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1 INTRODUCTION 2 EARLY GEOGRAPHIES 3 THE EMERGENCE OF

MODERN GEOGRAPHY

4 THINKING ABOUT REGIONS 5 SPATIAL SCIENCE AND THE

QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION

6 HUMANISTIC GEOGRAPHIES 7 MARXIST GEOGRAPHIES

FEMINIST GEOGRAPHIES ! POSTMODERNISM AND BEYOND

1" TO#ARD POSTSTRUCTURALIST GEOGRAPHIES

The history of geography includes various histories of geography which have differed over time

and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has

become a distinct academic discipline. 'Geography' derives from the Greek γεωγραφία   – geographia,[! a literal translation of which would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use

the word "geography" was #ratosthenes $%&–() *+. -owever there is evidence for recogniable

practices of geography, such as cartography $or map/making prior to the use of the term geography.

TYPES OF SURVEYES:

There are various types of surveys you can choose from. Basicay! the typesof surveys are "roa#y categori$e# into t%o: accor#ing to instrumentation an#accor#ing to the span of time invove#. The types of surveys accor#ing to

instrumentation incu#e the &uestionnaire an# the intervie%. On the otherhan#! the types of surveys accor#ing to the span of time use# to con#uct thesurvey are comprise# of cross'sectiona surveys an# ongitu#ina surveys.

(ccor#ing to )nstrumentation

In survey research, the instruments that are utilied can be either a 0uestionnaire oran interview $either structured or unstructured.

*. +uestionnaires

Typically, a 0uestionnaire is a paper/and/pencil instrument that is administered to the respondents.The usual 0uestions found in 0uestionnaires are closed/ended 0uestions, which are followed by

response options. -owever, there are 0uestionnaires that ask open/ended 0uestions to e1plore theanswers of the respondents.2uestionnaires have been developed over the years. Today, 0uestionnaires are utilied invarious survey methods, according to how they are given. These methods include the self/administered, the group/administered, and the household drop/off. 3mong the three, the self/administered survey method is often used by researchers nowadays. The self/administered0uestionnaires are widely known as the mail survey method. -owever, since the response ratesrelated to mail surveys had gone low, 0uestionnaires are now commonly administered online, as inthe form of web surveys.

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• (#vantages: Ideal for asking closed/ended 0uestions4 effective for market or consumer

research

• ,isa#vantages: 5imit the researcher6s understanding of the respondent6s answers4 re0uires

budget for reproduction of survey 0uestionnaires

-. )ntervie%s

*etween the two broad types of surveys, interviews are more personal and probing. 2uestionnairesdo not provide the freedom to ask follow/up 0uestions to e1plore the answers of the respondents,but interviews do.

 3n interview includes two persons / the researcher as the interviewer, and therespondent as theinterviewee. There are several survey methods that utilie interviews. These are the personal orface/to/face interview, the phone interview, and more recently, the online interview.

• (#vantages: 7ollow/up 0uestions can be asked4 provide better understanding of the

answers of the respondents

• ,isa#vantages: Time/consuming4 many target respondents have no public/listed phone

numbers or no telephones at all

(ccor#ing to the Span of Time )nvove#

The span of time needed to complete the survey brings us to the two different types of surveys8cross/sectional and longitudinal.

*. ross'Sectiona Surveys

+ollecting information from the respondents at a single period in time uses the cross/sectional typeof survey. +ross/sectional surveys usually utilie 0uestionnaires to ask about a particular topic at onepoint in time. 7or instance, a researcher conducted a cross/sectional survey asking teenagers6 viewson cigarette smoking as of 9ay %::. ;ometimes, cross/sectional surveys are used to identify therelationship between two variables, as in a comparative study. 3n e1ample of this is administering across/sectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure and cigarette smoking among

teenagers as of 9ay %::.-. /ongitu#ina Surveys

<hen the researcher attempts to gather information over a period of time or from one point in timeup to another, he is doing a longitudinal survey. The aim of longitudinal surveys is to collect data ande1amine the changes in the data gathered. 5ongitudinal surveys are used in cohort studies, panelstudies and trend studies.

POLITICAL THINKERS:

In politics, representation describes how some individuals stand in for others or a group of others,

for a certain time period. =epresentation usually refers torepresentative democracies, where electedofficials nominally speak for their  constituents in the legislature. Generally, only citiens are granted

representation in the government in the form of voting rights4 however, some democracies have

e1tended this right further.

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 Ethics described Judith Shklar as "a towering presence" at Harvard for decades, an "influential

teacher and mentor to many of the best known political theorists working today in the United

States." One of this centurys most important liberal scholars, she is remembered for her "sharp

intellect, forceful personality, and passionate intellectual honesty and curiosity." Political Thought

and Political Thinkers makes startlingly clear her role in the reinvigoration of liberal theory that has

 been taking place over the last two decade

 !HU#$% %!&'!(

/iterature in 0in#i anguages $-indi8  हनद   सहतय  includes literature in the various +entral

>one Indo/3ryan languages which have writing systems. It is broadly classified into four prominent

forms $styles based on the date of production. They are 8

• ?ir/Gathas $poems e1tolling brave warriors – th–)th century

• *hakti era poems $devotional poems – )th–@th century

• =iti or ;rngar poems $poems of romance – @th–%:th century

•  3dhunik literature $modern literature – %:th century onwards

The literature was produced in dialects such

as *raA, *undeli,  3wadhi, BannauAi, Bhariboli, 9arwari, 3ngika, ?aAAika, 9aithili, 9agahi and *hoApuri.

[! 7rom %:th century, works produced in ;tandard -indi, a register  of  -industani, is sometimes

regarded as the only basis of modern literature in -indi.

[%!

 HINDI BASHA AVAM SAHITYA KA ITHIHAS:We offer H$%&$ S'($)*' E+', B('-(' K' I)$('- .MHD/60 book. This book is useful for M'-)

A)- $% H$%&$ .MA0 & other related ourses. This book i!ludes all si"!ifia!t to#is related to

the sub$et suh as Hi!di Sahit%a Ke Itihas Ki Bhuika Aur Aadikal' Bhaktikali! Sahit%a' (eetikali!Sahit%a' Aadhu!ik Sahit%a' Aadhu!ik Hi!di )ad%a Sahit%a' Bhati%a Ar%a Bhasha%e' Hi!di Bhasha

Ka Vikas. The book *ill also #ro+ide e,elle!t aterial' ritial a!al%sis a!d i!foratio! that *ill #ro+ide "ro*th to its readers' a!d e!$o%e!t at the sae tie. This book is or"a!i-i!" i! uestio!/

A!s*er forat as #re+ious %ear sol+ed #a#ers as #er IGNOU sta!dard a!d other o#e! u!i+ersities.

B(ITISH 012ITI3A2 SYST4M:

The Cnited Bingdom is a unitary democracy governed within the framework of a constitutional

monarchy, in which the 9onarch is the head of state and the Drime 9inister of the Cnited

Bingdom is the head of government. #1ecutive power  is e1ercised by -er 9aAesty's Government, on

behalf of and by the consent of the 9onarch, as well as by the devolved Governments

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of ;cotland and <ales, and the Eorthern Ireland #1ecutive. 5egislative power  is vested in the two

chambers of the Darliament of the Cnited Bingdom, the -ouse of +ommons and the -ouse of 5ords,

as well as in the ;cottish parliament and <elsh and Eorthern Ireland assemblies. The  Audiciary is

independent of the e1ecutive and the legislature. The highest court is the ;upreme +ourt of the

Cnited Bingdom.

The CB political system is a multi/party system. ;ince the (%:s, the two largest political parties

have been the +onservative Darty and the 5abour Darty. *efore the 5abour Darty rose in *ritish

politics, the 5iberal Darty was the other maAor political party along with the +onservatives.

Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary

politics, the first/past/the/post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the

dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party such

as the 5iberal Femocrats to deliver a working maAority in Darliament. The current +onservative/

5iberal Femocrat coalition government is the first coalition since (). [!

<ith the partition of Ireland, Eorthern Ireland received home rule in (%:, though civil unrest meant

direct rule was restored in (&%. ;upport for nationalist parties in ;cotland and <ales led to

proposals for  devolution in the (&:s though only in the ((:s did devolution actually happen.

Today, ;cotland, <ales and Eorthern Irelandeach possess a legislature and e1ecutive, with

devolution in Eorthern Ireland being conditional on participation in certain all/Ireland institutions. The

Cnited Bingdom remains responsible for non/devolved matters and, in the case of Eorthern Ireland,

co/operates with the =epublic of Ireland.