

Before you read something or do an unfamiliar task.

Makes new information easier to remember and allows you to see links between subjects. Information is less daunting if you already know something about the topic

Fit ideas together

Relate main ideas to one another. Look for themes that connect the main ideas, or a conclusion

When thinking about complex information, when deep understanding is needed.

Once you know how ideas are related they are easier to remember than learning as if they are separate facts. Also helps to understand them more deeply

Draw Diagrams Identify main ideas, connect them, classify ideas, decide which information is most important and which is supporting

When there is a lot of factual information that is interrelated

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Here are a few other commonly used heuristics, from Polya's 1945 book, How to Solve It:[2]

If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.

If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that ("working backward").

If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.

Try solving a more general problem first (the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious plan may have more chances of success).

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PlanningWhat is the nature of the task?

What is my goal?

What kind of information and strategies do I need?

How much time and resources do I need?

MonitoringDo I have a clear understanding of what I am doing?

Does the task make sense to me?

Am I reaching my goals?

Do I need to make changes?

EvaluatingHave I reached my goal?

What worked?

What didnt work?

Would I do things differently the next time?

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The SQ4R method for reading

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KWL Grids

Metacognition

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What is a concept map?

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What is a concept map?

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thank you

Commitment

Metacognition is at work in students who choose to commit themselves to tasks. In the words of Paris and Cross (1983) they align "skill with will"

(Marzano et al., 1988, p. 10).

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Attitudes

Attitudes play an important role in metacognitive self-control. Successful students attribute their success to their own efforts.

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Attention

Conscious control of attention helps students understand that the level of attention required for a task varies with the task and that they can adjust the focus of their attention accordingly. This sense of personal control is related to the efficient performance of tasks.

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Self-regulatory

Autonomous regulation: an inherent part of any knowing act, unconscious adjustments and fine tuning of motor actions.

Active regulation: trial & error, learner is engaged in constructing and testing theories-in-action

Conscious regulation: involves the mental formulation of hypotheses capable of being tested via imaginary confirmatory evidence or counterexamples. (Stage of formal operation)

No conscious surveillance

The child becomes capable of reflecting on his own actions in the presence of the actual event

(Piaget)

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Other-regulation to self-regulation: Vygotsky

learning awakens a variety of internal development processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with his peers. Once these processes are internalized, they become part of the childs independent developmental achievement. (Vygotsky)

adult control and guide the childs activity; gradually adult and child come to share the problem solving functions; finally the adult cedes control to the child and functions primarily as a supportive and sympathetic audience

Developmental progression from other-regulation to self-regulation

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metacognition and executive control

executive control

Automated processes: fast, parallel process, not limited by STM, requires little subject effort, demand little direct subject control

Controlled processes: slow, serial process, limited by STM constraints, requires subject effort, providing large degree of subject control

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Helping pupils to evaluate their own performance

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