1. Introduction

Academic English I (27818)

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INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC ENGLISH

(I) Spoken and written academic language (II) Formal and informal language (III) The noun phrase (IV) Nominalisation (V) Verbs in academic English (VI) Qualifications and strength (VII) Personality vs. impersonality (VIII) Cohesive writing (IX) Academic vocabulary (X) Academic genres

(I) Spoken and written academic English

1 What do you understand an “academic text” is? Which are the characteristics of

academic writing? And of academic speaking?

2 What type of texts are mostly written and read in your academic and professional context? Which ones do you think you will have to use in your professional field?

3 How would you define the style of those texts? Academic writing and speaking take place in a variety of contexts. Student essays, presentations, dissertations and theses, lectures, tutorials, conference papers, books and articles by professional academics, all have different formal conventions, but all have a great deal in common in terms of grammar. In general, academic language, especially writing, has quite complex structures and is more formal and impersonal in style than everyday language. Much of the grammar of academic English is shared with that of English as a whole, and there are no special structures which are unique to academic English and never found elsewhere. On the whole, the grammar of academic English is closer (in both its spoken and written forms) to the grammar of general written English than to the grammar of general spoken English.

(Cambridge Grammar of English)


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The following are some recommendations for maintaining a formal academic writing style (adapted from Swales & Feak 2001): a. Avoid contractions:

Export figures won’t improve until the economy is stronger. Export figures will not improve until the economy is stronger.

b. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms: not … any no not … much little not … many few

The analysis didn’t yield any new results. The analysis yielded no new results.

The government didn’t allocate much funding for the program. The government allocated little funding for the program. This problem doesn’t have many viable solutions. This problem has few viable solutions.

c. Limit the use of “run on” expressions, such as “and so forth” and “etc.”.

In this section we develop an accounting approach to account for income-based differences in expenditures, taxes and so on. In this section we develop an accounting approach to account for income-based differences in expenditures and taxes.

d. Avoid addressing the reader as you (except, of course, if you are writing a textbook). It is considerably less frequent than we in written academic texts.

You can see results in Table 1. The results can be seen in Table 1.

e. Limit the number of direct questions.

What can be done to lower costs? We now need to consider what can be done to lower costs, or We now need to consider how costs may be lowered.

f. Place adverbs within the verb.

Then the solution can be discarded. The solution can then be discarded.

In spoken academic English, however, contracted forms are often used (Cambridge Grammar of English):

Maxims usually express a commonsense point of view and Jane Austen’s full of that commonsense.

Rhetoric questions are common in oral presentations, and so is the use of you:

[virology lecture] We’ll see in some detail a bit, viruses are quite unique in the way that they carry their genetic material and the most important feature is that viruses will only carry RNA or DNA. You will never find both in the same virus particle.


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Also, other patterns like get-passives are very rare in academic writing, but are more frequent in spoken academic style:

[lecture about the alimentary system] So, particularly in middle-aged people who take Amatrozol, they are at a great risk of food poisoning because the bugs which the acid kills don’t get killed and they make it down through the gastrointestinal tract and give them a nasty case of food poisoning.

Exercise Listen to Professor Swales’s lecture on written and spoken academic language. According to him, what are the main differences between written and spoken academic English? Do you agree with his conclusion?

(II) Formal and informal language (Swales & Feak 2001) A feature of most academic writing is a tendency to use formal verbs to express the writer’s meaning accurately:

. . . supply of energy required to accelerate the growth . . .

. . . the development that is envisaged here needs to be not only sustainable . . .

Exercise Which of the two verbs do you think is more formal and therefore more likely to be used in academic English? 1. While studying Y zeolite exchange with different cations and silicalite, Pine (1990) saw/observed that vanadium attacks both structures in the presence of steam. 2. Although a knowledge base is building up/accumulating, much of the work on aggressive behaviors and other forms of antisocial behavior at work has been limited by approaching these behaviors as strictly individual-level phenomena. 3. Expert Systems can help out/assist the user in the diagnosis of problems. 4. Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of / eliminate the energy problem completely. However, many phrasal verbs can be appropriate when writing or talking about academic subjects. You can vary your language by using them and their more formal synonyms. Exercise Rewrite these sentences replacing the underlined word in each sentence by a phrasal verb. go into point out go through set out put forward make up carry out go/look back over 1. We conduct a series of experiments to test out our hypothesis. 2. Before the test you should revise chapter 7 and 8 of your text books. 3. In his article on the American Civil War Kingston discusses the reasons why the


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situation developed in the way it did. 4. Cole presents some fascinating theories on the development of language in his latest book. 5. The psychologist observed that it was very unusual for a young child to behave in this way. 6. Please check your work again carefully before handing it in. 7. In this article Simpson aims to prove that the Chinese reached America long before the Vikings. 8. Women now constitute over half the student population in most universities in this country.

(from McCarthy & O’Dell 2008) Regarding nouns and other parts of speech, English has a very rich vocabulary derived from many languages. Because of this, there may be more than one way to express an idea. You should strive to choose words that are less informal in nature and also precise. In lectures, you will likely hear less formal speech; however, in writing you should use a more formal form if one exists. Exercise In the following, first underline the examples of poor style and then rewrite them in a more suitable way: 1. Lots of people think that the railways are getting worse. 2. Sadly, serious crime like murder is going up. 3. You can’t always trust the numbers in that report. 4. The second thing is that most kids in that district will become criminals. 5. I think that there’s a big risk of more strikes, disorder, etc. 6. A few years ago they allowed women to vote. 7. Regrettably, the inflation in Russia led to increased poverty, illness and so on. 8. Some time soon they will find a vaccine for malaria. 9. What were the main causes of the American Revolution?

(from Bailey 2006) Exercise Rewrite the following paragraph in better style: These days a lot of kids are starting school early. Years ago, they began at 5, but now it’s normal to start at 4 or younger. Why is this? One thing is that mums need to get back to work. Is it good for the kids? Jenkins has studied this and says that early schooling causes social problems like stealing, drugtaking, etc. I think he’s right and we should pay mums to stay at home.

(from Bailey 2006) (III) The noun phrase (Cambridge Grammar of English) 1. Premodifying: classifying and evaluating Academic style, especially in writing, packs a great deal of information quite densely into noun phrases, which tend to be complex.


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Adjectives of classification and noun phrase premodifiers are frequent, especially in scientific and technical writing.

Thornes & Shao (1991b) tested the sensitivity of individual meteorological parameters in a road weather information system.

Evaluative adjectives are more frequent in humanities subjects, where opinion and personal stance are often foregrounded. Such adjectives are often gradable and may be premodified by adverbs of degree.

The literature of Latina writers, like other ethnic literatures, examines in very commanding and provocative ways the construction of identity in the American context.

Exercise Rate the adjectives as follows: ++ = very positive + = positive o = neutral, uncertain or ambiguous - = negative - - = very negative In this _______________ study Jones and Wang… __ unusual __ ambitious __ small __ important __ useful __ innovative __ careful __ impressive __ simple __ complex __ exploratory __ preliminary __ limited __ modest __ significant __ interesting __ traditional __ elegant __ remarkable __ flawed __ competent

(from Swales & Feak 2001)

2. Post-head elements: defining and specifying Postmodified and complemented noun phrases are extremely frequent in academic English because of the frequent need for definition and specification. (Embedded) prepositional phrases and non-finite clauses are common:

This article demonstrates the connection between journalism, patriotism, and the culture of public discussion in late Victorian England. In previous studies the precise measurement of spontaneous activity was not possible in experiments involving the laboratory rat and, therefore, the energy expended in relation to activity and its role in adaptation to feed restriction could not be assessed.

3. Noun phrases in spoken academic English Noun phrases typical of written styles, with much premodification and postmodification, occur in formal lectures:

[lecture on English literature] But despite the apparent diversity of opinion, Anti-Pamelists were united on what they saw as three serious problems. All of which pertained to the earlier apparently subversive part of the novel.


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In more informal lecturing styles and in informal tutorials and classes, typical spoken noun phrases are common, where information is added incrementally rather than integrated into a single noun phrase:

[informal literature seminar] It is a fascinating question. It is a question of the kind I don’t think we pursue enough. And it’s one I’m still wrestling with. (compare an integrated alternative: It is a fascinating and under-researched question which is the subject of continuing investigation.)

(IV) Nominalisation (Cambridge Grammar of English) Noun phrases are often used in academic style as an alternative to longer clausal constructions, thus enabling the writer/speaker to integrate a considerable amount of information into the noun-phrase subject slot or noun-phrase object slot of the clause. This process, using a noun phrase to express a meaning more typically associated with an item from another word class, is called nominalisation. Nominalistions include nouns which express verb-like meanings and adjective-like meanings. They are more frequent in written academic styles.

[IR = the academic discipline International Relations] The result was an IR canon, of the ‘Plato to Nato’ variety, which was substantially anachronistic. Its dismantling over the last twenty years has much to do with efforts in the area of conceptual history. Despite this, and the keenness of post-positivist IR theorists to display an historical consciousness, IR and history maintain an uneasy association. (Compare: It was dismantled over the last twenty years, and this has much to do with efforts in the area of conceptual history. Despite this, and the fact that post-positivists IR theorists are keen to display the fact that they are historically conscious, IR and history continue to be associated uneasily with one another.)

(V) Verbs in academic English (Cambridge Grammar of English) The verb phrase is important in academic discourse as the place where a number of textual signals of various kinds occur. Academic language has characteristic uses of tense and aspect which relate to important academic textual functions. These include: a) Signposting Tense-aspect choices refer the reader/listener backwards and forwards in the text. For example:

In this chapter we have looked at the process of compound formation. b) Structuring Particular tense-aspect choices tend to be associated with particular parts of academic texts. Abstracts, summaries, concluding sections of academic books, papers and presentations, etc. usually have typical tense-aspect patterns associated with them (e.g. present simple in abstracts). c) Reporting/narrating Tense-aspect choices have become institutionalised for reporting and narrating experiments and studies, and for stating findings and conclusions, etc. (e.g. past simple narrating experimental procedures).


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d) Citation Tense-aspect choices have become institutionalised for citing and quoting one’s own work and the work of others in different ways. 1. The present simple -Abstracts/summaries The present simple form often appears in abstracts and summaries of academic works such as articles, chapters, dissertations, theses, essays:

This article looks at the effect of transoceanic migration on rural Sicilian families. The author focuses on the conflicts, stresses and transformations experienced by members of transnational families.

-Reporting findings The present simple form is often used to report the outcome, results or findings of a piece of research:

This paper discusses some asymptotic uniform linearity results of randomly weighted empirical processes based on long-range dependent random variables. These results are subsequently used to linearize nonlinear regression quantiles in a nonlinear regression model with long-range dependent errors, where the design variables can be either random or nonrandom. These, in turn, yield the limiting behavior of the nonlinear regression quantiles. As a corollary, we obtain the limiting behavior of the least absolute deviation estimator and the trimmed mean estimator of the parameters of the nonlinear regression model.

-Reporting significant aspects of people’s work The present simple form is often used to report major tenets or central aspects of the work of other academics:

As Wittgenstein suggests, there is no such thing as a private language. [lecture on text linguistics]

-Creating synopses of fictional plots in works of literature The present simple is used to summarise the plot/events in e.g. novels and plays:

Four men once close to Jack Dodds, a London butcher, meet to carry out his peculiar last wish: to have his ashes scattered into the sea. For reasons best known to herself, Jack’s widow, Amy, declines to join them.

2. The past simple -Referring to the procedures used in individual studies

In two studies, 65 three-year-olds, 57 five-year-olds, and 74 adults viewed video clips of animals or inanimate objects being transported by a person. For each clip, the child was asked whether the animal or object was moving.

3. The present perfect -Citing The present perfect is especially used to emphasise current relevance or continuing debate:

Berg and Hudson (ch. 6; Hudson 1989) have emphasised that modern factories need not have been large, yet the factories nonetheless were closely divided in their labour.

-Recapitulating The present perfect simple is used to summarise or recapitulate points or arguments, especially in concluding sections:


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What is more, the qualitative analyses in this chapter have illustrated crucial aspects of the lexical characteristics of everyday spoken language, and although we have argued against over-generalisation from one-off analyses, it is true that one does not need much data to see the same features constantly recurring.

4. Modal expressions -Will/shall/’ll An academic writer/speaker may use will/shall/’ll to refer forward in a written text or in an academic presentation (e.g. a lecture), to outline or point to things which are to be found later in the text.

It seems to me that this second case, in which coordination gives way to subordination, often holds in the works of Pascal that I shall be discussing.

-Be going to Be going to is often used for forward reference in spoken academic style:

[law lecture] But do you think that there is a point where the position of consumers has to be looked at very differently from businesses? [pause] We’re going to talk about this more next week because we’re going to be talking about the Unfair Term.

Exercise Complete the following sentences with a suitable verb tense: 1. Halliday _______________ (to argue) that there are three basic transitivity choices. Okay. And he calls them process options. [lecture on text linguistics] 2. Bogren et al (2000) statistically _______________ (to model) the magnitude of such temperature deficits with respect to solar elevation. 3. Schneirla (1966) _______________ (to use) the concept of ‘experience’ to mean all kinds of stimulative effects from the environment. 4. In the different subsections of this section, I _______________ (to discuss) different possible mechanisms underlying aspects of display development and their interrelationship. [discussing the body displays and vocal displays made by animals] 5. Active and passive voice in academic discourse Passive voice is common in academic discourse since it is often felt necessary to shift the focus from human agency to the actions, processes and events being described. Passive voice is particularly prevalent in abstracts to academic papers and articles:

The urban hierarchy of an English region in the period 1300–1540 is defined, using both documentary and archaeological evidence. The part of the East Midlands studied – Leicestershire, Northamptonshire and Rutland – contained twenty towns. ‘Benchmarks’ for placing towns in the hierarchy are explored, including population, topography, social structure, occupational diversity, marketing and migratory networks, administration, and civic and material culture. The conclusion emphasizes the common urban characteristics of all of the towns studied, the compatibility of written and unwritten evidence, and the stability of the urban system.

As pointed out above, get-passives are very rare in academic writing, but are more frequent in spoken academic style.


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Exercise Change the following sentences from active to passive and insert a suitable adverb: conveniently optimistically helpfully brilliantly regularly precisely profitably badly Example: A storm damaged 40% of the houses in the port. 40% of the houses in the port were badly damaged by a storm. 1. The Connors family ran the company until 1981. 2. They had built the house near the station. 3. Picasso painted the portrait of the old man. 4. They provided pencils for all students in the exam. 5. Doctors tested over 550 people for the disease over a 3-year period. 6. The researchers calculated the percentages to three decimal places.

(from Bailey 2006) (VI) Qualifications and strength 1. Hedging (Swales & Feak 2001) In our statements or claims we need to be cautious. Also, we need to use the common linguistic resources to express this caution. Probability There are many ways of expressing probability in written academic English. The simplest is the modal auxiliary. Notice how the claim progressively weakness in these three sentences.

A favorable relative standing will affect treatment of acquired executives. A favorable relative standing may affect treatment of acquired executives. A favorable relative standing might/could affect treatment of acquired executives.

The following phrases also weaken the strength of the claim: It is certain that It is almost certain that It is very probable/highly likely that a favorable relative standing affects. . . It is probable/likely that It is possible that It is unlikely that It is very unlikely /highly improbable that There is a strong possibility /probability that There is a good possibility /probability that There is a definite possibility /probability that There is a slight possibility /probability that There is a remote possibility /probability that Distance Distance is another way of removing yourself from a strong claim. Compare these sentences.

Consumers have less confidence in the economy today than 10 years ago. Consumers seem to/appear to have less confidence in the economy today than 10 years ago. It would seem/appear that consumers have less confidence in the economy today than 10 years ago.


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An alternative is to distance yourself from the data by showing in some way that it is “soft”. On the limited data available, In the view of some analysts, According to this preliminary study, Based on observations, Other expressions: apparently, seemingly

Generalization The basic verb for qualifying (weakening) a generalization is the verb tend.

Consumers tend to have less confidence in the economy. Another way to defend a generalization is to qualify the subject.

Many consumers Most consumers have less confidence in the economy. In most countries

Other expressions: as a (general) rule, in principle, generally (speaking), broadly (speaking), roughly (speaking), in some/ many respects, in most cases, in the majority of cases, more or less, in a way, in a sense, in some senses Weaker verbs Finally, claims can be reduced in strength by choosing a weaker verb.

Deregulation caused the banking crisis. Deregulation contributed to the banking crisis.

Exercise Underline the verb making the weaker claim

1. The results indicate/establish that there is a link between smoking and lung cancer.

2. Table 9 suggests/shows that Venezuelan scientists may need help with writing English.

3. The latest series of experiments question/undermine much previous research. 4. The results given in figure 4 validate/support the second hypothesis. 5. The quantities displayed in the table have been assumed/shown to be about

98% accurate. 6. The test results create/suggest a basis for product modification. 7. Changes in ambient temperature may have influenced/distorted the test

results. 8. In their earlier work, they failed/neglected to take ambient temperature into

account. 9. As can be seen from table 3, the new tax laws have encouraged/stimulated

industrial development. 10. Figure 12 depicts/clarifies the genetic relationship.

Combined qualifications Of course, several types of qualification are combined in order to construct a defensible statement. Here is an example. We start with a big claim!

The use of seat belts prevents physical injuries in car accidents.


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Now see what happens when the following qualifications are added. prevents reduces (weaker verb) reduces may reduce (adding probability) + in some circumstances (weakening the generalization) + certain types of injury (weakening the generalization) + according to simulation studies (adding distance) So now we have:

According to simulation studies, in some circumstances the use of seat belts may reduce certain types of physical injuries in car accidents.

This sentence is a nice example of the writer being “confidently uncertain.” (Of course you need to be aware of excessive qualification since this may result in your saying almost nothing). Exercise Now, see what you can do with any four of the following. Make the sentences academically respectable and defensible. 1. Physical attraction is important for marital happiness. 2. Economic sanctions are ineffective. 3. Alcohol causes people to become violent. 4. Passive smoking causes cancer. 5. Recycling is the best solution to the waste disposal problem. 6. Physical exercise lessens the severity of depression. 7. Great novels do not make great films. 8. Private schools provide a better education than do public schools. Exercise Work with a partner, put the following sentence variations in order from 1 (strongest claim) to 6 (weakest claim). Can you think of other verbs or verb phrases that could complete the sentences? How would you evaluate the strength of claim for your alternatives? Vulnerabilities in the design of New York's World Trade Center (WTC) ____________________ the collapse of its two main towers and adjacent buildings. ___ a. contributed to ___ b. caused ___ c. may have contributed to ___ d. were probably a major cause of ___ e. were one of the causes of ___ f. might have been a small factor in


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2. Boosting (Cambridge Grammar of English) Less often, it is sometimes also necessary to assert a claim or viewpoint quite directly and more confidently, a process which is referred to as boosting. In academic texts boosting is often carried out by the use of a range of adverbial and prepositional constructions (plus some other types of expressions): Common boosting expressions include adverbs such as: categorically indisputably plainly certainly inevitably undeniably clearly irrefutably undoubtedly definitely observably unquestionably emphatically obviously

This is clearly a very restrictive hypothesis, which requires verification, and Lighfoot suggests that language change represents a useful testing ground.

Other expressions used in boosting include: for sure/ certain it is/ was clear/ obvious/ indisputable that there is/ was no doubt that without doubt

It was clear that the Danes would remain neutral, although they offered to approach Catherine II in order to sound her out on a possible settlement.

Exercise Use boosters with the following sentences: 1. While most people were poor, the economy had a considerable surplus above basic subsistence needs, although much of that surplus concentrated in the hands of those in the top 10 per cent or so of the income distribution. 2. Utilities and transport provide a service rather than a commodity. 3. In the early nineteenth century this was true of much of the Nord region and the Normandy textile area. (VII) Personality vs. impersonality The choice of (im)personal subjects in academic writing is an important one as it contributes to the (in)visibility of the author(s) and their consequent likely promotion. Look at the model texts. One cause of the difference in formality between the two texts is the use of impersonal language.

FORMAL TEXT

The inequity in the distribution of wealth in Australia is yet another indicator of Australia's lack of egalitarianism. In 1995, 20% of the Australian population owned 72.2% of Australia's wealth with the top 50% owning 92.1% (Raskall, 1998: 287). Such a significant skew in the distribution of wealth indicates that, at least in terms of economics, there is an established class system in

Impersonal subject used to start sentence Evidence introduced with impersonal language


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Australia. McGregor (1988) argues that Australian society can be categorised into three levels: the Upper, Middle and Working classes. In addition, it has been shown that most Australians continue to remain in the class into which they were born (McGregor, 1988: 156) despite arguments about the ease of social mobility in Australian society (Fitzpatrick, 1994). The issue of class and its inherent inequity, however, is further compounded by factors such as race and gender within and across these class divisions. The relative disadvantage of women with regard to their earnings and levels of asset ownership indicates that within classes there is further economic inequity based on gender... INFORMAL TEXT

Because only a few people have most of the money and power in Australia, I conclude that it is not an equal society. Society has an Upper, Middle and Lower class and I think that most people when they are born into one class, end up staying in that class for their whole lives. When all three classes are looked at more closely, other things such as the differences between the sexes and people's racial backgrounds also add to the unequal nature of Australian society. Women earn less than men and own less than men. Why is this so?

Personal language Impersonal subject (Adapted from: Woodward-Kron and Thomson 2000)

The following options are used to express personality/impersonality (Cambridge Grammar of English): 1. Use of pronouns -The personal pronoun I is used in academic discourse for self-reference, particularly when referring to one’s own stance (one’s position or viewpoint) or conclusions, or when contrasting one’s own approach with that of others. It occurs commonly with verbs expressing stance: accept, assume, suggest, advocate, believe, suppose, agree, consider, suspect, argue, propose, think

I consider it unlikely that instruction accounts for anywhere near as much vocabulary growth as does incidental acquisition from context during reading.

-We is typically used to refer to more than one author of an academic paper or article. Nowadays it is becoming less frequent for single authors to refer to themselves in the first person plural.

[paper by two authors] In this paper we report our experience with ear-tattooing in order to compare it with other methods used for marking small mammals.

The other characteristic use of we is to refer to the writer/ speaker and reader/ listener together, creating a sense of an academic community shared by all participants in the discourse (inclusive we).


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[virology lecture] We know the molecular biology of this virus in very great detail. We know the sequence of the genome from end to end. Now we know the proteins encoded by that genome.

2. It-constructions Anticipatory it is frequently used in passive-voice clauses with or without an explicit agent to create an impersonal structure. This enables writers/ speakers to distance themselves from assertions.

It has generally been accepted by scientists that models with fewer parameters and which make predictions are better models.

3. Existential there Existential there constructions are also regularly used instead of personal ones.

The time lag between marking and first recapture was higher than the lag between second and third recapture, which indicates a trauma caused by the marking procedure. However, there was no evidence of any weight loss as reported for other marking methods, and most of the tattooed animals did not show any behaviour indicating irritation after being marked.

4. Third person self-reference Academic writers often refer to themselves as “the author”, or “the present researcher”, and often refer to their own work impersonally.

This article looks at the effect of transoceanic migration on rural Sicilian families. The author focuses on the conflicts, stresses, and transformations experienced by members of transnational families.

Exercise In the following fragments (taken from 2 different papers) authors exhibit different degrees of invisibility. In your view, which one is better? a. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the problem we are going to solve, and briefly provides the overview of the proposed approach. Section 3 presents our methods for building and indexing of the frequent pattern base. Section 4 describes our methods for the rule matching and the investment type recommendation. Section 5 shows the results of performance evaluation. Finally, Section 6 summarizes and concludes the paper. b. In Section 2, we first analyze existing work with a focus on the concerns of the application writer. Before we introduce the check construction in Section 5, we define an abstract interface to the run-time policy (Section 3), and we provide a way to ask the policy at run-time if certain security-relevant behavior will lead to an interruption (Section 4). Next, Sections 6 and 7 discuss alternative solutions and describe the implementation status. Finally, we give an overview of related work and we present our conclusions.


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(VIII) Cohesive writing 1. Linking adjuncts (Cambridge Grammar of English) The use of linking adjuncts is important in academic language, especially in writing, to give coherence to a text and to organise it. The following adjuncts occur frequently in academic contexts: • Additive: adding further ideas. additionally in addition similarly equally likewise furthermore moreover

The national income grew roughly 2.5 times between 1945 and 1990 and earnings in real terms grew, if anything, more rapidly. Household income gained additionally from the higher proportion of women in paid jobs.

• Resultative: expressing causes, reasons, results and consequences. accordingly hence in view of this/that as a consequence in consequence therefore as a result in (the) light of this/that thus consequently

The behaviour of dark matter is governed entirely by gravitational forces, and hence is easy to incorporate theoretically – both in calculations and in computer simulations.

• Contrastive: contrasting, opposing. by/in contrast nevertheless on the one hand… nonetheless conversely on the other hand however on the contrary

Histories of literacy and print culture had also cultivated an interest in visual media. These studies nonetheless generally focused on print rather than writing.

• Organisational: organising and structuring the text, listing. finally in conclusion in summary firstly, secondly, thirdly in its/ in their turn lastly in brief in short respectively in sum subsequently

This reviewer might wish to question particular judgements here and there, but in sum this is a fascinating and thought-provoking book.

Problems with linking adjuncts Certain linking adjuncts typical of academic style are often misused (Cambridge Grammar of English):

-On the contrary, by contrast, and on the other hand -First(ly) and at first -Last(ly) and at last


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Exercise In each of the following pieces of text, choose the best connector from the underlined alternatives: 1. Housing prices did not skyrocket that quarter as predicted. On the contrary/ On the other hand, they remained stable for the third quarter in a row. 2. Criminality in pre-industrialized Europe is thus characterized more by violence against persons than by property crimes such as theft. Modern society, on the contrary/ by contrast, is thought to experience more theft than violence. 3. It has been suggested that the success of the Germans is due to their ability to develop long-term relationships with their customers based on product quality and reliability. On the contrary/ On the other hand, the British are concerned much more with industrial efficiency and short-term profitability at the expense of long-term market performance. 4. Such complex impressions on the part of teachers by no means arise from ignorance or prejudice: on the contrary/ by contrast, they are the result of powerful, historically informed, shared perspectives on musical reality. 5. Tobacconists, booksellers, and stationers also reported falling activity. On the contrary/ By contrast, chemists, grocers, shoe shops and leather stores all said business was better than in January. 6. In this paper we firstly/ at first review the empirical studies carried out by Annett. We then discuss the ways in which genotypes are identified within the Annett studies, we show this is inefficient, and then describe a more powerful and sensitive method that we use in our own empirical study. 7. Employment had first/ at first been only too full, and the economy was overloaded. But by the end of the period the very idea of full employment seemed illusory and even Keynes’ view that 5 per cent was a reasonable level to aim for would have seemed highly optimistic. 8. As a rule, the multiple-function centres were the first to acquire the innovation; they were followed by the prefectoral towns, then by industrial towns, and lastly/ at last by those not dominated by any single activity. 9. By 1937, activity was 70 per cent higher than five years earlier. Much more than a recovery from the depression, or even a result of substituting home production for imports, the upsurge has been interpreted as being the structural change that the 1920s failed to achieve (Richardson 1967). New industries were lastly/ at last replacing the old staples.

(from Chalker 1996)

2. Signalling with it, this and that (Cambridge Grammar of English) The impersonal pronoun it and the demonstrative pronouns this and that are used in different ways to organize references to text segments.

For example, interacting with native speakers is obviously a Social Strategy, but if it is part of an overall language learning plan, it could also be a Metacognitive Strategy. Low-luminance flickering patterns are perceived to modulate at relatively high rates. This occurs even though peak sensitivity is shifted to relatively low temporal frequencies.


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[Genetics lecture] As I say, you’ll learn more about the genetic codes which relate GAG to glutamate and GUG to thyamine in one of the other lectures in the course. That is another way of expressing the flow of information from DNA to proteins. Right.

3. This + summary word (Swales & Feak 2001) Another way to maintain flow is this / these + a noun to join ideas together. Consider the following sentences:

ESL lecturers know that students need to understand the differences between formal and informal language. However, this understanding cannot usually be acquired quickly. In recent years, the number of students applying to PhD programs has increased steadily, while the number of places available has remained constant. This situation has resulted in intense competition for admission.

The phrases in italics contain a noun or word that refers back to the idea in the previous sentence and summarizes what has already been said. Exercise Choose a summary word from the list below to complete each sentence. number improvement trend fall support increase amount assurance risk drop proposal measures 1. In the United States, the levels of lead, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide have fallen between 1978 and 1987. Despite this ________________, the air is still contaminated by many carcinogens. 2. Ozone levels in the United States increased 5% from 1986-87, another 15% from 1987-88, and an additional 10% from 1988-90. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officials are concerned that if this ________________ continues, serious environmental damage may occur. 3. The EPA has revealed that 20 of the 320 known toxic chemicals in the air probably cause more than 2,000 cases of cancer annually. While this ________________ may not seem high, it is still a cause for concern. 4. The EPA states that individuals living near chemical plants have a higher than normal chance of developing cancer. This ________________ has been substantiated by numerous studies. 5. The Chemical Manufacturers Association has decided it will more strongly support the pollution control efforts of the EPA. This ________________ was a major factor in the drafting of new regulations. 6. Lawmakers in Southern California are proposing banning the sale of new charcoal grills, requiring sophisticated pollution control devices, and demanding that by the next century 40% of all cars and buses run on clean fuel, such as methanol. These ________________ may indeed become law in the near future.


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(IX) Academic vocabulary 1. Common words (Bailey 2006) To read and write academic texts effectively students need to be familiar with the vocabulary generally used in this context. The following are examples of some of the more common items. Adjective Noun Verb analytical analysis analyse creative creation create correlative correlation correlate definitive definition define evaluative evaluation evaluate generalised generalisation generalise hypothetical hypothesis hypothesise indicative indication/indicator indicate predictive prediction/predictor predict responsive response respond significant significance signify synthetic synthesis synthesise variable variation/variable vary Exercise Complete each sentence with a suitable word from the table. 1. First results ____________________ that this treatment benefits patients in 70–80% of cases. 2. Professor Strauss wrote the ____________________ work on spiders in the Balkans. 3. Most ____________________ need to be made with care. 4. All the animals ____________________ to the noise by becoming agitated. 5. Over 3,500 questionnaires were ____________________ in terms of social class. 6. Three ____________________ need to be considered when predicting. The following adjectives are best understood and learnt as opposites: absolute relative abstract concrete logical illogical metaphorical literal precise vague or approximate or rough rational irrational relevant irrelevant subjective objective theoretical practical or empirical or pragmatic absolute relative abstract concrete logical illogical

Faith, hope and charity are all abstract concepts. The metaphorical use of the word ‘key’ is probably more common than its literal one. The study of statistics is highly relevant to economics. Her study of women’s social position was criticised for being too subjective.


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Exercise Complete each sentence with a suitable adjective from the table. 1. The ____________________ number killed in the war will never be known. 2. His ____________________ approach led him to ignore some inconvenient facts. 3. Many ____________________ ideas, such as astrology, are still popular. 4. It is sufficient to give ____________________ figures for national populations. 5. Only after 200 years could an ____________________ biography be written. 6. Although he was a qualified dentist it was ____________________ to his new job as a priest. 7. Cathedrals are a ____________________ example of religious faith. 2. Umbrella nouns (Bailey 2006) A range of ‘umbrella’ nouns is used to express basic ideas in academic writing:

Molecular biology is an interesting new field. The concept of class was first discussed in the eighteenth century. Freud developed a new approach in his second book. They are rather formal and need to be used accurately.

Exercise Read the following and find a synonym for each word in italics from the box below. process organisation machine theory event types consideration area views feature cause problem 1. The second factor in the accident was the cold weather. 2. Harvey’s concept of the circulation of the blood was first presented in 1628. 3. Snow is a rare phenomenon in Rome. 4. The President’s resignation gave a new aspect to the national crisis. 5. A barcode scanner is a device used at supermarket checkouts. 6. Her field is the history of life insurance. 7. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence is a body created to assess medical drugs. 8. Mendel’s work on genetics provided new perspectives for biologists. 9. Their main concern is to prevent pollution in rivers and lakes. 10. Their new system allows errors to be detected in 12 seconds. 11. The survey identified three categories of bus user. 12. The most serious issue raised at the meeting was student accommodation. 3. Referring verbs (Bailey 2006) Referring verbs are used to summarise another writer’s ideas.

Wilsher argued that the single play had been consigned to television history. Heffernan (1972) found that adaptation to prison was facilitated by . . .

They may also be used to introduce a quotation. . . . as Peter Huber has observed, ‘Coal itself is yesterday’s landfill . . .’ Most of these verbs are followed by a noun clause beginning with that.


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a) The following mean that the writer is presenting a case: argue claim consider hypothesise suggest believe think state

Martins (1975) claimed that many mergers led to lower profits. b) A second group describes a reaction to another writer’s position: accept admit agree deny doubt

Handlesmith doubts Martins’s claim that lower profits resulted from . . . c) Others include: assume conclude discover explain imply indicate maintain presume reveal show

Patel (2003) assumes that inflation will remain low. Borovna implies a close relation between the Queen and her minister.

Exercise Write a sentence referring to what the following writers said (more than one verb may be suitable). Use the past tense. Example: Z: ‘My research shows that cats are cleverer than dogs’. Z claimed/argued that cats were cleverer than dogs. 1. A: ‘You could be right. I may have made a mistake in my estimate.’ 2. B: ‘I did not say that sheep were faster than horses.’ 3. C: ‘Whales are very intelligent animals.’ 4. D: ‘I support A’s position on cats and dogs.’ 5. E: ‘I’m not sure, but cows probably get cold in winter.’ 6. F: ‘After much research, I’ve found that pigs can’t fly.’ 7. G: ‘On my travels in the jungle I found a new type of frog.’ 8. H: ‘I think it unlikely that cats can learn to talk.’ 9. I: ‘Somebody should compare mouse behaviour with rat behaviour.’ 10. J: ‘There may be a link between health and the seasons.’ A small group of verbs is followed by (somebody/thing + for + noun/gerund) (all except commend have a negative meaning): blame censure commend condemn criticise

Lee (1998) blamed foreign investors for the panic.

A final group is followed by (somebody/thing + as + noun/ gerund): assess characterise classify define describe evaluate identify interpret portray present

Terry interprets rising oil prices as a result of Asian recovery.


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Exercise Rewrite the following statements using verbs from the previous lists. Example: K: ‘X’s work is responsible for many of our current economic problems.’ K blamed X’s work for many of our current economic problems. 1. L: ‘She was very careless about her research methods.’ 2. M: ‘There are three main species of bees.’ 3. N: ‘The cat family are the kings of the animal world.’ 4. O: ‘I’m sure that dogs bark because they are nervous.’ 5. P: ‘Trying to estimate the number of animal species is like shooting in the dark.’ 6. Q: ‘Darwin was the greatest naturalist of the nineteenth century.’ 7. R: ‘An insect is a six-legged arthropod.’ 8. S: ‘Queen Victoria was a short, rather fat woman with dark eyes.’ 9. T: ‘Gregor Mendel can be considered the founder of modern genetics.’ 4. Academic phraseology (Swales & Feak 2001) Words that tend to go together in academic discourse. We refer to these combinations as the phraseology of academic discourse. There is a frequent type of error, resulting from a lack of phraseological competence. Although these errors are not all major errors in themselves and the degree to which intelligibility is affected varies, they can have an appreciable impact on the effectiveness of a piece of writing, and their cumulative effect can be a serious loss of precision. The following example from a non-native student's essay should illustrate the point:

How much and to what extent can one accept the findings reached by Gardner and Lambert.

Some common phraseological patterns in academic discourse are the following: Recent research has focused on … Increasing demands are placed on… The contribution X has made to the field of … This definition implies that Y is concerned with … These data were analysed to identify issues related to … Broad categories were used to reduce the potential for … A slight reduction in the mean number of … … experienced large fluctuations. Exercise 3. Try these: 1. X’s hypothesis is based on the ________________ that … 2. From the foregoing discussion it ________________ that … 3. Both quantitative and ________________ data were used. 4. … to develop an interview schedule for a random ________________ survey of… 5. The structure of the interview and the sampling methods were similar to those ________________ by … 6. … it is difficult to ________________ conclusions from … 7. The research evidence ________________ that …


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(X) Academic genres (Bailey 2006) Below are the most common types of written work produced or used by students. Complete the table to show the main purpose of each, and their usual approximate length. Type Purpose Length Letter for formal and informal

communication usually fewer than 500 words

Email

Blog

Notes

Report

Book/film review

Project

Essay

Thesis/dissertation

Article/paper

References

Bailey, S. (2006). Academic writing: A handbook for international students. London: Routledge. Carter, R. & M. McCarthy (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chalker, S. (1996). Collins COBUILD English Guides 9 – Linking Words. London: HarperCollins Publishers. McCarthy, M. & F. O’Dell (2008). Academic vocabulary in use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swales J.M. & C.F. Feak (2001). Academic writing for graduate students (2nd edition). Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University Press. Woodward-Kron, R. & E. Thomson (2000). A text based guide to academic writing. CD-Rom. Dept. of Modern Languages, University of Wollongong.

1. Introduction

Documents

Transcript of 1. Introduction