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1
Game Ethology
The Missing Link: A Methodology for Analyzing
Design through Behaviour in Games
Katrin Becker, University of Calgary
I have found the missing link between the higher ape and civilized man: It is we.
Konrad Lorenz
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Outline
• Background• Are We There Yet?• Serious Game Design• So What’s the Problem?
– Game Analysis for Design (A Solution)
• Finding Masterpieces– Studying the Masters
• Game Ethology• Sample Analysis• Next?
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Background (mine)
• Amateur Naturalist & Ethologist since childhood.
• Trained in Computer Science• CS Instructor 1983-2006
– Programming, Data Architecture
• Educational Technologist since 2003– Instructional Design
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Are We There Yet?
• Do we know enough about game design to stop investigating it?
• Do we know enough about serious game design to stop researching how to make them?
• Is design for Serious Games the same as design for Commercial Games?
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Serious Game Design
Differences
Game Design Serious Game Design
Focus Player Experience (how)
Content / Message (what)
Content / Method
In accord with each other (content may be irrelevant)
Method secondary to Content (game as receptacle?)
Vantage Point
Entertainment (& SENG?)
SIG (medicine, military, social change, ...)
Fidelity self-consistent, otherwise irrelevant
Faithfulness to message essential
Credentials Industry SIG (and industry?)
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So What’s the Problem?
• Software Engineering?– 30+ years and we STILL haven’t found
the Grail
• Theater & Film?– Documentary, training, & other non-
fiction?
• Education?– Instructional Design?
How do we make (good) serious games?
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What’s The Answer?
Pontificate (i.e. pull the answer out of your ........).
Hire only those with proven records of success.
Borrow methodologies from other design disciplines.
Study & Analyse Players.Study & Analyse Games.
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Analysis of Games for Serious Design
1. Players must learn and indeed do learn new things while playing the game.
2. It is possible to examine learning in a digital game without associating what is learned with value-laden educational aims.
3. Successful games are successful at least partially because they already facilitate learning.
Three fundamental assumptions:
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Learning in Games
• All games are about learning.– But NOT necessarily about
Education
• Learning is what we DO.• Learning is how we win the
game.
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Learning vs. Education
Learning
Value-Neutral
Can be Coincidental
Natural
Internally Motivated*
Education
Value-Laden
Deliberate
Coerced/Persuaded
Externally Motivated*
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Learning in Serious Games
• Learning is still usually how we win the game (or get to the end).– About knowledge, skills, attitudes
• Some exceptions?– psDoom [ http://psdoom.sourceforge.net/ ]
• utility
• Some are about action or prompting action:
• Example: FreeRice [ http://www.freerice.com/ ]
• Drill / quiz / contest
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Successful GamesFacilitat
e
Learning
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Game Analysis for Design
Learn about how to make good games by studying good games.
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One Approach: Study the Masters
They already have it right.
Why?
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Good Games?
Data fusion: Combine ranked lists of• Annual sales figures NPD Group
http://www.npd.com/press/releases/press_070119.html • Review sites Best Ofs
– Game Critics Awards: Best of E3 awards. http://www.gamecriticsawards.com/
– Metacritic: http://www.metacritic.com – IGN: (Independent Game Network) Top 100 Editor's Choice http://
www.ign.com/ – GameSpot: Top Games http://www.gamespot.com/ – Gamespy http://archive.gamespy.com/ – MobyGames http://www.mobygames.com
• IGDA awards• AIAS awards
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Top 25 (as of Dec. 2006)
11FPSM5.50Unreal Tournament 25
7FPSM5.94Halo: Combat Evolved 24
10RPGT6.00Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic23
7SimE6.18Nintendogs 22
8StrategyM6.25Resident Evil 4 21
9AAE6.32Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker20
8RPGT6.35Neverwinter Nights19
7FIGHTINGT6.67Soul Calibur 18
9ACTIONM6.95God of War 17
10MMOM7.00World of Warcraft16
12AAM7.04Deus Ex15
9FPST7.47GoldenEye 00714
10FIGHTINGT8.03Metroid Prime 13
11SportT8.18Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 312
11AAT8.42Shadow of the Colossus 11
9SimRP8.50Spore10
13AAR8.57Grand Theft Auto III9
14SportT8.69Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 8
15AAE8.78Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time7
10AAE8.93Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time6
13AAR9.02Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas5
13AAR9.47Grand Theft Auto: Vice City4
13RTST11.08Black & White 3
13FPSM11.17Halo 22
16AAM12.70Half-Life 2 1
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Methodological SynergyBehavioural AnalysisStructural Analysis
EthologyOntological
Excavation
Game as Object
Game Ethology(dynamic)
Game Structure(static)
Game Design
Documents
Reverse Engineerin
g
Behaviour Studies
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Methodological SynergyBehavioural AnalysisStructural Analysis
EthologyOntological
Excavation
Game as Object
Game Ethology(dynamic)
Game Structure(static)
Game Design
Documents
Reverse Engineerin
g
Behaviour Studies
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Ethology
• Lorenz & Tinbergen credited as the fathers of modern ethology
• Goes beyond structure• Studies subjects in their natural
habitats• Attempts to answer:
– Why do they do the things that they do?– What good does it do them?
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Ethology
1. Causation. What are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?
2. Function: How does the behaviour impact on the animal's chances of survival and reproduction?
3. Development: How does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown?
4. Evolution: How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have arisen through the process of phylogeny?
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Game Ethology
1. Causation (interaction). [How does it work?] What are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent interaction?
2. Development (flow): [How does it develop?] How does the behaviour change over the life of the game, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown?
3. Evolution: [How it ‘evolve’?] How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related games, and how might it have arisen through the process of evolution?
4. Function (purpose): [What is it for?] How does the behaviour impact on the game’s chances of success (survival) and sequels?
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How To Do Game Ethology
Measuring behaviour.
Field Notes (What does the game do?)
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Types of Behaviour
n/ano Short -medium
no State
un-ordered yes level or
game events &
bouts Theme
un-ordered yes medium several
bouts Bout
ordered no Short - medium
several steps
Event
n/a no short single act Step
Sequential Interruptible Duration Compound Type
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Measures (coding)
• Duration: measure of the length of real time an event takes. – those that would be experienced under normal uninterrupted play
circumstances• Instigator: What was the action that started the event?
– Random, Time-Triggered, Player-Instigated, Choose Option, Choose Next, State Driven (A particular condition is met), Other
• Entry Event: provides details of the actions that triggered the event.
• Terminator: same as the entry actions.• Exit Event: details of the exit action.• Location: Games exist in a finite space and often behaviours are
connected to specific locations. Other times events can occur in various locations. Both can be significant.
• Scene Description: Where is the action taking place? Describe scene; any non-interactive or static objects on the screen should be described.
• Behavioural Description: plain-English description of the actions that comprise the event. Any sounds or music; which other characters or objects are in the scene and whether they are active participants in the interaction or not. The actions of the player should be described.
• Dialogue: Transcribe any dialogue or other messages that are part of the behaviour.
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So What?
• Basis for comparisons• Same genre, Sequels, ‘Good’ games, Old games, Competitors
– Build structured body of knowledge on good games (that can be compared against)
• Augment early phase playtesting• Answer fundamental questions of our time
– Do good games provide more or fewer choices (Events) than lesser games?
– How long are cut scenes in good games?
• Guiding questions during design
Why am I doing this?What is it good for?
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Sample Analysis
Gardening in
Animal Crossing
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Behaviour Type Examples
• Theme: Gardening• Bout: water all the flowers in
the village• Event: water a flower• Step: pour• State: flower health
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Analysis: Ethology, Causation (Interaction)
Stimuli for players:• Watering can is a basic
tool• Flowers, weeds appear• Flowers go brown• Residents tell me to
look after flowersGame stimuli:• Planting flowers creates
more, generates new colours
• Consistent maintenance increases score
• Running over flowers destroys them
• Watering brown flowers revives them
• Picking brown flowers destroys them
Not especially interesting at first glance, but behaviour BECOMES interesting when Reviewed in light of other aspects.
What are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent interaction?(What makes it do that?)
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Analysis: Ethology, Development (Ontogeny, Game Flow)
• ‘First level’ tutorial• Flowers must be planted*• Very little change in the
game over the life of the game the change is almost all in the player
• Effect is predictability.• Few penalties beyond
immediate one (next ‘day’).• Jacob’s Ladders appear when
the balance is right, but not every day.
• Rewards include new colours, Jacob’s Ladders, golden rose, golden watering can
How does the behaviour change over the life of the game (like from level to level), and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown?
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Analysis: Ethology, Evolution
• Previous animal crossing (with adaptations for platform)
• Limited RPG style / sim ancestors– Harvest Moon
• Format: – Changes in choices
(options include only those that make sense)
– Pockets– Currency
More informative when looking at multiple games.
How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related games, and how might it have arisen through the process of evolution?
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Analysis: Ethology, Function (purpose) – how does it support game’s goals?
• Cultivation• Collections• Bells for flowers• Experience.....• Obvious penalties for
misses (natural consequences)
• Effort is rewarded
How does the behaviour impact on the game’s chances of success (survival) and sequels?
For Serious Games: How does the behaviour advance or help the game’s purpose?
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Next
• New approach– Needs refinement
• Has potential to add to understanding of games in new ways.