1- Introduction of Cytopathology
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Transcript of 1- Introduction of Cytopathology
Definition of cytopathology
Cytopathology is the study of normal and abnormal
exfoliated cells in tissue fluid.
The individual cells reflect the normal and abnormal
morphology of the tissue from which they are derived.
Types of exfoliated cyto-pathology
Natural spontaneous exfoliationNatural covering epithelium: skin, urinary tract, vagina, and
cervix.
Glandular epithelial secretion: Breast (Nipple secretion).
Sputum
Urine
Exudates and transudate:
Pleural fluid Peritoneal fluid
Pericardial fluid Joint fluid CSF
Artificial enhanced exfoliation:
Scrapings from cervix, vagina, oral cavity, and skin
Brushing and lavage: bronchi, GIT, and urinary tract
Fine needle aspiration (FNA) for:
Body cavity fluid: pleural, pericardial & peritoneal fluids
Cysts: neck, breast & ovary
Solid tissue: body organs, tumors & other swell
Role of cytopathology
Early detection of unsuspected diseases (malignant
or pre-malignant lesions).
Confirmation of suspected diseases without surgical
trauma.
Diagnosis of hormonal imbalance.
Useful in flow up the course of disease or monitoring
therapy.
Advantage of Cytopathology
Rapid diagnosis - Inexpensive - Simple
It is better in evaluating the infectious diseases.
Supplement or replace frozen section or biopsy
No injury to tissue allowing repeated sampling
It is better for hormonal assay
Cytopathological smear cover a wider surface than
that involved in surgical biopsy.
Disadvantage of Cytopathology
Interpretation of the morphological cellular changes is
based only on individual cell observation.
Not always finally diagnosis, so it is confirmed by
histopathology in some cases.
Not determine the size and type of lesion of some cases.
Factors that determine the appearance of cells
Type of the technique used.
Level of cell maturation at the time of cell collection.
Nature of the parents tissue: soft tissue, cyst, or solid organ.
Medium of the exfoliated cells.
Interval between the stain of the exfoliated cells and collection
of samples.
Type of fixative, stain, and processing of the technique used.
PAP smear: named afterDr. George Papanicolaou (1883-1962)
Vaginal smears from guinea pigs (1917) Women (1920)
Hormonal cyclesPathological conditions (1928)
Normal Cervix
Taking the Sample
Liquid Based Cytology – lab processing
Cytologic screening for cervical cancer
Cervical cancer screening has decreased morbidity and
mortality
Deaths from cervical cancer decreased from 26,000 to
less than 5,000 between 1941 and 1997
Pap smears are not perfect
For a high grade lesion, the sensitivity of a single pap
smear is only 60-80%
Estimated false negative rate is 30-50%
Requires adequate specimen collection
Requires adequate cytological review
Requires adequate patient and physician follow-up
10% of women with cervical cancer had inappropriate
follow-up.
Requires access to care
50% of women with cervical cancer were never screened
and 10% had not been screened within 5 years of
diagnosis.
Who to screen
Any woman with a cervix who has ever had sexual
activity.
When to screenStart within 3 years of onset of sexual activity or by age of
21, whichever is first.
Risk factors for cervical dysplasia
Early onset of sexual activity
Multiple sexual partners
Tobacco
Oral contraceptives
Screening frequency
Yearly until three consecutive normal pap smears, then
may decrease frequency to every three years
Annual screening for high-risk women is highly
recommend.
When to stop routine screening
Age 65 and “adequate recent screening”
Three consecutive normal pap smears
No abnormal pap smears in last 10 years
No history of cervical or uterine cancer
Hysterectomy for benign disease
Hysterectomy for invasive cervical cancer
Original Squamous Epithelium
Vagina and outer ectocervix
4 cell layers
Well-glycogenated (pink) unless atrophic
Columnar Epithelium
Upper and middle endo-cervical canal
Single layer of columnar cells arranged in folds
Mucin producing (not true glands)
Squamous Metaplasia
Central ectocervix and proximal endocervical canal
Replacement of columnar cells by squamous epithelium
Progressive and stimulated by
Acidic environment with onset of puberty
Estrogen causing eversion of endocervix
Transformation Zone
Zone between original squamo-columnar junction
and the “new” squamo-columnar junction
Nabothian cysts visually identify the transformation
zone if present
Original Squamo-columnar Junction
Placement determined between 18-20 weeks gestation
Most often found on ectocervix
Can be found in vagina or vaginal fornices
Less apparent over time with maturation of epithelium
“New” Squamo-columnar Junction
Border between squamous epithelium and columnar
epithelium
Found on ecto-cervix or in endo-cervical canal
Majority of cervical cancers and precursor lesions
arise in immature squamous metaplasia, i.e. the
leading edge of the squamo-columnar junction
Squamous Epithelium
Parabasal Cells
Intermediate Cells
Superficial Cells
Endocervix
Endocervical Cells
Endometrial Cells
Non-Epithelial Cells
sperms
Lymphocytes Polymorphs
Normal smear
Ectropion / ErosionAt puberty & pregnancy the endocervical cells are
pushed out to lie on the ectocervix
Normal Ectropion
Wide Ectropion
Metaplasia
The endocervical cells are transformed into squamous
cells through the process of squamous metaplasia
Metaplastic Cells