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Meaning Making in the Building Business: Meaning Making in the Building Business: The Cognitive and Behavioral Processes The Cognitive and Behavioral Processes

Architects Use to Make their Work Architects Use to Make their Work MeaningfulMeaningful

Heather VoughHeather VoughUniversity of Illinois, Urbana-ChampaignUniversity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Department of Business AdministrationDepartment of Business Administration

3/31/20073/31/2007

22

RoadmapRoadmap

Research Questions and DefinitionsResearch Questions and Definitions Meaning of work, meaningful work, etcMeaning of work, meaningful work, etc

Previous LiteraturePrevious Literature

MethodologyMethodology Qualitative Case study of an Architecture firmQualitative Case study of an Architecture firm

Findings!!!Findings!!!

Discussion and Implications Discussion and Implications

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Research QuestionsResearch Questions

General (dissertation):General (dissertation): How does the meaning employees find in their work How does the meaning employees find in their work

change over their careers? change over their careers? What are the antecedent conditions and consequences of What are the antecedent conditions and consequences of

a change of meaning of work?a change of meaning of work?

Focus (presentation):Focus (presentation): Day to day meaning making- What processes do Day to day meaning making- What processes do

employees use to experience meaningful work?employees use to experience meaningful work?

How you can help: How you can help: Any relevant research that you have done or you are Any relevant research that you have done or you are

aware ofaware of Any alternate explanations, storylines, reinterpretations, Any alternate explanations, storylines, reinterpretations,

avenues to explore, different classifications, etc.avenues to explore, different classifications, etc.

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Defining meaning of workDefining meaning of work

Experienced Meaning of work is:Experienced Meaning of work is: “employees’ overall “employees’ overall understandings of the degree to which they are able to understandings of the degree to which they are able to connect their self-concepts to the workplaceconnect their self-concepts to the workplace and the and the evaluations associated with these connections”evaluations associated with these connections” (Vough, (Vough, working paper)working paper) Self-concept consists of identities and self-esteemSelf-concept consists of identities and self-esteem (Gecas,1982)(Gecas,1982) Composed of targets and statesComposed of targets and states

Work is Work is meaningfulmeaningful when it is perceived to be when it is perceived to be purposeful and significantpurposeful and significant (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003)(Pratt & Ashforth, 2003)

Perceived connection between self and workplacePerceived connection between self and workplace

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Meaning Targets and StatesMeaning Targets and States

Targets (the content of meaning): Targets (the content of meaning): tasks, task outcomes, and social tasks, task outcomes, and social interactions interactions

States:States:

MeaningfulnessMeaningfulness

MeaninglessnessMeaninglessness

IndifferenceIndifference

AlienationAlienation

Relevance of target to self-conceptRelevance of target to self-conceptHighHigh Low Low

Per

ceiv

ed R

esou

rces

P

erce

ived

Res

ourc

es

For

Con

nec

tion

For

Con

nec

tion

Low

Low

H

igh

Hig

h

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Previous Related ProcessesPrevious Related Processes

How employees deal with stigmatized jobsHow employees deal with stigmatized jobs (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999)(Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999) Reframing- transforming meaning attached to the profession Reframing- transforming meaning attached to the profession Recalibrating- adjusting standards of a professional attribute Recalibrating- adjusting standards of a professional attribute Refocusing- shifting focus away from stigmatized aspect of jobRefocusing- shifting focus away from stigmatized aspect of job

How medical residents cope with identity violations How medical residents cope with identity violations (Pratt, Rockmann, & (Pratt, Rockmann, & Kauffman, 2006)Kauffman, 2006) Enriching- deepened understanding of their professional identity Enriching- deepened understanding of their professional identity Patching- attaching current identity to pre-existing notions of identity Patching- attaching current identity to pre-existing notions of identity Splinting- using previous identity until current identity was strong enough Splinting- using previous identity until current identity was strong enough

to adopt to adopt

How employees actively shape their tasks and relationships How employees actively shape their tasks and relationships (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001)(Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001) Behavioral crafting- changing the boundaries of the taskBehavioral crafting- changing the boundaries of the task Relational crafting- changing quality or amount of interaction with othersRelational crafting- changing quality or amount of interaction with others Cognitive crafting- changing how the task is perceivedCognitive crafting- changing how the task is perceived

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Qualitative Case Study of an Architecture Firm Qualitative Case Study of an Architecture Firm (Yin, 1989)(Yin, 1989)

Grounded theory- Iterative process of moving between data Grounded theory- Iterative process of moving between data collection and analysis collection and analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)(Glaser & Strauss, 1967)

Methods: Interviews, Observation, ArchivesMethods: Interviews, Observation, Archives 3 rounds of one-on-one semi-structured interviews3 rounds of one-on-one semi-structured interviews Online ReportsOnline Reports

Monthly online answers to meaning related questionsMonthly online answers to meaning related questions Observed meetingsObserved meetings Collected organizational documentsCollected organizational documents ShadowingShadowing

MethodologyMethodology

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Setting and InformantsSetting and Informants

ABS (art, business, science): large firm- 5 ABS (art, business, science): large firm- 5 offices internationally locatedoffices internationally located Study performed within headquarters (around 200 Study performed within headquarters (around 200

employees)employees) 3 practice groups (education, healthcare, hospitality) 3 practice groups (education, healthcare, hospitality)

31 Informants31 Informants Informants spanned from CEO to new internsInformants spanned from CEO to new interns 16 were licensed, 15 were not16 were licensed, 15 were not 8 female, 23 male8 female, 23 male 6 left firm or were reassigned during study6 left firm or were reassigned during study

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Informant DistributionInformant Distribution

Hea

lth

care

E

du

cati

on

H

osp

ital

ity

Principals/SVP Licensed/VP’s Associates

3 3 7

1 1 3

3 4 4

7/21 8/21 14/55

11/21

5/14

13/31

Not including 2 senior managers not affiliated with any practice group

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Methodology: Data AnalysisMethodology: Data Analysis

Transcribed VerbatimTranscribed Verbatim Interview Summaries Interview Summaries (Miles & Huberman, 1984)(Miles & Huberman, 1984)

Initial codingInitial codingProvisional Provisional (e.g. “social interactions” or “meaninglessness”)(e.g. “social interactions” or “meaninglessness”)

Open coding Open coding (e.g. “learning” or “mentoring”) (e.g. “learning” or “mentoring”)

Secondary CodingSecondary CodingAxial- patterns of codes grouped together Axial- patterns of codes grouped together

Narratives constructed after second Narratives constructed after second interview using all datainterview using all data

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Findings: Findings: Meaning ModelMeaning Model

AntecedentsIndividual• Process or end focused• Personal or social focused• Self-esteem/confidence• Understanding of profession/firm• Appropriate Training•Experience

Task• Project type• Project phase• Comprehension of involvement • Opportunity for self-expression

• Creative opportunity• Problem-solving• Learning/growth/challenge

• Project variety

Organizational • Values and Ideals • Size• Supervisors• Quality peer relationships• Feedback/recognition/money• Clear communication

Sense of self • Sense of Competence• Sense of Contribution

o Projecto Others

Self-Engagement• Ownership• Accomplishment• Emotionalinvestment

Mea

ning

-Mak

ing

Proc

esse

s

Outcomes• Performance• Motivation• Satisfaction

Meaningfulness

Bold= job characteristics model

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Findings: Meaning- Findings: Meaning- Making ProcessesMaking Processes

Meaning MakingMeaning MakingSubstituting- Substituting- replacing one meaning with replacing one meaning with

anotheranotherLateral Lateral External External TemporalTemporal

Expanding- Expanding- looking at tasks from different looking at tasks from different perspectiveperspective

Enabling- Enabling- reorganizing relationship to taskreorganizing relationship to taskGoal creatingGoal creatingVoicingVoicingTurning overTurning over

Meaningfulness

Meaninglessness

Indifference

Alienation

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Substituting Processes-Substituting Processes- replacing one meaning replacing one meaning with another with another Lateral-Lateral- make up for missing connection with make up for missing connection with

something else in worksomething else in work

“ “I want to make an impact. And maybe if I didn’t get the I want to make an impact. And maybe if I didn’t get the opportunity, I would have to reevaluate. Maybe this opportunity, I would have to reevaluate. Maybe this impact could be done other ways. Just like helping impact could be done other ways. Just like helping other people around me. You know, there’s meaning in other people around me. You know, there’s meaning in that. I guess I would just have to reevaluate, how can I that. I guess I would just have to reevaluate, how can I achieve this impact on other folks?” achieve this impact on other folks?” (Senior Associate 18, 1)*.(Senior Associate 18, 1)*.

* (Informant position, identifying number, wave of data collection)* (Informant position, identifying number, wave of data collection)

Findings: SubstitutingFindings: Substituting

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Substituting ExamplesSubstituting Examples

External-External- replacing missing meaning with similar replacing missing meaning with similar meaning outside of workmeaning outside of work

““I also do a lot of side work too. I do pro bono work for [the I also do a lot of side work too. I do pro bono work for [the city’s] public schools. This I do on my own. ABS really city’s] public schools. This I do on my own. ABS really doesn’t know about it. I do that on my own to just kind of doesn’t know about it. I do that on my own to just kind of stimulate my own need for designing and being creative stimulate my own need for designing and being creative on a different level” on a different level” (Associate 20, 1).(Associate 20, 1).

Temporal-Temporal- look for something you do not have now in look for something you do not have now in futurefuture

““I’ve done housing and stuff like that, but I wasn’t exposed I’ve done housing and stuff like that, but I wasn’t exposed to big commercial jobs and stuff like that. I looked at it as to big commercial jobs and stuff like that. I looked at it as an opportunity to just learn… look at other people’s an opportunity to just learn… look at other people’s drawings and just sort of be a sponge for a while” drawings and just sort of be a sponge for a while” (Senior Vice (Senior Vice

President 22, 1).President 22, 1).

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Findings: ExpandingFindings: Expanding

Expanding Processes- Expanding Processes- employees look beyond employees look beyond immediate task for meaning immediate task for meaning (i.e.(i.e. to be able to put to be able to put things into a larger context such as how each part fits things into a larger context such as how each part fits into the greater whole)into the greater whole)

““You know I think most of the time you’re focusing on the task that You know I think most of the time you’re focusing on the task that you have to do today. ..You kind of have to focus yourself on the you have to do today. ..You kind of have to focus yourself on the big picture from time to time cause you can lose track of that” big picture from time to time cause you can lose track of that” (Vice President 60, 2).(Vice President 60, 2).

““There’s obviously times when you know you kind of wonder- Why There’s obviously times when you know you kind of wonder- Why am I doing this? Why am I doing this? But I think the big picture am I doing this? Why am I doing this? But I think the big picture is just the outcome that you see at the end. I think its just like is just the outcome that you see at the end. I think its just like with anything, there’s obviously some joy when you see the with anything, there’s obviously some joy when you see the building get built and the people come to use it for what it was building get built and the people come to use it for what it was intended to be” intended to be” (Senior Associate 11, 1).(Senior Associate 11, 1).

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Findings: EnablingFindings: Enabling

Enabling Processes- Enabling Processes- changing your perspective changing your perspective on the taskon the task Goal Creating-Goal Creating- set objective and performance criteria set objective and performance criteria

in order to make work more meaningfulin order to make work more meaningful

((referring to times when he is assigned a “dumb” taskreferring to times when he is assigned a “dumb” task) ) “Meaningful work would be if someone’d give me a “Meaningful work would be if someone’d give me a task or job whatever and I was able to accomplish it in task or job whatever and I was able to accomplish it in even faster record time than I had before” even faster record time than I had before” (Associate 87, 2).(Associate 87, 2).

(discussing copies he had made for a presentation)(discussing copies he had made for a presentation) “It “It was very important to me that, well I guess pride had was very important to me that, well I guess pride had to do with it. I take a lot of pride in making sure that to do with it. I take a lot of pride in making sure that things are done right” things are done right” (Senior Associate 18, 1).(Senior Associate 18, 1).

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Enabling ExamplesEnabling Examples

Voicing-Voicing- talking with management about how to get talking with management about how to get desired opportunitiesdesired opportunities

““Your destiny is whatever you choose it to be. If I knew that I would Your destiny is whatever you choose it to be. If I knew that I would have to stay and build condos for like the next five years, I’d have to stay and build condos for like the next five years, I’d obviously speak up about it. I would speak up about it. And they’re obviously speak up about it. I would speak up about it. And they’re very accommodating here too” very accommodating here too” (Intern 68, 1).(Intern 68, 1).

Turning over-Turning over- leaving firm in order to get desired leaving firm in order to get desired opportunitiesopportunities

((discussing being given “secretarial” tasks to dodiscussing being given “secretarial” tasks to do) “When it goes on and ) “When it goes on and on and on and you’re never learning anything, you know how are on and on and you’re never learning anything, you know how are you ever supposed to do what they need you to do? So if I see you ever supposed to do what they need you to do? So if I see something like that emerging, I’ll kind of like go have a talk with something like that emerging, I’ll kind of like go have a talk with [management] and give them a chance to do something else. And if [management] and give them a chance to do something else. And if it doesn’t happen, then I usually move on” it doesn’t happen, then I usually move on” (Associate 25, 1).(Associate 25, 1). And she And she did…did…

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Meaning neutral processesMeaning neutral processes

Process that did not increase or decrease the amount of Process that did not increase or decrease the amount of meaningfulness in work:meaningfulness in work:

Avoiding- Avoiding- actively avoid doing tasks and being put in situations that actively avoid doing tasks and being put in situations that are not valuedare not valued

“ “I’m good at it, but I don’t like it. So I delegate management. I’ll pick I’m good at it, but I don’t like it. So I delegate management. I’ll pick the most capable management person on my team and have them the most capable management person on my team and have them do the management…but I’ll set it up and I’ll run away from the do the management…but I’ll set it up and I’ll run away from the vicious bunny” vicious bunny” (Principal 23, 1).(Principal 23, 1).

Assessing-Assessing- figuring out strengths and weaknesses to proceedfiguring out strengths and weaknesses to proceed “ “Just recently I’ve gone through my own personal exercise of Just recently I’ve gone through my own personal exercise of

figuring out these strengths I have and maybe I can use them. figuring out these strengths I have and maybe I can use them. That’s just my confidence. If I know I’m really good at something, That’s just my confidence. If I know I’m really good at something, and it doesn’t happen to be nuts and bolts, then maybe that’s okay. I and it doesn’t happen to be nuts and bolts, then maybe that’s okay. I can use those to find that niche. So yeah, I’m getting there. I’ve just can use those to find that niche. So yeah, I’m getting there. I’ve just got to figure it out, I’ve got to write them down, evaluate” got to figure it out, I’ve got to write them down, evaluate” (Senior (Senior Associate 18, 2).Associate 18, 2).

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Meaning Losing ProcessesMeaning Losing Processes

Accepting-Accepting- recognizing that current situation is recognizing that current situation is characteristics of profession/firmcharacteristics of profession/firm

““I think it’s a slow realitization that is probably a combination of age and I think it’s a slow realitization that is probably a combination of age and maturity and not one specific thing other than at some point recognizing I maturity and not one specific thing other than at some point recognizing I had a lousy day today, I really hated it. And other days its hey I had fun had a lousy day today, I really hated it. And other days its hey I had fun today you know, I enjoyed what I was doing today. Its just balancing today you know, I enjoyed what I was doing today. Its just balancing those two I think. … its just something you have to come to terms with, in those two I think. … its just something you have to come to terms with, in terms of there’s always going to be days where you love what you’re terms of there’s always going to be days where you love what you’re doing, there’s always days when you’ll hate it” doing, there’s always days when you’ll hate it” (Senior Vice President 30, 3).(Senior Vice President 30, 3).

““Knowing that you’ve been through that before, you know. And it always Knowing that you’ve been through that before, you know. And it always comes back up. . . I think that you just know that there’s going to be sort comes back up. . . I think that you just know that there’s going to be sort of the up and down… knowing that you’ve been through those sort of of the up and down… knowing that you’ve been through those sort of lulls and ups, knowing that ultimately something is going to get you going lulls and ups, knowing that ultimately something is going to get you going again. Pretty normal human nature I think, to get into a duldrum” again. Pretty normal human nature I think, to get into a duldrum” (Senior (Senior Vice President 22, 1).Vice President 22, 1).

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Meaning Losing ProcessesMeaning Losing Processes

Obligating-Obligating- doing work not because it is related to self doing work not because it is related to self but because others expect itbut because others expect it

““You gotta do it, I mean its still a job. You gotta do what you You gotta do it, I mean its still a job. You gotta do what you gotta do. Make it the best you can. You’ve gotta struggle gotta do. Make it the best you can. You’ve gotta struggle sometimes” sometimes” (Principal 23, 3).(Principal 23, 3).

Interviewer: “Can you describe a time when you thought Interviewer: “Can you describe a time when you thought your work was pointless? Less significant to you?”your work was pointless? Less significant to you?”

Informant: “Yeah I guess when you’re doing work for Informant: “Yeah I guess when you’re doing work for someone else that you know they haven’t really thought someone else that you know they haven’t really thought out any of the consequences of why they’ve asked you out any of the consequences of why they’ve asked you to do a particular thing and you do it anyways because to do a particular thing and you do it anyways because they are your boss or whatever and you just do it they are your boss or whatever and you just do it because you have to” (Associate 86, 1). because you have to” (Associate 86, 1).

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Meaning Losing ProcessesMeaning Losing Processes

Minimizing-Minimizing- decrease of the importance placed on work decrease of the importance placed on work in generalin general

Interviewer: “Have you ever had to struggle to figure out Interviewer: “Have you ever had to struggle to figure out how your work had meaning to you?”how your work had meaning to you?”

Informant: “Maybe. And maybe those are the times where I Informant: “Maybe. And maybe those are the times where I just tell myself this is a job, it’s a job. Just like anything just tell myself this is a job, it’s a job. Just like anything else is a job” (Associate 86, 3). else is a job” (Associate 86, 3).

““Part of me is actually thinking how architecture fits into my Part of me is actually thinking how architecture fits into my life is maybe not a big part of it, as it is now. I’m getting life is maybe not a big part of it, as it is now. I’m getting to the point now where I think I could make that decision” to the point now where I think I could make that decision” (Associate 33, 3).(Associate 33, 3).

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Meaning Losing ProcessesMeaning Losing Processes

Suppressing-Suppressing- distance self from aspects of work that distance self from aspects of work that are unavailableare unavailable

““There are projects that I will certainly try to do good work There are projects that I will certainly try to do good work on but I will not be emotionally invested in them because on but I will not be emotionally invested in them because I know there’s a dissatisfaction quotient out there, either I know there’s a dissatisfaction quotient out there, either in the manager or something else” in the manager or something else” (Principal 23, 1).(Principal 23, 1).

““I don’t know if you ever look at banks, but Harris banks are I don’t know if you ever look at banks, but Harris banks are really cool. I’d love to do that, and do that whole idea of a really cool. I’d love to do that, and do that whole idea of a bank to a medical office building. But I don’t think this bank to a medical office building. But I don’t think this client would do that so I’m not really worried about it client would do that so I’m not really worried about it cause I don’t think I’m going to be able to go that way” cause I don’t think I’m going to be able to go that way” (Associate 87, 1).(Associate 87, 1).

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SummarySummary

Meaningfulness arises from feeling good about Meaningfulness arises from feeling good about the work that you do and from feeling that your the work that you do and from feeling that your work matters to the project or other people.work matters to the project or other people.

Employees use cognitive and behavioral Employees use cognitive and behavioral processes to experience their work as processes to experience their work as meaningful.meaningful.

There are sometimes obstacles that prevent the There are sometimes obstacles that prevent the experience of meaningful work. Employees use experience of meaningful work. Employees use certain processes to deal with this as well.certain processes to deal with this as well.

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Still to come…Still to come…

Social aspects of meaningSocial aspects of meaning Role of social interactions/relationships as source of Role of social interactions/relationships as source of

meaningfulnessmeaningfulness Role of social cues as antecedents/ influencers of Role of social cues as antecedents/ influencers of

meaningmeaning Role of social comparisonsRole of social comparisons

Meaning escalation/meaning as a moving targetMeaning escalation/meaning as a moving target

Networks of meaning- interconnectedness of Networks of meaning- interconnectedness of sources of meaningsources of meaning

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Discussion/ImplicationsDiscussion/Implications A greater understanding of the “how?” of meaning making (and A greater understanding of the “how?” of meaning making (and

losing)losing)

Employees actively find ways to make work meaningfulEmployees actively find ways to make work meaningful Meaning making is not something that is done to a personMeaning making is not something that is done to a person

Integrates some of the meaning of work, motivation and work design Integrates some of the meaning of work, motivation and work design literatureliterature

Meaning is a dynamic and on-going process, best understood as it Meaning is a dynamic and on-going process, best understood as it unfolds. unfolds.

It may be just as important for managers to help employees reframe It may be just as important for managers to help employees reframe how they view their work as it is to actually change the nature of the how they view their work as it is to actually change the nature of the

work.work.

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Questions?Questions?

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Self-concept

Targets of Meaning

Overall Experienceof

Meaning of Work

States of Meaning

- Number of meaningful targets- Relative weight of meaningful targets- Number of alienated targets

Identities

Self-Esteem

Social Environment

Task Outcomes

Tasks

Meaninglessness

Indifference

Alienation

Meaningfulness

Meaning of Work DefinedMeaning of Work Defined