11

History as it isHistory as it is or or

History ignoredHistory ignored??The search for a

definition of“Historical” fiction in

Meiji Japan

Luca Milasi (“Sapienza” University)

22

““ ＨｉｓｔｏｒｙＨｉｓｔｏｒｙ” ” in Japan: a in Japan: a long traditionlong tradition

Nara period (714-794):Nara period (714-794):

Kojiki Kojiki 古事記 古事記 ((Record of Ancient Matters)Record of Ancient Matters) [712 ca.] [712 ca.] • A retelling of the creation of Japan and the A retelling of the creation of Japan and the

legendary first sovereigns, from Jinmu to Oojin legendary first sovereigns, from Jinmu to Oojin (660. B. C. to A.D. 310 in the legendary history)(660. B. C. to A.D. 310 in the legendary history)

Nihon Shoki Nihon Shoki 日本書紀　日本書紀　 ((Chronicles of JapanChronicles of Japan) ) [720][720]• Compilation of many elements in the guise of Compilation of many elements in the guise of

history, largely to justify the line of sovereigns history, largely to justify the line of sovereigns (laid down in Chinese).(laid down in Chinese).

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““ ＨｉｓｔｏｒｙＨｉｓｔｏｒｙ” ” in Japan: a in Japan: a long tradition – Pt. IIlong tradition – Pt. II

According to its preface, the Kojiki was set down from According to its preface, the Kojiki was set down from the recitation of memorized matter by a Lady-in-the recitation of memorized matter by a Lady-in-waiting, Hieda no Are waiting, Hieda no Are 稗田阿礼稗田阿礼 .. The Kojiki, one of the The Kojiki, one of the first documents in Japan’s literary history, was virtually first documents in Japan’s literary history, was virtually unknown for centuries due to the complexity of that unknown for centuries due to the complexity of that time’s writing system.time’s writing system.

In the XVIII and XIX Century there have been three In the XVIII and XIX Century there have been three successive views of the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki: they successive views of the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki: they were venerated as national scriptures, then dismissed were venerated as national scriptures, then dismissed as worthless fabrications, and lastly, as a result of as worthless fabrications, and lastly, as a result of closer examination by philologists, these have been closer examination by philologists, these have been viewed as a mixture of historical facts and mythology.viewed as a mixture of historical facts and mythology.

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““Fiction in Ancient Japan”: the Fiction in Ancient Japan”: the beginning of the novel form?beginning of the novel form?

Genji Monogatari Genji Monogatari 源氏物語　源氏物語　 [The tale of Genji], [The tale of Genji], a long work by Murasaki Shikibu (D. ?1014), a a long work by Murasaki Shikibu (D. ?1014), a lady at the court of emperor Ichijo. Probably lady at the court of emperor Ichijo. Probably completed in its present form by A.D. 1009. completed in its present form by A.D. 1009.

Though the present arrangement of chapters, Though the present arrangement of chapters, as well as authorship of the last few chapters as well as authorship of the last few chapters have often been questioned, have often been questioned, GenjiGenji MonogatariMonogatari is considered to be one of the world’s finest is considered to be one of the world’s finest and earliest novels. Some argue that Murasaki and earliest novels. Some argue that Murasaki is the world’s first modern novelist. is the world’s first modern novelist.

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Fiction in Ancient Japan IIFiction in Ancient Japan II Murasaki Shikibu’s success as an author of fiction is a Murasaki Shikibu’s success as an author of fiction is a

phenomenon occurring after the inclusion of phenomenon occurring after the inclusion of Genji Genji Monogatari Monogatari in a “new” literary canon. Meiji writers in a “new” literary canon. Meiji writers who would later turn out to be advocates of a new who would later turn out to be advocates of a new historical fiction greatly contributed to promote the historical fiction greatly contributed to promote the formation of this new canon in their critical reviews. formation of this new canon in their critical reviews.

Before the models of the modern psychological novel Before the models of the modern psychological novel and historical novel were avaliable to Japanese and historical novel were avaliable to Japanese intellectuals, even an antecedent of the fictionalized, intellectuals, even an antecedent of the fictionalized, psychological novel such as psychological novel such as Genji Monogatari Genji Monogatari had had been regarded as narrating historical evidence andh been regarded as narrating historical evidence andh its author, though later revered as the first great its author, though later revered as the first great writer of “fiction” in Japan, had been occasionally writer of “fiction” in Japan, had been occasionally criticized for her choice to focus on an illicit liason criticized for her choice to focus on an illicit liason occurring in the royal house which actually has no occurring in the royal house which actually has no historical basis.historical basis.

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The formation of a new Literary The formation of a new Literary canon: Criticism in Meiji Japancanon: Criticism in Meiji Japan

Early critical works (essays): Early critical works (essays):

• Tsubouchi ShTsubouchi Shōōyyōō (1859-1935), (1859-1935),ShShōōsetsu Shinzui setsu Shinzui 小説真髄小説真髄

(Essence of the Novel) (Essence of the Novel) [1885][1885]

• Mori Mori ŌŌgai (1862-1922),gai (1862-1922),Ima no Shoka no ShIma no Shoka no Shōōsetsuron wo Yomitesetsuron wo Yomite 　　今の今の

諸家の小説論を読みて諸家の小説論を読みて

(On reading the Latest Theories on the Novel (On reading the Latest Theories on the Novel form) form) [1889][1889]

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Literary Criticism of the Early Literary Criticism of the Early Meiji Period:Meiji Period:

Criticism (Criticism (hyhyōōronron) was clearly one of the main concerns ) was clearly one of the main concerns of intellectuals in the “Era of the Enlightenment” (The of intellectuals in the “Era of the Enlightenment” (The Meiji period, 1868-1912). Meiji period, 1868-1912). ōōgai took up his career as a gai took up his career as a critic of literature right after his return from a critic of literature right after his return from a prolonged stay in Germany, with the publication of prolonged stay in Germany, with the publication of essays on the Daily Yomiuri.essays on the Daily Yomiuri.

In shorter essays, he dealed mainly with brief exposure, In shorter essays, he dealed mainly with brief exposure, and criticism, of Zola’s Naturalism. Shortly thereafter, and criticism, of Zola’s Naturalism. Shortly thereafter, he constituted the group he constituted the group ShinseishaShinseisha ( (The New Voices The New Voices SocietySociety), and in October 1889 the group founded a ), and in October 1889 the group founded a new magazine, new magazine, ‘Shigarami-zoshi’‘Shigarami-zoshi’ (‘The Weir’). The (‘The Weir’). The group was soon to become very active in promoting group was soon to become very active in promoting the understanding of Western literary movements, the understanding of Western literary movements, especially Naturalism and Romanticism. ‘especially Naturalism and Romanticism. ‘Shigarami-Shigarami-zoshi’zoshi’ enjoyed a rather large circulation at the time. enjoyed a rather large circulation at the time.

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The formation of a new Literary canon: Criticism in The formation of a new Literary canon: Criticism in Meiji Japan – Pt. IIMeiji Japan – Pt. II

• Mori Mori ōōgai (1862-1922), gai (1862-1922), Ima no Shoka no ShIma no Shoka no Shōōsetsuron wo Yomite setsuron wo Yomite (On reading the Latest Theories on the Novel form) (On reading the Latest Theories on the Novel form) [1889]: [1889]:

《 《 As we have already stated, debate on the matter [the value of As we have already stated, debate on the matter [the value of Zola’s theories] leads to this conclusion: making use of Anatomy Zola’s theories] leads to this conclusion: making use of Anatomy and Science as a basis for the creation of fiction may not be such a and Science as a basis for the creation of fiction may not be such a wrong idea, yet, one cannot help feeling that scientific results may wrong idea, yet, one cannot help feeling that scientific results may not alone constitute good material for fiction, in the manner Zola not alone constitute good material for fiction, in the manner Zola has attempted to do in his has attempted to do in his ètudesètudes. Scientific results are the real . Scientific results are the real world, but do writers really have to content themselves with world, but do writers really have to content themselves with wandering within the limited boundaries of such a world? It is my wandering within the limited boundaries of such a world? It is my opinion that, while science may be good material to base upon for opinion that, while science may be good material to base upon for a novel, it is only through the power of imagination that best a novel, it is only through the power of imagination that best results are achieved with such [poor] material. In this respect, we results are achieved with such [poor] material. In this respect, we have to note that (…) Zola has dismissed the latter to serve the have to note that (…) Zola has dismissed the latter to serve the former. (…)former. (…)

We may assume that applying the rules of the realistic novel too We may assume that applying the rules of the realistic novel too strictly leads, as a matter of fact, to a mere, uninteresting strictly leads, as a matter of fact, to a mere, uninteresting imitation of the real world, with no artistic merit at all. imitation of the real world, with no artistic merit at all.

This, in my opinion, accounts for the failure of the Naturalists’ efforts This, in my opinion, accounts for the failure of the Naturalists’ efforts as works of art.as works of art. 》》

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• Tsubouchi ShTsubouchi Shōōyyōō (1859-1935), (1859-1935), ShShōōsetsu Shinzui setsu Shinzui 小説小説真髄 真髄 (The Essence of the Novel) (The Essence of the Novel) [1885][1885]

(…)(…)The main business of the novel is human nature. Social conditions and The main business of the novel is human nature. Social conditions and

behaviour rank second. By "human nature", I mean man's sensual behaviour rank second. By "human nature", I mean man's sensual passions, what Buddhism calls the one hundred and eight appetites of passions, what Buddhism calls the one hundred and eight appetites of the flesh. All human beings, even those who are wise and good, are the flesh. All human beings, even those who are wise and good, are creatures of carnal lusts. Sages and fools alike harbour evil desires--creatures of carnal lusts. Sages and fools alike harbour evil desires--what sets a man apart as good or wise is simply that he suppresses what sets a man apart as good or wise is simply that he suppresses them, and uses the exercise of his reason or the strength of his them, and uses the exercise of his reason or the strength of his conscience to drive away the hounds of passion.conscience to drive away the hounds of passion.

(…)(…)A novelist is like a psychologist. His characters must be psychologically A novelist is like a psychologist. His characters must be psychologically

convincing. Should he contrive to create by his own invention convincing. Should he contrive to create by his own invention characters at odds with human nature, or worse, with the principles of characters at odds with human nature, or worse, with the principles of psychology, those characters would be figments of his imagination psychology, those characters would be figments of his imagination rather than human beings, and not even a skilful plot or a curious rather than human beings, and not even a skilful plot or a curious story could turn what he wrote into a novel. Such characters are like story could turn what he wrote into a novel. Such characters are like marionettes. They seem at a quick glance just like a group of real marionettes. They seem at a quick glance just like a group of real people moving about, but the spell is instantly broken when closer people moving about, but the spell is instantly broken when closer inspection reveals both the operator and the mechanism. Similarly, a inspection reveals both the operator and the mechanism. Similarly, a novel at once loses its charm if it becomes obvious that the author is novel at once loses its charm if it becomes obvious that the author is behind each character pulling strings to direct his movements.behind each character pulling strings to direct his movements.

1010

• Mori Mori ŌŌgai, gai, Ima no Shoka no ShIma no Shoka no Shōōsetsuron wo Yomite ( On setsuron wo Yomite ( On Reading the Latest Theories on the Novel, continued)Reading the Latest Theories on the Novel, continued): :

(…)(…)Nonetheless, excessive Idealism in art, which is the opposite of Nonetheless, excessive Idealism in art, which is the opposite of

Naturalism, has its flaws too. We may think of Romanticism in Naturalism, has its flaws too. We may think of Romanticism in Germany, or the Germany, or the yomihonyomihon of the Japanese pre-modern period: both of the Japanese pre-modern period: both these literary genres wander quite too far from the real world. these literary genres wander quite too far from the real world. Great long novels are, for instanceGreat long novels are, for instance, Genji Monogatari, Genji Monogatari, and then, , and then, Bakin’s Bakin’s HakkendenHakkenden and and BishonenrokuBishonenroku, while in China we have , while in China we have masterpieces such as masterpieces such as ShuihuzhuanShuihuzhuan. In Germany, we find Goethe’s . In Germany, we find Goethe’s ““Wilhelm MeisterWilhelm Meister” as well as “” as well as “TitanTitan”, by Jean Paul.”, by Jean Paul.

(…)(…)The method of psychological introspection has widely spread since The method of psychological introspection has widely spread since

the end of the last century, along with the newly emerging the end of the last century, along with the newly emerging philosophical theories on Realism; this is easily understood looking philosophical theories on Realism; this is easily understood looking in history recordings. (...) The fact that since the very first days of in history recordings. (...) The fact that since the very first days of the newborn realistical novel, the method of psychological analysis the newborn realistical novel, the method of psychological analysis has allowed writers to obtain the finest results in portraying their has allowed writers to obtain the finest results in portraying their characters’ inner nature needs to be emphasized. Yet, it is my characters’ inner nature needs to be emphasized. Yet, it is my opinion that these tendencies towards investigating human opinion that these tendencies towards investigating human behaviour have not emerged in the literature of Asia only after the behaviour have not emerged in the literature of Asia only after the introduction of Shoyo’s theories: it has been held as an opinion by introduction of Shoyo’s theories: it has been held as an opinion by some critics (some critics (hihyhihyōōkaka) from both Japan and China that a few of ) from both Japan and China that a few of such [fine] literary products had already appeared. such [fine] literary products had already appeared.

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A New Debate: The foundation for A New Debate: The foundation for a thorough reform of Japanese a thorough reform of Japanese

fictionfictionShinseishaShinseisha was constituted at a point of Meiji’s cultural life when was constituted at a point of Meiji’s cultural life when

magazines had begun to play a major role as media for spreading the magazines had begun to play a major role as media for spreading the ‘new’ tendencies in the world of literature, but is worth noting that, ‘new’ tendencies in the world of literature, but is worth noting that, unlike many literary reviews on the new proposals, in his early essays unlike many literary reviews on the new proposals, in his early essays both both ōōgai gai and Shand Shōōyyōō deliberately choose not to deal with criticism of deliberately choose not to deal with criticism of one single piece of work, they tend to construct a theory of literature one single piece of work, they tend to construct a theory of literature as a whole. as a whole.

It has also to be noted that, in discussing early literary theories Meiji It has also to be noted that, in discussing early literary theories Meiji intellectuals display a strong tendency to employ terms clearly intellectuals display a strong tendency to employ terms clearly derived from the Classical tradition in a somewhat broader sense. The derived from the Classical tradition in a somewhat broader sense. The extent to which an innovation in the concept of fiction is promoted by extent to which an innovation in the concept of fiction is promoted by Meiji’s prominent critics at this stage is not easily determined.Meiji’s prominent critics at this stage is not easily determined.

After the publication of After the publication of ‘Shigarami-zoshi’‘Shigarami-zoshi’ is discontinued, is discontinued, ōōgai has to gai has to move to the front, and upon his return he resumes his activity move to the front, and upon his return he resumes his activity founding the magazine ‘founding the magazine ‘MesamashikusaMesamashikusa’.’.

At this stage of his career At this stage of his career ōōgai becomes famous for the forums (gai becomes famous for the forums (gappyôgappyô) ) he organized and hosts – mostly at his house in the Kanda quarter, he organized and hosts – mostly at his house in the Kanda quarter, thethe Kanchôrô Kanchôrô – with many important writers and intellectuals of the – with many important writers and intellectuals of the period. The first of these very particular reviews, period. The first of these very particular reviews, ‘Sannin J‘Sannin Jōōggōō (‘The (‘The blabbering of three people’), serialized from March 1896 on, has blabbering of three people’), serialized from March 1896 on, has become famous for the appraisal of Higuchi Ichiybecome famous for the appraisal of Higuchi Ichiyōō (1872-1896),which (1872-1896),which earned her a firmer reputation as a writer. Also, earned her a firmer reputation as a writer. Also, ōōgai’s criticism gai’s criticism towards the Naturalist School becomes sharper.towards the Naturalist School becomes sharper.

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Towards a clear definition of Towards a clear definition of “Historical Fiction”“Historical Fiction”

By the time that the Meiji literati had begun a By the time that the Meiji literati had begun a process of re-evaluating classical fiction, process of re-evaluating classical fiction, centuries of devoted study had identified centuries of devoted study had identified “fictional” past events with real ones, even “fictional” past events with real ones, even though fictionalized history does not obey the though fictionalized history does not obey the rules of historiography. Revaluation rules of historiography. Revaluation estabilishing the primacy of classical estabilishing the primacy of classical masterpieces such as masterpieces such as Genji MonogatariGenji Monogatari was was primarily lead by the twelfth-century writers. primarily lead by the twelfth-century writers. The conscience of a “superiority” of fiction The conscience of a “superiority” of fiction based on historical truth and records grows based on historical truth and records grows when criticism of the Japanese “Naturalist” when criticism of the Japanese “Naturalist” School becomes sharper.School becomes sharper.

1313

Towards a clear definition of Japanese Towards a clear definition of Japanese “Historical Fiction” – Pt. II“Historical Fiction” – Pt. II

Mori Mori ŌŌgai, gai, Rekishi sono mama to Rekishibanare Rekishi sono mama to Rekishibanare 　　歴史歴史そのままと歴史離れそのままと歴史離れ (History as it is and History Ignored) (History as it is and History Ignored) [January 1915]: [January 1915]:

《《 There has been considerable discussion, even among my friends, There has been considerable discussion, even among my friends, as to whether or not my recent works that make use of actual as to whether or not my recent works that make use of actual historical figures can be considered as fiction. At a time when historical figures can be considered as fiction. At a time when there has been no shortage of scholars who, under the aegis of an there has been no shortage of scholars who, under the aegis of an authoritarian ethic, insist that novels should be written in some authoritarian ethic, insist that novels should be written in some particular fashion or other, rendering a judgment becomes rather particular fashion or other, rendering a judgment becomes rather difficult. I difficult. I mmyself recognize in the works I have written yself recognize in the works I have written considerable differences in the degree to which I have taken an considerable differences in the degree to which I have taken an objective point of view about my own material. (...)objective point of view about my own material. (...)

The kind of work I am now writing does differ from the fiction of The kind of work I am now writing does differ from the fiction of other writers. I have not in my recent historical works indulged in other writers. I have not in my recent historical works indulged in the free adaptation and rejection of historical fact common to this the free adaptation and rejection of historical fact common to this type of composition. (...)type of composition. (...)

Why? My motives are simple. In studying historical records, I came Why? My motives are simple. In studying historical records, I came to revere the reality that was evidenced in them. Any wanton to revere the reality that was evidenced in them. Any wanton change seemed distasteful to me. This is one of my motives. change seemed distasteful to me. This is one of my motives. Secondly, Secondly, if contemporary authors can write about life “just as it if contemporary authors can write about life “just as it is” and find it satisfactory, then they ought to appreciate a similar is” and find it satisfactory, then they ought to appreciate a similar treatment of the pasttreatment of the past 。。》》

1414

An attempt at definition:An attempt at definition:

Given the complexity of Japan’s long tradition of writing Given the complexity of Japan’s long tradition of writing fiction, even Japanese modern literature that sprung out fiction, even Japanese modern literature that sprung out after the reform of fiction that occurred in Meiji Japan after the reform of fiction that occurred in Meiji Japan needs to be assessed not only by the usual criteria needs to be assessed not only by the usual criteria applied – plot, characters, setting, theme, and tone – but applied – plot, characters, setting, theme, and tone – but also by cultural considerations. More specifically, it has also by cultural considerations. More specifically, it has to be noted that even the “new” concept of Historical to be noted that even the “new” concept of Historical fiction that Meiji writers promoted, although influenced fiction that Meiji writers promoted, although influenced by Western models, encompasses that traditional by Western models, encompasses that traditional conception in East Asian poetics which included history conception in East Asian poetics which included history as a major constituent of “Literature” ( as a major constituent of “Literature” ( Bun Bun 文文 ). Great ). Great Modern writers such as Ogai or Rohan relied heavily on Modern writers such as Ogai or Rohan relied heavily on Chinese historiography’s style and contents for creating Chinese historiography’s style and contents for creating their own late historical fiction.their own late historical fiction.