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1-INTRODUCTION

1.1 Genesis of Short Story

When first curiosity aroused in human mind on earth it was the birth moment

of short story. No other literary art is as spontaneous as short story in its

primary form. Literature in its written form is historically a recent innovation;

yet long before the innovation of writing, for thousands of years ancient

people developed complex oral tradition of literature; these primitive stories,

dealing with the creation of the cosmos and the origins of gods and

goddesses, demons and semi demons and the birth story of chief characters

formed a body of myths, supernatural narratives widely believed to be true by

the people of any culture, and legends, popular stories about characters and

events that may contain trace elements of historical truth.

In modern societies, elements of this primitive folk lore survive in regional or

ethical ‗tales passed on through the generations, most often taking the written

form of folk tales collected by literary scholars. Stories with animal characters

such as those of Aesops‘, ‗Panchtantra’, ‘Hitopdesh’ and ‗Katha sarit sagar’,

short realistic tales like those found in religious and mythical literatures of

nearly all cultures. They are to some degree didactic, with the narrative events

illustrating a moral that is either stated or implied.

There is no agreement about the precise origins of the modern short story.

Ann Charters, the author of The Story and its Writer says: ‗Stories have such

a long history, and their forms are so divers, that anyone attempting to

investigate their earliest development in close detail would be taking on a

herculean task.‘(Bedford)1 One important influence in its development was

the Italian novella of the later middle ages and Renaissance. The most

famous collection of these realistic prose narratives is The Decameron by

Giovannie Boccacio(1313-1375). The famous Arabian collection A Thousand

and One Nights is one of the earliest examples of this genre. Frank O‘

Conner rightly puts the art of story:

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In its earlier phases storytelling, like poetry and drama

was public art but the short story, like the novel, is a

modern art form; that is to say, it represents, better

than poetry or drama, our own attitude to life.

(O‘Conner) 2

As an art form, short story developed during the 19th century with writers like

Poe and Hawthorne in America, Pushkin, Gogol and Chekhov in Russia, Sir

Walter Scott and Somerset Maugham in England and in France Maupassant

and Balzac. These and other writers, with their skillful art of storytelling

contributed in this genre, have put the short story on the literary map very

impressively. Expressing the difficulty in giving the concrete definition of short

story, Valeri Show says,

It seems reasonable to say that a firm definition of

the short story is impossible. No single theory can

encompass the multifarious nature of a genre in

which the only constant feature seems to be the

achievement of a narrative purpose in a

comparatively brief space.‘ (Shaw) 3

1.2 Development of Short Story in Indian Literature

The narrative tale in Classical Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, the

earliest extant literature. The development of the narrative tale in ancient India

was one of the simple expansion aided by a lively imagination. Beast fables

developed after a long time covering the Upanishadic as well as the Epic

period. The Jataka Tales of Buddhism as well as Jain literature incorporated

them. Besides the fable form, there developed the popular tale, mainly aiming

to represent colours and shades of human nature and giving expression to

man's ambitions and aspirations in this world.

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India is one of the very few countries with an ancient

tradition in storytelling.. depicting with kaleidoscopic

colours and patterns the soil and life of India

(jagmohan)4

The ancient Indian tale took broadly two forms- the fable, and the popular tale

or folk tale. The fable form is best exemplified in the tales of the Panchatantra

as well as Jataka katha. True to the universally known traditions of the fables,

they are nearly always epigrammatically in structure, frequently ending with a

significant utterance by one of the characters. Most of them are beast fables,

in which the characters are animals symbolizing human beings. The ancient

Indian tale is an example of the typical Oriental tale, a loosely constructed

narrative of adventure and romance. The popular tale, as typified in the well

known Kathasaritsagara or the Daskumarcharita , has one quality which has

fascinated the Indian writers in English – its successful depiction of human

desires and aspirations in a highly imaginative way. . They have been

influenced by the ancient literature. According to Manjri Isvaran,

India was the nursery of story and fable and the

Indian story-teller was as fertile in tales inculcating

practical wisdom as in illuminating epic and

religious myth. (Isvaran) 5

The Indian English short story writers have not been influenced

by the development of the short story in the West at all but

fundamentally their way of story-telling reminds one of their own

hoary past and its literature rather than of the sophisticated

modern methods. As Mulkraj Anand says:‗I have always thought

of this as a symbol of the highly finished art of story-telling of

India.‘ (Venugopal)6

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The ancient Indian fable is certainly much more than an anecdote; it depicts

unconscious animal rots in human nature as well as comments on it. Our

epics and mythological legends are also full of fables and tales. The fable and

the popular tale have also the virtue of satisfying the curiosity of the reader by

imparting to him some useful knowledge of essential human nature in the

most interesting way.

Popular tales of romances are vastly different from Panchtantra and Jatak

tales in length and content but not in appeal. The Kathasarisagara based on

the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya and the Dasakumaracharita of Dandin are the

most well known of them.

This form of literature was earlier described variously as Katha, akhyan,

upakhyan, afsana and dastan.Today the short story as a form is considered

as the youngest child of modern literature, though it has its roots in ancient

India. The short story has now taken deep root in all the languages of India

and has blossomed considerably well. In this genre, as in other fields, the

poet Rabindranath Tagore was pioneer.

1.3 Development of Short Story in Indian Writing in English

The Indian short story in English can be said to have begun to take

definite shape in the nineteen twenties, and is thus hardly more than eighty

years old, but its development so far unmistakably indicates a distinct

possibility of its becoming one of the most significant forms in the field of

Indian writing in English. Conscious efforts have been continually put in,

mainly by our major writers, in shaping it into a fit vehicle to convey the

essential Indian thought and scene, to the reader here as well as his

counterpart abroad. The Indian short story in English has been successful in

presenting a faithful picture of India, a picture colored neither by an

exaggerated sense of patriotic attachment nor by unjustified censure. Time is

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now propitious for further development, both in the handling of themes and in

the introduction of newer techniques. The future of the Indian short story in

English is certainly promising, in spite of attempts being made to discourage

the use of English in several of our universities.

The Indian short story writers in English have tried a synthesis of the

salient features of both the fable and the tale while avoiding the over

didacticism of the fable and the pure description of the popular tale in his

attempt to arrive at a deeper and more analytical interpretation of life.

Shoshee Chunder Dutt in London published the earliest collection of

short stories entitled Realities of Indian Life: Stories Collected from Criminal

Reports of India (1885). S. C. Dutt and Sourindra Mohan Tagore published The

Times of Yore: Tales from Indian History in the same year. P. V. Ramaswami Raju,

Kshertrapal Chakravarty and Kamala Sattianandhan also published their short

story anthologies during the nineteenth century. However, there was no

considerable output of short stories before the beginning of the twentieth century.

Cornelia Sorabji was the first Indian woman short story writer with

impressive work to her credit. S.M. Nateshaa Sastri, Dwijendra Nath Neogi, A.

Madhaviah and Sunita Devee are also important short story writers in the early

part of the twentieth century.

The early women writers led to the emergence of the Indian women in

the fast changing social milieu. Raja Lakshmi Debi, Mrs. Krupabai

Satthiannadhan, S.B.Nikambe, Rocky Sakhawat Hossain, Pandit Ramabai

Saraswati—are a few early women writers who wrote about women‘s

condition. Swarna Kumari Ghosal, elder sister of Rabindranath Tagore, was a

novelist, poet, playwright, songwriter and a journalist. She is one of the most

distinguished literary figures of the time, and a torchbearer in the tradition of

women‘s writing in Bengal. She showed the strength of women‘s writing and

raised women‘s creations to a position of respect.

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The stories written in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century

are a retelling of the folktales, legends and parables. They tend to be anecdotal,

sentimental and didactic in nature. The ancient Indian classics have proved to be

a source of inspiration for the Indian short story writer. But the short stories

also show a considerable influence of the western writers.

After 1920s, the Indian short story in English reached its maturity. The

spread of the English education and the advent of periodicals shaped the prose

style of the short story writer. Shankar Ram wrote The Children of Kaveri (1926)

and Creatures All (1933). He presents rural reality, superstitions, caste system and

poverty. This period of 1930s and 1940s came to be known as the Gandhian era.

The short story writers of this period, like A.S.P. Ayyar, K.S. Venkataramani

and K. Nagarajan, concentrated upon social reform. The tension between tradition

and modernity is clearly reflected in their works. The short story of this phase

was developed under the light of national freedom movement started by

freedom fighters and Mahatma Gandhi. Events of that time highly affected

and moulded the temperament of contemporary short story like other literary

forms. It was a transitional period in every sense so every references,

thoughts and changes were seriously taken by short story writers of that time.

Love for nation, sacrifice, non-violence, human emotions, mercy were clearly

and automatically depicted. contemporary writers had given short story a

realistic frame during this phase.

The earlier work by Indian authors projects the traditional image of

woman with the thrust of her sense of frustration and alienation. The

characters they created, represented force of tradition and modernity. Their

crisis of value adaptation and attachment with family and home pulled them

asunder. The plight of the working woman was still worse, aggravated by her

problems of marital adjustment and quest for assertion of her identity. The

predicament of new Indian woman has been taken up for fuller treatment by

many authors. These authors have generally concentrated on the plights and

problems of educated women mostly with an urban base while many others

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have portrayed the challenges faced by the educated ‗socialite‘ woman with

an urban base and sensibility.

However, in the post-independence period, there came a change in the vision

and perception of the writers. Their chief concern was to build a new India.

Dreams and promises for a better India are portrayed in these stories.

The women short story writers of this period are concerned with feminist

issues and the life of non-resident Indians respectively. They are highly

educated and intellectual. They are very vocal and expressive with regard to

their thoughts and vision. They are also innovative in their art and craft. In the

post-independence era, there also arose a new class of women writers who

began to explore new sexual mores, fresh possibilities in human relations,

marriage and motherhood.

The post-independence writers witnessed the society where the wave of

independence had also inspired women to throw their veils which had covered

all their mental abilities and accomplishments. They had decided to move out

of the four walls and go into the world with a new confidence and

determination. However they had to face a lot of hurdles, created not only by

men but also by other women. There were a lot of actions and reactions. The

women writers of this period have captured this situation in their works.

Woman started realizing that she was fettered by the stereotyped roles

the society had conferred upon her and gradually chose her own course and

followed her own ideals. This theme of feminism finds expression in so many

short stories of post-independence women writers who have given voice to

women‘s feelings and problems in their short stories. They have expressed

the feelings of women and their struggle for existence in society.

Women's contribution to the short story is invaluable. Both women writing

and the short story form have developed simultaneously in the twentieth

century, especially in its later half. Some of these women writers have also

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become famous all over the world. The medium of English language, which they

chose, has a lion share in their popularity.

The first generation women writers depicted, women who were

traditional in outlook and resigned themselves to life. They wrote mainly to

voice their concern for and sympathize with the suffering of Indian women,

rather than to censure the society. The post-independence India witnessed a

spurt of fiction writing by women writers of greater quality and depth. The

most outstanding women writers between the second—generation women

novelists, Is undoubtedly Kamala Markandaya, Her women protagonists are

the repertoire of transitional Indian Society. She presents a cross section of

the Indian society where her women characters go in quest for autonomy. The

irregularities in the social system confine her women to time honoured and

taboo-ridden path. Ruth Pawer Jhabvala finds life in India to be an

overwhelming burden to European woman. Her women are well aware of the

changing values of the evolving Indian Society; she portrays the predicament

of the modern urban that face the Challenges of the contrasting cultures

between the traditional Indian way of life and the western modernism. Santa

Rama Rao, appears to believe in the innate strength of the traditional Indian

culture even when it comes in contact with the western culture. The

characters are portrayed mostly with international background. Nayantara

Sehgal delineates with keen perception and sensitivity the problems and

suffering of women in marriage, who feel entrapped, oppressed and doomed

to the care of husband and home, and shows her own reaction in her novels.

Most of her women are aware of the injustice done to them in marriage. Anita

Desai, differs from other women novelists, through her method of the

psychological exploration of her women protagonists, who are essentially

lonely and sensitive. The isolation and insecurity that her characters suffer is

human, and the growth of women is from self-alienation to self—identification.

Bharathi Mukharjee, an Indian, American immigrant writer, liberates her

women protagonists for a ‗New World Order‘, Her portrayal of women is

inspired by her experience in India as well as in abroad. Her protagonists are

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sensitive and they lack a stable sense of personal and cultural identity. Gita

Hariharan, the distinguished recipient of the prestigious common wealth

award for her maiden novel, ‘The Thousand Faces of Night, for the year 1993,

portrays women who battle in their relationship with men and society. Uma

Vasudev‘s woman is called truly liberated. They are not bothered by

traditional middle class attitudes, views, opinions, and taboos, which render

them as destitute and condemn them to live within the four walls of their

homes. Jai Nimbkar deals with the middle class married woman‘s identity

crisis in the contemporary male dominated Indian society.

Shashi Deshpande takes up for study the issues and problems of

contemporary middle class women. Her female protagonists are sensitive,

intelligent and career—oriented. She is one with Anita Desai and Nayantara

Sehgal in not merely describing the pathetic life styles of Indian women but

trying to understand and suggest measure for amelioration. It is now that all

our major women writers made their appearance; some who have written

stories which can find place in any international short stories are: Jay Nimbkar,

Bharti Mukherjee, Raji Narsimhan, Shashi Deshpande, Sujata Bala, Anita

Desai, Indriyani Sowkar, Jumpa Lahiri and R. P. Jhabvala.

Women writers‘ work constitutes a major segment in Indian English

literature. They had to struggle a lot to establish one‘s identity and to assert

one‘s individuality; it has led the women to wage a desperate fight against the

existing social order of the day. Hence it becomes essential for women to

assert their role models and redefine its parameters. Their concerns and

preoccupations paved way to establish the relational and rational

development and continuity in the construction of the subjectivity of women.

The similarities and dissimilarities in the writers view of the selfhood of

women, given in their different socio cultural milieu, suggest hundreds of

different possible responses.

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1.4 Development of Short Story in Hindi Literature

The birth of Hindi short story was around eighth decade of eighteenth

century. There are different opinions about the first short story of Hindi

literature but most of them considered ‗Jamindar ka Drashtant‘ by reverend J.

Newton published in 1871 as a first Hindi short story. At present Hindi short

story reaches a milestone of more than hundred years.

Most of critics considered 'Premchand era' as a pivotal point thus the

different phases are also called pre-Premchand and post-Premchand era, and

contemporary phase of short story is also called 'Samkalin Kahani' in Hindi

literature. Many others believed that by entitling Premchand era the qualities

and varieties which emerged and seen in post Premchand era is neglected so

it looks convenient for critics to divide them into such phases.

Following are the short stories considered to be the beginning chief

short stories of Hindi literature .

(1) 'Jamindar ka Drashtant' - Revrend J. Newton (1871)

(2) 'Pranayini Parinaya' - Kishorilal Goswami (1887)

(3) 'Chali Arab ki Katha' (1893)

(4) 'Subhashit Ratna' - Madhavrai Sapre (1900)

(5) 'Indumati' - Kishorilal Goswami (1900)

(6) 'Ek Tokari Bhar Mitti' - Madhavrai Sapre (1901)

(7) 'Gyarah Mannu ka Samay' - Ramchandra Shukla (1903)

(8) 'Dulai Vali' - Bangmahila (1907)

These beginning chief short stories might have looseness of structure

and confusion of language but they had enough moral ground to be said the

chief stories of initial phase. Every short story has an idea and sensitivity at its

centre thus from the view paint of enriching value, Hindi short story proves its

social concern from its beginning.

In the second decade of twentieth century between 1910-1935 many

new writers‘ stories came into literary sky simultaneously. Chandradhar

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sharma Guleri, Jayshankar 'Prasad', Premchand, Sudarshan, Chatursen

Shastri, Raja Radhikaraman have shown future possibilities and potentialities

of Hindi short story. Journals like 'Indu' and 'Saraswati' had a great

contribution in the development of short story. Though more than dozen

talented writers were active this phase was called ‗Premchand yug‘,. It was

beyond doubt that Premchand was pioneer among them. Pre Premchand

stories did not have that much strength and capacity to be categorized under

any school or movement or any particular tradition. Premchand and his

contemporary writers had established true identity of Hindi short story. In the

form of Prasad and Premchand two schools came into existence. Universal

truth is seen at the centre in the short stories of Premchand School. Prasad

school doesn't deny the universal truth but by reducing characters changing

dilemma as a chief feature is found out.

Sudarshan, Vishavambhar Sharma, Kaushik, Vrindavanlal Verma,

Chatursen Shastri were writers under Premchand school, while Vinodshankar

Vyas, Chandiprasad Hridayesh, Rai Krishnadas, Radhikaraman Prasadsinh

etc. considered from Prasad school. These divisions are surfacial in the sense

that neither emotional drametism absent in Premchand school nor description

related to universality is absent in Prasad school. Dr. Devesh Thakur rightly

says ‘Prasad is the first writer who made Hindi story free from Bangali,

English and French translations. (Amitabh)7

Munshi Premchand contributed less than three hundred stories in the

development of Hindi short story, which are highly important on the basis of

the dimension and quality. Use of local language is other main feature of

Premchand's stories.. Psychological subtleties are depicted in the characters

of Premchand. Ushadevi Mitra was chief woman who wrote hundred and thirty

six stories in which authentic picture of contemporary woman is emerged. In

48 stories of Subhadra Kumari Chauhan major stories were based on

woman's pain and sorrow.

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Post Premchand short story, between 1935-1955, developed in

three different directions. some of them are limited up to personal psychology

and psychoanalytical ideas. Jainendra, Agneya, Illachandra Joshi etc. were

writers of this stream. In second direction short story reflected social problems

and marxsist ideology. The chief writers of this type are Yashpal, Rangeya

Raghav, Bhairav Prasad Gupta, Amrutrai etc. In third direction of development

of short story, they didn't follow any ideology or discipline but the personal

truth and universal truth are juxtaposed. Upendranath Ashq, Amrutlal Nagar,

Bhagvaticharan Verma etc are classified under this category.

Jainendra is considered first psychological short story writer in Hindi

who depicted personal truth in his hundred and fifty stories. Agneya's stories

are an experience of sheer intellectual faculty. His most of the stories depicted

human values. In Bhagavatiprasad Vajpeyee's psychological stories, we could

see the balance between individual and society as well as art and narration.

We can also see a good combination of sociability and psychology in the

stories of Dwijendranath Mishra Nirguna.

The relationship between social awareness and literature is deep and

inevitable because of exploitation in society so it is important for writers to

clear their stand against exploitation. Keeping this view point at centre,

Yashpal, Rangeya Raghav, Rahul Sanskrutayana and Bhairav Prasad Gupta

constructed their bases for story writing. Yashpal, after Premchand, is the

writer with brightness and full of intellectual energy. His stories are rightly

called the true representative of life. Yashpal also dared to postmortem

Gandhism on intellectual ground.

This phase of development of Hindi short story flowed in two clear

directions. Some stories centered round individual values and biographies on

which layer of psychology can be observed. While in the other trend, they

tend to give much importance to social commitment where most of the stories

are disciplined by leftist ideology.

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After 1955 'Nayi Kahani' started movements and issues in Hindi short

story. This is the first movement which affected most of story writers of Hindi

literature. Madhu Naresh compares this movement with flood that ‗on one

hand flood leaves fertile earth, on the other hand gives birth to so many

calamities and wrong meanings, this is the situation with Nayi Kahani.‘

(Quoted in Amitabh)8 where some achievements on one side and limitations

on other side were shown.

Nayi Kahani gave new direction and dimension in Hindi short story.

Post independent social changes, changing values, all kinds of internal

conflicts of Indian life are rightly expressed in Nayi Kahani. Demand for

newness in short story is not new. After independent, Constitution has highly

affected literary thinking in which capitalism and feudal values were made

weaken in order to strengthen the new democratic tradition so equality,

fraternity and unexploitation etc. values got chance to be emerged.

Short story before the birth of Nayi Kahani did not

have any pressure or compulsion of settings as there

was a vast crack between creativity and settings.

Nayi Kahani presented the proof of joining with

variety of settings so in one way it is said that it is the

outcome of settings (Amitabh)9

Kamleshwar gave credit to Dushayantkumar for giving a name to Nayi

Kahani. According to him Jitendra and Omprakash tried to shape Nayi

Kahani. Rajendra Yadav credited Dushayant Kumar and Namvarsingh for

naming Nayi Kahani. Nayi Kahani movement was maintained and kept alive

by writers like Rajendra Yadav, Kamleshwar, Mohan Rakesh, Shiv Prasad

and critics like Namvarsingh and Bhairav Prasad Gupta.

Nahyi Kahani took newness in many dimensions of story writing. It has

reflection and realism of life and has a vast canvas ranging from village to

metropolis. Nayi Kahani emphasized on authenticity of experience and living

truth of life thus it also challenged established moral code of life. The stories

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of Mohan Rakesh, Rajendra Yadav, Kamleshwar Renu, Mannu Bhandari,

Shiv Prasad Sinh, Markadeya, Nirmal Varma, Harishankar Parsai, Usha

Priyamvada etc.are considered as Nayi Kahani. Nayi Kahani is influenced by

foreign thinkers. The thoughtfulness of Nayi Kahani is cleared, opened and

developed in certain direction. It is free from superficial emotionalism and has

motivation of intelligence rather then pressure of emotions. Nayi Kahani

created its living language. The movement of Nayi Kahani ceased around 63-

64 and symptoms of change were emerged.

The weaknesses of Nayi Kahani were clear from its beginning.

Madhunaresh distinguished short story of this phase by calling it as 'Story of

changing emotional world'. The central note of the story after Nayi Kahani is to

live in present by free from past. Young writers are not bound by any

traditional morality and social commitments. Day to day reality reflected in the

short story of seventh decade. The short story after seventies passed

thorough many movements in which some major movements are Akahani

(non story or Anti story),Sahaj Kahani (simple story), Sachetan Kahani

(Conscious story), Samantar Kahani (Parallel story), Janvadi Kahani

(Countryman story), Sakriya Kahani (Active story)

Akahani was called undefined term which also reflected non

relationship or absence of relative situations in short story. Gangaprasad

Vimal, Ravindra Kalia, Dudhanath Sinh and Satish Jamali are chief writers of

this movement. Sahaj Kahani born out to overcome the limitation laid by Nayi

Kahani. Ravindra Kalia, DudhanathSinh, Gangaprasad Vimal and Satish

Jamali were pioneers of Akahani movement. Sahaj Kahani inclined towards

nonshowmanship or absence of hypocrisy in story. It was not considered as a

movement because the term derived from Sahaj Kavita - simple poetry. Sahaj

Kahani opposed unnatural situations of sex in short story.

Sachetan Kahani movement is the movement of modern sight or

vision. Sachetan means in which life can be lived and life can also be

understood which depends on conscious living experiences. Mahipal Sinh,

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Kulbhusan Baldev Vanshi, Manhar Chauhan, Himanshi Joshi, Somabira etc.

are the eminent writers of Sachetan Kahani. Depth and varieties of

experience can be shown in Sachetan Kahani.

Samantar Kahani or parallel story was primarily considered as a

movement but later it was denied by calling it as a highly wide canvas opens

for co-thinking. The centre point is to maintain a balance between timely truth

and creation that is to say that thinking in parallel with contemporary time and

writing accordingly. Samantar Kahani emphasized 'involvement' instead of

'commitment'. Madhukar Sinh, Keshav Dube, Mithileshver etc. are chief

writers of Samantar Kahani. Janvadi Kahani mainly centered on crises of

lower middle class people. Janvadi Kahani writers have deeply thought on

political issues and problems. Niraj Sinh, Ramesh Upadhyay, Asgar Vasant,

Pradeep Mandav, Namita Sinh etc‘s. stories represent movement of Janvadi

Kahani

Sakriya Kahani or active story initiated by Rakesh Vatsa. He explained

that active story is the story of liveliness and conscious energy of human

being. This is the story of an understanding which strengthen human, first

against his inner and them outer conflicts. The adjective 'Active' was used by

Maxim Gorki. Ramesh Batra, Surendra Kumar, Chitra Mudgal, Rakesh Vatsa,

Kumar Sambhav, Shrikant etc young writers pioneered Sakriya Kahani.

Every movement has given some good outcomes. Generally

movements are not considered good for literature but somehow they are the

sign of liveliness. Activity of movements related to short story suggests

newness while values pierce all these and shine, they are beyond any label.

1.5 Portrayal of Woman in Indian Literature

Indian women, mostly illiterate in those days, had a different status in

society; a daughter was regarded as a burden, a wife was considered to be a

non-entity, for her sole obligation and only aspiration was to cater to the

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needs of a husband and his family. The lot of the widow was even worse, for

the social norms did not permit her any relief or salvation. Seen in this light,

the portrayal of women in Indian literature could be considered authentic.

The predicament of the Hindu widow which was to become a major

concern in Bengali and Marathi fiction found expression in Philip Meadows

Taylor's novels Tara (1863) and Seeta (1872). His portrayal of women,

particularly of widows, was only authentic insofar as their misery and

sufferings were concerned. In the latter half of the last century, many reformist

movements directed against orthodox and superstitious Hindu practices,

enjoyed considerable support in Bengal before spreading to other parts of the

country.

In Bengali fiction, there were a few stray and scattered efforts towards

a realistic and authentic projection of the Indian woman of this period; Social

documents which contain biographical details about the hardships

experienced by women were published. The widow as a protagonist

reappeared at a later stage in Rabindranath Tagore's and Sarat Chandra's

work adopting ‗an increasingly bolder approach to the actualities of life. The

beginning of the 1920s, the independence movement, Gandhian ideology and

larger social problems supplied the material for much of Indian fiction so that it

drifted away from individual to global problems.

As was the case in the fiction of the regional languages, the nationalist

movement and the social problems provided the backbone for other Indian-

English novelists. In this sense, one observes the same phases of

development in Indian-English fiction as in the regional languages, except for

the fact that these were squeezed into a much shorter 'span of time. Quite

unconsciously, or perhaps for purposes of investing the themes and the

portrayals with 'local colour', Indian-English fiction also made free use of the

Sita/Savithri/Sakuntala myths, a tendency that endured until the seventies.

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1.6 Portrayal of Woman in Indian Writing in English

Woman has inspired literature and has been its pivotal theme in

Literature all over the world. She herself is also a creator of literature and

therefore a woman's presence in literature is all pervading. This is true of

Indian literature in English also. A high concept of womanhood prevailed in

ancient India, the basic mythic and archetypal image which existed in ancient

times has such a strong appeal and is fundamental to our culture that it still

continues in our literature.

There is no dearth of idealised and glorified images of women in all

literatures even today. But the other end, the cruel reality also exists in all its

crudeness and ghastliness. Right from its beginning, the Indian writer in

English has responded with his sensitivity. His sensibility records with a

dissenting voice, and with a note of revulsion the social evils relating to

women.

Toru Dutt (1856-1877) deals only with the archetypes of Indian

womanhood like Sita and Savitri. She creates these pictures in the English

language and reinforces the conventional myth in a patriotic manner.

Robindranath Tagore (1861-1941) who really belongs to the world of Bengali

Literature wrote some of his poems and plays in English in which Woman is

projected as a full-blooded creature but still full of surrender.

The Gandhian whirlwind and the Freedom Movement catapulted Indian

women into the forefront. Literature written at the time of the Freedom

Movement projects a new image of the Indian woman. The work of Raja Rao,

and Mulk Raj Anand could not have been possible without it. Mahatma

Gandhi's autobiography and Pandit Nehru's writings give short sketches of

brave women fighters. The influence of Gandhian Philosophy gave rise to a

new humanism and a new morality based on human values rather than

religious orthodoxy. The trend was towards a positive, brave and outspoken

effort to find out a new way of life for women. Kanthapura unveiled the

immense potential of Indian women.

18

On the attainment of Freedom and the country acquired a National

Identity of its own, the woman's quest of her own self also followed. But there

was no overnight revolution. The image of the archetypal woman still loomed

large on the horizon in spite of the fast growth and development of women's

education. But in actual literary practice, numerous characters are found to

adhere to classic prototypes—especially the women of fiction who persistently

enact the suffering, sacrificing role of Sita and Savitri. The National Movement

and the spread of modern education swept numerous women into modernity.

The image of woman in Indian Literature of the Post Independence period

shows a perceptible trend towards it.

One of the major trends in recent literature is to reinterpret the ancient

myths, humanize them or offer a totally new interpretation. In Sri Aurobindo's

(1872-1950) Savitri (1954) the character of Savitri is imbued with a new

meaning and life. The entire legend itself is made more meaningful. Such

archetypal images from mythologies are being portrayed today in several new

ways. In the last fifty years or so, India has witnessed profound

changes in almost every aspect of her life. Since the advent of

independence in August 1947, the pace of change has greatly accelerated.

( Kapur)10

The image of the New Woman is being projected in post-independence

literature and particularly in recent literature. The feminine psyche disturbed in

a period of transition from tradition to modernity is voiced both in poetry and

fiction. Authenticity, candor, boldness, ebullience, frankness, vehement

assertion, sadness - are some of the qualities associated with the new image.

In the poetry of Kamla Das (1934) a vehement protest against the senseless

restrictions which compel a sensitive and an intelligent woman to lead a vapid

kind of existence.

In the poetry of A.K. Ramanujan, (1929) the family relationships play

an important role. His sense of alienation in U.S.A. and the accompanying

nostalgia are poured forth through the metaphor of the family.

19

The woman portrayal is seen on a wider scale in fiction as there is a

scope for weaving a complex network of human relationships. Among the first

generation of novelists, Raja Rao (1908 ) still upholds the mythic pattern. His

concept of womanhood precludes individualism. R.K. Narayan (1906)

portrays a wide range of feminine characters—from the conventional to the

rebellious. The conventional women dominate and are shown as supporters

of the institution of family but he has identified the turmoil in the minds of

women.

Mulk Raj Anand, (1905-) emerged as the spokesman of the

downtrodden in his novels who wrote for the emancipation of women.

Although there is no dearth of conventional women in his novels. In the

novels of Bhabani Bhattacharya (1906), women are full of exuberance and

vitality but once the woman tries to come out into the world, she is victimized;

only the strongest survive. He also assigns women a new role, that of a bridge

between the East and the West and the old and the New. In the novels of

several other novelists like Arun Joshi, Manohar Malganokar and Chaman

Nahal there is a preoccupation with other wider themes and the portrayal of

women characters has no special significance. However, different areas of

experience have been explored by these novelists and varied types of women

characters are presented.

A number of women novelists have arrived on the literary scene and as

in poetry, they have set out making new arrival into the world of women. In the

novels of Anita Desai (1937), there is the world of radical female resistance

against a defined concept of normality. Women are mostly failed questers. In

her psychological novels, she creates the image of a suffering woman

preoccupied with her inner world, her sulking frustration and the storm

within—the existential predicament of a woman in a male dominated society.

Kamla Markandeya (1924) portrays a large repertoire of women in a changing

India. She portrays struggles and exploitation in a changing village, battles

between tradition and modernity in contemporary India. What distinguishes

Kamla Markandeya's novels is an awareness of the socio-economic forces

20

and their impact on women. In the novels of Nayantara Sehgal (1927), the

emphasis is on freedom and a new definition of the virtuous woman. She

emphasizes the need of awareness for women. In most of her novels, the

heroines are aware of the injustice done to them in their marriages and they

walk out of their homes. Most of her female characters feel that man is still not

fit to be an equal partner. Nayantara Sehgal portrays women mostly from the

upper strata and often a political backdrop is created. Promila Kapur, a

sociologist, analyzes the change:

With a change in women's personal status and social

status has come a change in her way of thinking and

feelings and the past half century has witnessed great changes

in attitudes towards sex, love and marriage.(Kapur)11

Shashi Deshpande shows considerable promise in delineating

characters from the middle class.Her women wish to be architects of their own

fate. Hers is the authentic, poignant tale of the middle class educated women

and their exploitation in a conventional male-dominated society. She writes

about the Herculean obstacles in their path. Using the stream of

consciousness method and a narrative technique which goes back and forth,

she unravels the inner world of women. Middle class educated women seem

to be her area and there is a remarkably authentic and realistic portrayal.

The writings of Shashi Deshpande depict effectively a disturbed but a

brave feminine psyche in the new ethos. What is heartening is the fact that

her protagonists are determined to encounter the world. However, it is in the

novels of Raji Narasinhan (1930) that the New Liberated woman in the

contemporary society really blossoms

Veena Paintal started writing with the specific objective of writing about

the educated upper middle class women stripping away the facade of chiffon

sarees and cocktail parties—to delve into their lives and personalities and

their particular struggles.

21

The image of the New Woman and her quest and struggle for an

identity of her own is emerging in the Indian English Novel. Such a struggle

needs some support structures outside the family to enable women to survive.

Christina Gomez's novel Fire Blossoms portrays in a very thoughtful manner,

efforts at doing so. In transitional period women can play an important role as

agents of change. This is depicted in Rama Mehta's novel Inside the Haveli,

where the Haveli becomes a symbol of Tradition, which was like a fortress

protecting them from the outside world, giving them security and a sense of

superiority.

1.7 Portrayal of Woman in Hindi Literature

There are many writers projecting the image of the New Woman and

there are as many writers, if not more, writing in the traditional vein about the

meek, suffering wife and self-abnegating mother. Literature of rebellion in

India has to be, therefore, understood with great care in the context of the

heritage of our social laws, our literary audience, and its relationship to the

inherent social code. As it is observed:

With all their fascination with modernity however,

most of the Writers see woman basically in the role of

an ideal wife and mother. An innate reverence for

conformity seems to have become the second nature

of Indian woman owing to her samskaras and mental

make-up. Only while retaliating or taking revenge

does she transcend all limits of dignity, even

probability.(Bhat)12

Premchand who was the first to put the Hindi novel, like short story, on

22

a realistic, social base. Many writers of the late 30s and 40s have projected

the new woman defying the social and moral code; quite a few writers of the

80s and 90s have cast her and seen her in the traditional mould. In as early

as 1951, for example, Agneya had portrayed a love relationship free of any

restrictive inhibitions and promiscuity. It is not easy to find another woman in

the whole of Hindi Literature who is as strong, as independent and as

rebellious in her attitude towards love, fulfillment and social and moral code as

Rekha is in Nadike Dweep (1951).

It was Premchand who for the first time gave to the Hindi novel its

compelling human interest. Instead of the artificial stories of complicated

intrigues and contrivances, and the world of fashionable gallantry, duels and

quarrels of the high-life setting, explored his contemporary world of

rottenness analyzing its causes while faithfully depicting the wretched

condition of those who suffer. But, then, though he stressed the indignities

heaped upon women, His tone was fundamentally conformist. While he hated

cant, hypocrisy, cruelty and arrogance, his moral indignation and pain

was almost invariably accompanied by idealistic solutions.

In the post Premchand period writers attempted to understand the

innermost, deep-rooted complexes of their female characters that had

condemned them to a certain way of life or thinking. The family theme is

portrayed in the modern Hindi novel in all its possible articulateness.

Mothers have lost their sovereignty but not necessarily their deep-

rooted prejudices. Girl is given all possible love and affection till her brother is

born. Thereafter it's a tale of neglect and cruelty. In lower middle class

families we can understand the inextricable connection between the economic

and the psychological aspects of the changed equation. In Surya Bala's Agni

Pankhi (1984) the mother turns both an emotional and physical wreck

because of the cruel treatment meted out to her by her brothers-in-law and

their wives and also her son and her daughter-in-law.

The stepmother has also been divested of the traditional prejudice in

23

Malti Joshi's and Surya Bala's work where she is portrayed as an

understanding and self-sacrificing mother, which is a major change from the

stock image. Himanshu Joshi has taken up the problem of the young girl who

denies herself everything for her family. Parents' self-indulgence and apathy,

and young girls' ignorance and/or helplessness seem to be responsible for the

rise in the instance of unmarried mothers. Most of them are victims of

circumstances. Those who do it by choice and are bold enough to declare it to

the world are still an exception.

Earlier, Premchand, like Jaya Shanker Prasad, seemed to think that

woman's dedication and love would sooner or later bring the drifting husband

back on the right track. Wives, undaunted love, dedication and self-sacrifice

have been extolled by the writers of this period even though their husbands

are habitual drifters and do go astray every now and then.

Earlier it was assumed that a woman would or should remain faithful

only to the man she gets married to—if she fails to do so, she has fallen from

grace and the high ideals of Indian womanhood. These ideals didn‘t last long

in modern Hindi literature. Bhagawati Prasad Vajpeyi, Vrindavan Lal Verma,

Ila Chandra Joshi and Agneya portrayed a wife loves her husband's friend

and does not for a moment think her weakness a sin and made no secret of it.

She even confessed it to her husband in some cases.

Rangeya Raghav and Achala shows a married women who not only

forgets her love before marriage but also confesses it to her husband. While

the early Hindi literature reinforce the traditional morality—the evil can never

triumph. The moral view has always condemned prostitution. But in Yashpal's

Divya (1945), the prostitute is the only free woman, capable of exercising her

free will. The shame complex of the earlier days has been replaced by an

angry questioning of the social and moral codes.

Bhagavati Charan Verma offers a new interpretation of virtue and sin,

Sajjan feels that morals, sin, good, evil etc. have obstructed man's natural

growth more than anything else. In Amrit Aur Vish a new definition of mortality

24

is offered that morality does not lie in how truthful, sacrificing and authentic

one is, the question is of how much freedom one had to give a shape to one's

desires, aspirations and conduct. There is no such thing as sin, it's all our

weakness/' says Lakshmi Narain Lai in Kale Phool Ka Pauda (1955). Sharad

of Rajendra Yadav's Ukhade Hue Log (1956) says, ‗Yesterday‘s definitions of

sin and piety have toppled and turned hollow. And we have no faith in

tomorrow.‘ Rekha of his Shah Aur Mat (1959) talks of the social base of sin.

Mallika of Shivani's Chaudah Phere (1965) claims that one commits a sin only

under compulsion, not willingly.‘ In Ateet Ke Chal-Chitra (1948), Mahadevi

Varma finds the limits of dignity imposed by a woman's own soul much more

definitive than any social parameters of her virtue.

These changing concepts of morality have not only revolutionized our

attitudes to the prostitutes who are now seen as victims of the socio-economic

forces rather than as fallen women but also affected the marital relations. It is

no longer imperative to marry the man you love or to love the man you marry.

Pre-marital and extra-marital relations are still a cause for anxiety but not for

surprise or outright condemnation. Attempts are made to explain, and even

justify them in the context of larger socio-economic power structures.

Today's new woman has shed her inhibitions and acquired a new

candor about her sexual self. Ranjana of Jainendra's Dashark (1985) indulges

in extra-marital relations with rich men as a part of her experiment. In Mridula

Garg's work married women have an extra-marital relationship as part of the

process of their growing up and exploring their own personality, and not

because the husband in either case was a blackguard or a drunkard or cruel

or deficient in character. It is significant that all liberated women reject social

conventions but view their deviations in the context of these very conventions

The clash between the traditional and the modern is, of course, present

everywhere is perhaps inevitable. With nuclear families and the ensuing re-

alignment of familial equations have come new pressures to cope with within

the husband-wife relationship and tensions of working environments.

25

In Durga Hakare‘s and Manjul Bhagat's work we come across a bold,

proud woman who doesn't succumb to her circumstances. She does care for

her good-for-nothing, drunkard husband but has to work for 10 families to

provide for her own. She is right when she says that work covered the body.

Work gave us food. Then that alone is my Suhag, my master.

Usha Priyamvada and Mrinal Pandey portrayed the woman who does

not commit suicide or allow herself to die of tuberculosis in a sanatorium when

her husband abandons her for another woman. After the initial shock, she

picks up the threads of her life and works for a respectable career and a

happy home.

The New Woman cannot remain confined to her role as a housewife.

She finds lasting fulfillment in work not only out of boredom and the monotony

of household routine, but also to establish her identity, her individuality to seek

equality in marriage and other relationships.

We have no doubt seen many changes and made many advances.

Indian woman has come a long way from the days she was told what to do

and how to do it. Working woman no longer carries the stigma of family

hardships, of men being unable to provide for their families. Though a

necessity for many, it is no longer a slight on the family. The New Woman can

realize her ambition herself, not vicariously through husband or children. She

can realize her dream of becoming anything—an educationist, a doctor, an

engineer, an architect, a pilot, an air force officer, even a prime minister or PM

maker. She has even begun to articulate her sensuality. She can live alone or

have a live-in relationship. She is less hesitant to get a divorce.

But even though she may be a highly placed executive, she is

expected to be a good mother and wife at home. And even though she may

find it exhausting and even intolerable at times to meet the demands of her

family, we need to remember that her safety net is the network of relatives

and friends and family she can fall back upon. We should remember that

family still plays a pivotal role in our scheme of things and counts most in

26

moments of stress and that the Indian woman still needs the emotional

support of understanding parents, communicative and supportive husband,

loving children and caring relatives. We must also remember that mostly it is

the middle class, educated urban woman who has carved a niche for herself.

Women in the rest of the country are for the most part still tradition-ridden. We

have the enlightened, sophisticated new woman and we have the helpless

housewife existing side by side. Is women's liberation then a mere cliché or a

slogan? Only time will tell whether these changes are either positive or

negative or inevitable as part of a process of social, economic and political

change.

1.8 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

Short story written during the last three decades provides a glimpse

into female psyche and deals with the full range of female experiences.

Short stories written by Indian women writers present the Indian

woman‘sconditions, her conflicts and predicament against the background of

contemporary India. The writings reflect the analysis of the socio-cultural

modes and values that have given women their image and role towards

themselves and the society. In the changing contexts of our country

and times, the women now find themselves at cross purposes with

themselves as well as the society. Accordingly, both Shashi Deshpande

and Mannu Bhandari explore the psychic and moral dilemmas and

repercussions of the situation in their women characters trying to

achieve a new harmony of relationships with themselves and their

surroundings.

Shashi Deshpande has been accepted as a significant literary figure on

the contemporary literary scene. Many comparisons have been made

between her fiction and the fiction of other writers. A comparative

approach ought to lead us to a more comprehensive and adequate

understanding of the works and their authors. Keeping this in view, I

have tried to compare the short stories of Shashi Deshpande with that of

27

Mannu Bhandari, a Hindi woman writer. Interestingly, both these writers

share common concerns despite medium of expressions and socio-cultural

differences. However, a few dissimilarities can also be observed in these

aspects.

Some similarities in the portrayal of woman are found in the short

stories of Shashi Deshpande and those of Mannu Bhandari.

Therefore, in this thesis I have adopted a comparative method to study

the above mentioned topic. The basic aims and objectives of the present

study are:

• To provide an overall view of women short story writers in Indian

English and Hindi literature.

• To assess their contribution to the form and literature in general.

• To examine how far Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari have

succeeded in presenting a realistic picture of woman in their short

stories in the family set up as well as outside family.

• To make a comparative study of Shashi Deshpande and Mannu

Bhandari as short story writers.

I have some basic assumption in my mind with which I will direct

my study. These have formed the hypothesis for my research. They are

as mentioned below:

• Short stories written by Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari have

been neglected in spite of being so significant. They have

been pushed to the dusty corners of libraries and remain

rot in the darkness of unrecognition. The dearth of enough

critical works is in itself a sign of this.

• Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari have many similarities and

dissimilarities in themes, characters and style though they

respond to the same time, place and circumstances.

• The short stories of Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari

28

are significant in formulating a new feminine consciousness in

keeping with changing times.

• An extensive range of women belonging to different classes, castes

and educational levels is found in the short stories of Shashi

Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari.

• Their protagonists come to awakening through a crisis.

Thus, this research aims at making a comprehensive comparative study

of the portrayal of woman in the short stories of Shashi Desphande and

Mannu Bhandari. What ultimately emerges is a comprehensive exploration of

these writers' understanding of the dilemma of the new woman as well as

their courageous attempt to suggest new patterns of feminine existence.

This study aims ultimately to establish the positive role of Indian women

writers in English as well as in Hindi in the vital on-going battle of

establishing female selfhood. By juxtaposing the two women writers and

studying their concern for the cause of woman, the present study will add to

the spectrum of Comparative Indian Literature. It will spotlight

Deshpande's and Bhandari's contribution to Indian writing in English and Hindi

respectively.

Shasi Deshpande is an Indian writer in English and Mannu Bhandari is

an Indian writer in Hindi. They happen to be distinct female writers from the

rest of her generation's other female writers. Both provide glimpse into female

psyche and deal with the full range of female experience in their

writings. A number of critical studies have appeared on the novels of

Deshpande and Bhandari but critical and comperative studies on their

short stories are less. Moreover these writers have been studied

separately. But a comparative study of this kind was still to be

undertaken. A comparative approach ought to lead us to a more

comprehensive and adequate understanding of the work and their

authors. Again, barring a few articles in journals and books, there is no full

29

length comparative study of the short stories of both the writers. Hence

there is the need for a close study of their short stories with a

comparative approach to the themes delineated by these writers. The

present research is restricted to the study of some selected short stories from

the complete collection of short stories in two volume by Deshpande and

complete collection in one volume by Bhandari. The stories with different

themes from women-centered themes are not included in the present

study. Textual quotations from Mannu Bhandari are simply paraphrased

and are not in shape of polished literary translation. Another limitation of

the thesis is that certain repetitions became inevitable, in the course of

emphasizing the similar thematic concerns of the two writers. Since the

study is focused on the portrayal of woman in the short stories of

Deshpande and Bhandari, it could not assess the growth and change

in the writers as artists who could be taken up for further study. The

effort of the present study has been to analyze the themes and portrayal

of woman from their different short stories under certain major titles and

devote the last chapter exclusively to the comparison of Desphande and

Bhandari.

The chapterization of the dissertation is as below.

Chapter I: Introduction.

1.1 Genesis of Short Story.

1.2 Development of Short Story in Indian Literature.

1.3 Development of Short Story in Indian Writing in English.

1.4 Development of Short Story in Hindi Literature.

1.5 Development of Short Story in Indian Literature.

1.6 Portrayal of Woman in Indian Writing in English.

1.7 Portrayal of Woman in Hindi Literature.

1.8 Outline of The Thesis.

30

Chapter II: Shashi Deshpande and Mannu Bhandari: An Introduction.

2.1 Life and Work of Shashi Deshpande.

2.1.1 Women Characters in Her Short Story.

2.1.2 Style and Technique in Her Work.

2.1.3 Shashi Deshpande as a Short Story Writer.

2.2 Life and Work of Mammu Bhandari.

2.2.1 Mannu Bhandari as a Short Story Writer.

2.2.2 Women Characters in Her Short Story.

2.2.3 Style and Technique in Her Work.

Chapter III: Woman Portrayed in the Short Stories of Shashi Deshpande.

3.1 Girlhood and Adolescence.

3.2 Daughters and young girls.

3.3 Wife and Life Partner.

3.3.1 Alienated wife.

3.3.2 Sexual predicament.

3.4 Woman at Work.

3.5 Mother the Caretaker.

3.5.1 Conventional Mother.

3.5.2 Unconventional Mother.

3.6 Pain and Predicament of Widowhood.

3.7 Mythical Reincarnations.

Chapter IV: Woman Portrayed in the Short Stories of Mannu Bhandari.

4.1 Girlhood and Adolescence.

4.2 Pain of Young Girl and Premarital Agony of young Woman.

4.2.1 Pain of Deception.

31

4.2.2 Agony of Suffocation.

4.2.3 Predicament of Misunderstanding.

4.3 As a Wife and Life Partner.

4.3.1 Conventional Image.

4.3.1.1 Wife at Home.

4.3.1.2 Wife at Work Place.

4.3.2 Unconventional Image.

4.4 Motherhood.

Chapter V: Conclusion: A Comparison of Shashi Deshpande and Mannu

Bhandari.

5.1 A Comparison of Thematic Concerns.

5.2 A Comparison through Characterization.

32

References

[1] Charters, Ann. The Story and its Writer, Boston: Bedford/st.Martin‘s, 1999

p. no.1677.

[2] O‘Conner frank. The lonely voice London: Macmillan. 1965. P no.13.

[3] shaw, Valerie. The short story: a critical introduction. London:. Longman.

1983. P.no.21.

[4] Jagmohan, Sarala. (ed.) ‗Introduction’ Modern Indian Short Stories. New

Delhi: Kumar Printers; 1976.p.no.1.

[5] Isvaran, Manjeri. A Madras Admiral. Madras; 1959. P.no.ii.

[6] Venugopal C.V. The Indian Short Story in English: A Survey.

Bareilly. Prakash Book Depot. 1975 p.no.2.

[7] Amitbha, Ved Prakash. Hindi Kahani Ke Sau Varsh: Mathura. Madhuvan

publication, 1987. p.no.64.

[8] Ibid. p. no. 41.

[9] Ibid. p.no.43.

[10] Kapur, Promilla. Marriage and Working Women in India: Bombay: Vikas

Publication (ab.ed.); 1972.p.no.3.

[11] Ibid. p.no.4-5.

[12] Bhat, Dr. Yashoda. (ed.) The Image of Woman in Indo-Anglian

Literature Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation; 1993. P. no.49.