1

1) English - 5,828,000

2

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000

3

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000

4

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000 4) Tagalog - 165,000

5

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000 4) Tagalog - 165,000 5) Cebuano - 126,000

6

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000 4) Tagalog - 165,000 5) Cebuano - 126,000 6) Japanese - 117,000

7

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000 4) Tagalog - 165,000 5) Cebuano - 126,000 6) Japanese - 117,000 7) Ilokano - 109,000

8

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000 4) Tagalog - 165,000 5) Cebuano - 126,000 6) Japanese - 117,000 7) Ilokano - 109,000 8) Samoan - 102,000

9

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000 4) Tagalog - 165,000 5) Cebuano - 126,000 6) Japanese - 117,000 7) Ilokano - 109,000 8) Samoan - 102,000 9) Tongan - 76,000

10

1) English - 5,828,000 2) Spanish - 3,681,000 3) Portuguese - 907,000 4) Tagalog - 165,000 5) Cebuano - 126,000 6) Japanese - 117,000 7) Ilokano - 109,000 8) Samoan - 102,000 9) Tongan - 76,000 10) Korean - 75,000

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Mutual intelligibility Genetically related languages Typologically related languages Areal classifications

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Absolute: true of every (human) language E.g. has oral V

Tendencies: hold for many/most languages Implication: one fact implies another Fricatives stops

Markedness Marked: more complex, less common (nasal V) Unmarked: simpler, more common (non-nasal V)

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Vowels Most common: 5 maximally separated V Vast majority have 3-9 V /a/ is the most common Front unrounded Nonlow back rounded Low unrounded Contrastive nasal contrastive oral Contrastive long contrastive short

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Consonants Wide range: 8-98 C Stops are universal, /t, k, p/ most common (order) /s/ is the most common fricative Nasal is almost universal, /n/ most common Voiced obstruents voiceless obstruents Sonorant voiced Fricative stop Affricate stops and fricatives

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Tone 2-7 tones in most tonal languages Contrastive tones exist (usually only 2: H vs. L) Contour level Complex contour simple contour

Stress Fixed: predictable Free: no fixed pattern

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Syllables V, CV are universal Onset clusters one or zero C’s in onset Coda clusters one or zero C’s in coda Sonority sequencing ▪ Nucleus highest sonority in syllable ▪ Coda falling sonority in syllable ▪ Onset rising sonority in syllable

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Language types Analytic (isolating) Polysynthetic Synthetic

▪ Agglutinating ▪ Fusional (inflectional)

Mixed Inflectional derivational Derivational closer to root Suffixes only postpositions

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Word order: SVO, SOV, VSO (>95%) S > O

VO prepositions, OV postpositions OV {ADV, PP} precede V (& vice-v.) Agent hierarchies: Subj > D.Obj > other Interacts with notions of markedness

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Indo-European Germanic: English, German, Norwegian, Gothic, … Celtic: Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, Breton, … Italic: Italian, Spanish, Romansch, Rumanian, … Hellenic Baltic: Latvian, Lithuanian Slavic: Russian, Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Polish, … Armenian Albanian Indo-Iranian: Farsi, Kurdish, Hindi/Urdu, Romany,

Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, …

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Uralic Finno-Ugric: Finnish, Lapp, Komi, Hungarian, … Samoyed: Nenets, Enets, Selkup, …

Altaic Turkic: Turkish, Uzbek, Tatar, Uighur, … Mongolian: Khalkha, Buriat Tungusic Korean Japanese

25

Caucasian Kartvelian: Georgian, Mingrelian, … NW Caucasian: Abkhaz, Kabardian NE Caucasian: Chechen, Lezghian, …

Dravidian North: Malto, Brahui, … Central: Kolami, Parji, … South-central: Telugu, Gondi, … South: Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, …

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Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman: Burmese, Tibetan, Sharpa, … Sinitic: Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka, …

Austroasiatic Munda: Santali, Ho, … Nicobarese: Nancowry, … Aslian: Semai, Semelai, … Mon-Khmer: Vietnamese, Khmer, Hmong, …

27

Austronesian Formosan: Amis, Binun, … MalayoPolynesian (W): Tagalog, Malay, Balinese… MalayoPolynesian (C): Tetum, Soboyo, … MalayoPolynesian (E): Samoan, Tongan, Maori, …

Indo-Pacific Over 700, all spoken on New Guinea and

surrounding islands Australian

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Afroasiatic Egyptian Cushitic: Somali, Oromo Berber: Tuarig, Zenaga, … Chadic: Hausa Semitic: Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic

Niger-Congo: (9 subfamilies) Fula, Wolof, Mende, Maninka, Twi, Ewe, Igbo, Zulu, …

Nilo-Saharan: Maasai, Songhai, Nubian, … Khoisan: Hottentot, Sandawa, …

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Dozens of native American languages FAMILIES in the Americas! Mayan Uto-Aztecan Eskimo-Aleut Athapaskan Siouan Iroquoian Wakashan Salish

…

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Every 10 days or so a language dies Most disappear unnoticed

Killer languages Worldwide phenomenon What’s lost when a language dies?