1. Communication … · Web view1.2 Product Development and Marketing 4. 1.3 Defining Community...

Toolkit for Urban Water Supply ProjectsModule 2

Communication, Community and Community Participation

Table of Contents

1. Defining Communication and Community............................................................31.1 Communication..............................................................................................31.2 Product Development and Marketing............................................................41.3 Defining Community......................................................................................51.4 Community Participation: Pitfalls and Illusions..............................................51.5 Water Supply and Local Politics....................................................................8

2. Giving Content to Community Participation..........................................................82.1 Is Community Participation Necessary?........................................................82.2 Limits to Community Participation and the Role of the WSP.........................92.3 Water Supply Projects and Community Participation..................................10

2.3.1 Views and Proposals of Residents.......................................................102.3.2 Project Design Phase...........................................................................112.3.3 Project/Programme Implementation.....................................................132.3.4 Daily Management of Water Supply Facilities......................................13

2.4 Working with Communities..........................................................................142.4.1 Establishment of a Multi-Stakeholder Project Task Team....................142.4.2 Creating a Strong WSP presence in the Low Income Urban Areas.....14

3. Communication during the Different Phases of a Project / Programme.............153.1 Introduction..................................................................................................153.2 Main Objectives of Projects and Programmes.............................................153.3 Data Collection and Needs Assessments....................................................153.4 Communication within the WSP Organisation.............................................15

3.4.1 Content of Community-Level Projects..................................................163.4.2 Practicalities of Community-Level Projects..........................................163.4.3 Diffusion of Good Practices..................................................................16

3.5 Detailed Design of the Project/Programme.................................................173.6 About Messages, Programmes and Target Groups....................................173.7 Need for Coordination: Community Sensitisation & Technical Works.........193.8 Need for One Subject Messages.................................................................19

___________________________________________________________________Toolkit for Urban Water Supply Projects Module 2 Communication, Community (Participation)

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3.9 Implementation and Monitoring...................................................................203.10 Evaluation of the Intervention......................................................................21

4. Some Remarks about the Diffusion of Messages and Practices........................215. An Example of a Health & Hygiene Education Programme................................22List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................24Bibliography...............................................................................................................24


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Developing an Adapted and Effective Communication Strategy

1. Defining Communication and Community

1.1 Communication The objective of this document is to present the outline of a clear and tailor made communication strategy which:

Suits the needs of Water Service Providers (WSPs). Is adapted to the requirements and wishes of its customers and to the urban

populations. Before we continue, it is important to define communication. Some experts argue that all forms of interaction between individuals can be regarded as communication. Interaction does not even need to be verbal or intended. For example, if, in September, after the first rains, a farmer in Webuye passes the fields of a friend, he may interpret the fact that his friend has already started cultivating his field as a sign that his friend believes the rainy season has started and that more rains will follow soon. In other words, in a non-verbal and unintended way, the friend of our farmer has communicated what is believed to be his assessment with regard to the coming rainy season. Sometimes interpretations are wrong. A dirty kiosk may be interpreted by the Kiosk Supervisor of the WSP as a sign that the Kiosk Operator is negligent and lazy, but further enquiries may offer another explanation; the Operator is suffering from malaria. Some social scientists argue that interaction differs from communication in the sense that communication is aimed at achieving a common understanding: According to the German philosopher and sociologist Jürgen Habermas:

“Actors who are engaged in 'communicative action' attempt against the background of their shared lifeworld to reach a common understanding regarding elements pertaining to 'objective reality', 'social reality' and the inner life of the actors involved in the communication process. Habermas compares 'communicative action' with, among other things, 'strategic action' during which actors attempt to realize their own objectives and do not aim at reaching a common understanding (see also Habermas 1984: 84-102).

If we define “lifeword” as the shared experiences1 of people, it means that in order to be able to effectively communicate with local communities, the staff of the WSP

1 According to Habermas, a commonly shared lifeworld contains the experiences of past generations in the form of interpretations regarding reality, binding norms and fixed interpretations concerning needs. Habermas further states that:

'Subjects acting communicatively always come to an understanding in the horizon of a lifeworld. Their lifeworld is formed from more or less diffuse, always unproblematic, background convictions. This lifeworld serves as a source of situation definitions that are presupposed by participants as unproblematic. In their interpretative accomplishments the members of a communication community demarcate the one objective world and their intersubjectively shared social world from the subjective world of individuals and (other) collectivities.' (Habermas 1981: 70)


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responsible for the low income urban areas (but also the other staff of the service provider), must share knowledge with the members of the community. This implies that the low staff of the PUU is able to understand:

The living conditions in a specific peri-urban area, The problems residents are faced with and the problems related to water

supply and sanitation in particular. The organisations that represent the residents, Internal tensions and conflicts, etc.

As pointed out in the “Data Collection and Needs Assessment” document (Module 2, Section 1), sharing knowledge with local residents requires the establishment of a detailed database but it also means spending time in the low income urban areas, sharing experiences and knowledge with local residents. The service provider in a way has to become part of the community.

1.2 Product Development and MarketingThese ideas on communication are not new and their use is certainly not restricted to the social sciences. Marketing, for instance is seen nowadays as a form of communication based upon a detailed knowledge and understanding of the target group. Even the identification of relevant target groups is the result of a process aimed at acquiring knowledge on and communicating with potential customers. Philips, the electronics company, for instance, is basing its marketing strategy upon detailed social studies aimed at identifying relevant target categories and developing and marketing electronic products (portable audio products, televisions, etc.) based upon an assessment of needs. After having identified a target category, for example Asian teenagers, the search for products and an adapted marketing campaign begins. This search involves establishing ongoing institutionalised communication with members of the target category. Communication aimed at understanding the “lifeworlds”, i.e. the experiences, ideas, preferences, etc. of the target category. Communication aimed at discovering their “electronics needs and desires”. Communication which should help to design an adapted marketing concept (how to approach the potential customers) once the product is ready for production. The approach adopted by Philips and many other companies involves the creation of “product development teams” consisting of company product experts, marketing experts2 and of members of the target category. Members of the target category are asked to be involved in the design of the hardware (say a portable MP3 player) and the development of the marketing concept. Teenagers are involved in the design and marketing of ghetto blasters and other portable audio/video players. Women are involved in the design and marketing of a new perfume.3 Such a strategy, which has also been adopted by Japanese electronics companies, has proved to be very successful and a break-away from the past practices whereby engineers simply

The components making up the lifeworld are, according to Habermas, world views, institutions and personalities. Social actors who are the product of a commonly shared lifeworld can therefore be considered the product of: 1) a certain tradition, 2) of solidarity groups, and 3) of socialization processes (Kunneman 1985: 102-3).2 Increasingly the marketing of products is outsourced to specialised companies. 3 L’Oreal, a large French personal care company, has adopted a similar approach.


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developed and designed products they considered to be good and marketable (eat it or leave it). What is the relevance of these observations for a service provider which sells a “basic need” such as water? What can we learn from the Philips example? After all, most service providers almost have a monopoly when it comes to treated water. A portable MP3 player is a luxury product, but we all need water. Why should a water company need to know the communities it is supplying? What are the advantages of community participation?

1.3 Defining CommunitySo far we have used the word “community” as if it constitutes a uniform, undifferentiated and even harmonious entity. This, of course, is almost never the case. In fact, most communities are characterised by social, cultural, political and economic differentiation. In other words, each community and each peri-urban community can be subdivided in a large number of social categories (children attending primary schools) and groups (the local congregation of Jehovah’s Witnesses, a CBO). Like in the case of Philips, the identification of relevant groups and categories within the communities supplied by or to be supplied by the WSP, is one of the challenges the service provider will be faced with. Relevant groups and categories in the sense that establishing lines of communications with these groups and categories will contribute in a significant way to the achievement of the main social, public health, commercial and technical objectives of the service provider. For example, having discussions with a group of youths that has been vandalising kiosks and valve chambers, may help to reduce vandalism, i.e. reduce maintenance and repair costs and improve water supply to customers. Educating women on how to transport and conserve water may contribute to a better public health.

1.4 Community Participation: Pitfalls and IllusionsIt is striking that during workshops, conferences, and meetings, participants often talk about “the community” and “community participation” as if the population of low income urban areas (slums, etc.) consists of a group of individuals who all share the same goals, interests, ideologies and as if they all support and wish to participate in the project. In reality one has to conclude that this is not the case; urban residents have different ideas on development, support different political parties, have different interests and have conflicts with others (e.g. neighbours, political rivals, relatives, etc.). Even low income urban areas are marked by a socio-economic differentiation, which prevents people from sharing the same interests and goals. Some residents, for example, may not be interested in the introduction of kiosks; they wish to have a private connection to make their restaurant an even more successful business venture. Others may have an illegal connection or are paying a flat rate and earn an additional income by selling water to neighbours. Cartels may even strongly oppose the improvement of the water supply situation. Often projects or NGOs tend to hide behind the “community participation” concept: “The community is really supporting the project”,”the community is participating in the project.” Each project has a number of stakeholders. It often tends to make life easier for all project stakeholders if during a workshop the major stakeholder - the (future) beneficiaries - is represented by a few individuals or by a CBO. After all it is


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impossible to invite all beneficiaries, all peri-urban residents, all women suffering from HIV/AIDS, all peasants of the district. It is convenient if community participation can be given content by introducing and giving the floor to a number of people who are said to represent the “community”. Sociological analyses of a large number of projects show that each project tends to create its own “clientele”, a number of individuals who are somehow involved in and dependent upon the project. Individuals who consider that by receiving sitting allowances or a salary, that by attending seminars and addressing meetings in their community, they will improve their living conditions, increase their prestige and social status and improve the livelihood of those who are supposed to benefit from the project. As long as their activities within the project are aimed at achieving the main objectives of the project, there is nothing against individuals trying to reach a number of personal goals. But one has to be cautious. By asking a limited number of individuals or a group to represent the community, the project, intentionally or unintentionally, may “cover up” the tensions or conflicts that exist within the project area. By creating a clientele, a project may willingly or unintentionally create the impression that the project is considered to be important by the whole target population, by all “beneficiaries”. This, however, may not be the case. In-depth discussions and meetings with members of the “target group” may reveal that most residents are not at all interested in the project and its goals. Sometimes a majority of the target group is not even aware that the project exists, or they may not feel represented by residents who, within the project, speak and act on behalf of the “community”. When working in low income urban areas, therefore, WSP staff always has to stay focused: Do the Chief and a large CBO really represent the community as a whole? Why does the Chief prefer to have 3 kiosks in a particular area? Are the proposed Kiosk Operators really destitute women or just relatives of the local Councillor? Is the CBO really trying to improve the living conditions and public health in the compound? Being able to answer these questions requires obtaining a detailed knowledge on the low income urban areas. If one is not critical and if certain questions are never asked, the project or programme may be in for a number of interesting but disappointing surprises; The population does not make use of, or even boycotts the new kiosks. Beneficiaries criticise the set-up of the project and complain that they were never involved, etc.In Livingstone (Zambia), for instance, a few female peri-urban residents told a team of the WSP (November 2002), that the Residents Development Committee (RDC) was not available that day, as they all attended a workshop on the advantages and risks of breast-feeding. The WSP was also told that the men had just gone to attend the workshop because of the free drinks, the biscuits and the sitting allowances. One has to ask whether the organisers of the workshop, by asking an “all male” RDC to represent the community, will achieve their objective; creating awareness and transferring knowledge to the community. Can such a workshop achieve its objective if the participants in the workshop are men who are guided by their own interests, instead of local women who could play a role in the diffusion of knowledge? This example also shows that gender should be considered when trying to achieve proper representation. Although women and children, in most cases are responsible for water supply, men tend to dominate the local political and


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institutional/organisational arena. The problem and ideas of women often remain unheard. It is relatively easy to organise “community participation” if it means having a few residents or a group, a number of uncritical “yes men” and “yes women” willing to support the objectives of the project in exchange for certain benefits. It is much more difficult to make sure that the project is really actively supported by a large majority of the community. Why is this so? Because assuring active participation and proper representation, require establishing close links with the community. Establishing close links means being there, in the peri-urban area, listening to different residents or groups, trying to understand their problems, their solutions and proposals. It also means accepting that not all people necessarily endorse the objectives of the project or programme. If a large majority does not accept the project, because residents prefer the hand pumps they have installed, the service provider should invest its resources elsewhere, instead of looking for community representatives who do support the project. If the project area is marked by political tensions and if different political parties try to “hijack” the project, the service provider has to consider setting up a kiosk system, without community participation. Some attempts to create community participation by simply enrolling (recruiting) a few so-called “representatives”, can sometimes be attributed to the fact that project or service provider staff is unwilling to spend time in the low income urban areas in order to grasp the dynamics of urban life. Low income urban areas are often associated with poverty, a lack of organisation and poor hygienic conditions. Urban residents are seen as being unable and unwilling to pay and as being rather unpredictable and rude. Working in low income urban areas, is often not popular among service provider staff. Dealing with customers who have domestic connections or dealing with large commercial customers, is considered to be easier and more rewarding. More rewarding when considering company revenue and personal prestige. Time spent in low income urban areas is often regarded as a waste of time and company money. It is striking that most workshops take place in an environment the management of the project or programme is familiar with; a local hotel or conference centre. The rationale behind such a decision is that facilities are better (electricity for the beamer, sanitation, food and drinks), but one has to ask the question whether this is the real reason for not organising such activities in local community halls, at markets or at gathering sites within the low income urban areas. It could well be that project staff, fear to be confronted with the realities of urban life. They also may feel, that by creating too much transparency, they loose control over the event. They may even try to avoid that passers-by or uninvited participants, question the presence and input of the persons who are said to represent the community or even the objectives and set-up of the project or programme. What is the lesson we must draw from what has been discussed in this section:

WSP staff must be aware that there is no such thing as a “community” as being a group of people, who fully share a set of values, norms, goals and (political) views.

Community representatives may not really represent the views and objectives of the majority of the population. Staff of the service provider can only know if persons really represent the community, if they know what is taking place in a peri-urban area.


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WSP staff should not only talk to so-called community representatives, but they should spend enough time in the low income urban areas, interacting with ordinary residents.

Activities should be transparent and accessible and therefore organised within the low income urban areas.

WS staff responsible for the low income areas should acquire detailed knowledge on the low income urban areas they work for and be sensitive to tensions, and processes of socio-economic change.

Men often dominate the official public and political arena and sphere. They often end up representing the population despite the fact that they may not be the most important section within the target group.

The WSP (Public Relations Manager, etc.) should often communicate with the staff members responsible for kiosk supervision. These members of staff (should) spend much of their time in the low income urban areas, with the Kiosk Operators and the residents.

1.5 Water Supply and Local PoliticsDepoliticising water supply, does not necessarily mean ignoring the local political scene and struggles. Local politicians, CBOs and cartels are often capable of mobilising people and make them do things that go against the wish of the majority. Organised vandalism targeting public facilities used by most residents are common phenomena in many countries. According to the manager of the Kanyama Water Trust in Lusaka (Zambia), one of the potential threats is vandalism organised by local politicians who have become frustrated as they were unable to:

“get something out of the project, allowances or status. They feel left out and may decide to turn against us.”

In other words, whereas in some contexts, it is better to introduce a kiosk system without any community participation, it may be important, from a strategic point of view, to involve local politicians (consulting them) during the various phases of the project.

2. Giving Content to Community Participation

2.1 Is Community Participation Necessary?Can peri-urban water supply and sanitation be successful from a social, public health, commercial and technical perspective without a community participation concept, without community-based organisations (CBOs) playing an active role? In Burkina Faso, hundreds of water kiosks, especially in the larger towns such as Ouagadougou and Koudougou, function quite well without a community participation concept. Also the kiosks of Electrogaz, in Butare (Rwanda’s second largest town), were introduced and are operated without community participation. The Chipata kiosks system, which has been developed and implemented without community participation, has been in operation since 1994.In other words, it is indeed possible to successfully design, implement and operate a water supply (management) system for low income urban areas, without a


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community participation concept. If, for instance, the kiosks belong to and are maintained and repaired by the Commercial Utility (WSP) and if the kiosks are managed by Kiosk Operators who have a (franchise) contract with the WSP, the kiosk system can operate without the active participation of the community.

2.2 Limits to Community Participation and the Role of the WSP Is community participation perhaps even incompatible with the management of water supply infrastructures by a WSP? The answer is no. The George Complex project in Lusaka (Zambia) shows that communities can play an important role in the maintenance and management of water supply infrastructures.4 In Burkina Faso attempts have been made to improve the kiosk system by developing community and user participation concepts. The fact that peri-urban water supply schemes can be managed successfully without the active participation of the residents, does not mean that there is no room for meaningful community participation and no role for CBOs. Moreover, attempts to improve peri-urban water supply and sanitation without an adapted community participation concept would also probably mean a blow to existing local water supply initiatives and committees. In two Zambian towns, Kabwe and Kapiri Mposhi, a number of interesting and successful initiatives were developed and implemented by the community. These initiatives not only resulted in an improvement of the water supply situation but also in a strengthening of the community as a whole. Low income area water supply schemes operated by WSPs should be able to function without community participation. Concerning peri-urban water supply; the only actors or stakeholders bearing contractual responsibilities should be the WSP and the Kiosk Operator who are “tied” to each other through a (franchise) contract. Community participation should be given its niche between “no community involvement” on the one hand and “community management” and community ownership on the other (see Bolt, Schouten and Moriarty 2001:61). This means that low income urban communities and/or CBOs should preferably not be involved in the financial, operational and technical management of the scheme. If this is the case, the question arises whether there is room for a meaningful community contribution, i.e. a contribution that benefits the peri-urban residents, the local authorities and the WSP? Why should a WSP have to deal with clients as well as with the community as a whole? The WSP should not transfer the ownership of the peri-urban water supply infrastructure to the local communities or the organisations that represent them. By developing and putting into practice a community participation concept, the WSP should aim at creating a sense of psychological ownership, a sense of responsibility and attachment, among the population of the low income urban areas.

2.3 Water Supply Projects and Community Participation

2.3.1 Views and Proposals of ResidentsThe above-mentioned questions were also asked during the group discussions that were organized in Zambia in 2001 within the framework of the Water Supply and

4 The George Complex scheme, which is operated by the Lusaka Water and Sewerage Company, supplies more than 180,000 residents with safe water through a large number of communal taps.


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Sanitation Study for Seven Centres of Central Province (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, GKW Consult, PriceWaterhouseCoopers, BCHOD; 2002). In low income urban areas such as Ithezi-Thezi Compound, Mumbwa, participants emphasised that the community as a whole could play an active and important role during the water supply and sanitation project implementation phase, as well as during the operational phase. Many also rejected the idea of cooperation on a project basis, but emphasised the need for a continuous cooperation between the service provider and the community. In other words, cooperation between the service provider and the community, represented by local organisations, should not be on an ad hoc basis but based upon principles, strategies and procedures aimed at consulting and working together with peri-urban residents. Other participants underlined the importance of consulting and implicating women, being the main collectors and processors of water, during the planning and implementation of water supply interventions but also during the operation phase. Some participants pointed out that when water becomes a commodity, a scarce resource or when water supply ceases to be merely a household affair because when the community comes in, water supply tends to become an important issue on the local political agenda, in the local political arena, (see also van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1985), an arena, which is often dominated by men. The danger thus exists that although women are or become responsible for water payments and continue to be responsible for water fetching, men end up monopolising local water politics.According to the participants in the group discussions, community participation should aim at achieving the objectives of the service provider, the local authorities and of the peri-urban community. In fact most objectives are shared in the sense that all stakeholders wish to achieve them. It is obvious that all stakeholders share the social and public health objectives but even the commercial/financial objectives of the service provider are important to the other parties involved as their attainment assures the long-term sustainability of peri-urban water supply and sanitation. Preventing and fighting vandalism, for example, benefits the local population (continued access to treated water) and the service provider (maintenance and repair costs are less and more predictable). The following ideas and propositions were recorded during the first round (period: April – July 2001) of group discussions organised in Mumbwa and in other towns of Zambia’s Central Province (Serenje, Mkushi, Chisamba, Kabwe, Kapiri Mposhi) and during group discussions organised in Southern Province (Monze, Siavonga, Choma and Mazabuka (1996) and Livingstone (1998)).

2.3.2 Project Design Phase

2.3.2.1 Finding Appropriate Sites for Water Supply Outlets such as Kiosks The service provider should develop a procedure aimed at assuring the active

participation of the peri-urban community during the phase when water supply infrastructures are sited.

Siting of kiosks, public (fee-paying) VIPs or other infrastructure together with the peri-urban population will facilitate the maintenance of these structures as residents feel the kiosk or communal tap belongs to them and is to some extent their responsibility.


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A participant in Serenje explained that community participation is important because involving the population in the localisation of the kiosks is a first step of a process whereby the kiosk gradually “becomes part and parcel of the community”. In this way the service provider could even contribute to a gradual strengthening of the community.

Some respondents emphasised that only local residents know the (micro) areas characterised by high levels of vandalism. Others pointed out that implicating women in the siting process, will increase the accessibility of the water supply outlets, resulting in higher water sales.

Residents of low income areas and the Local Authority should be made aware that environmental (risk of erosion and flooding), legal (land usage or ownership claims), technical, commercial and financial (e.g. the distance to the main distribution network) constraints will have an impact upon decisions pertaining to siting and the extent of infrastructure (for instance the number of kiosks to be constructed).

The commercial viability objective of the kiosk, for example, will to a large extent determine the number of clients per kiosks and therefore the number of kiosks that will be constructed.

2.3.2.2 Customer-Aided Design of Water Supply facilitiesWater supply and sanitation facilities in low income urban areas are often characterised by the poor, inappropriate design, user unfriendliness and lack of standardisation. According to participants, user friendliness (for example, from an ergonomic point of view) should be an important aspect of the design of peri-urban water supply and sanitation infrastructure. One way of achieving this is by adopting a Customer Aided Design (CuAD) approach, similar to the one adopted by some divisions of Philips, which implies implicating future users during the design phase and translating their views and proposals into concrete designs. A variety of kiosks, however, places a constraint upon the technical maintenance of the kiosk system.5 An obvious solution is standardisation. The question that arises is whether the CuAD approach is compatible with the standardisation objective. Another question is whether residents who are used to fetching water from yard wells and who lack a technical training can offer a meaningful contribution to the design of a water kiosk. We therefore propose an alternative approach, which leaves intact the idea of a customer aided design. This approach involves the participation of users, Kiosk Operators and service provider staff in the technical evaluation of existing peri-urban

5 In Burkina Faso and Kenya, for example, we find a large variety of kiosks. Some kiosks, operated by WSPs, are little more than a pipe and a tap. Other kiosk designs have taken user-friendliness and ergonomic aspects into account. For example, a concrete “half-way pole” which allows women in Burkina Faso to change the position of their hands when lifting their bowl or bucket, is part of the design of the DANIDA (the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs) kiosks. All designs in use in Burkina Faso are open (a platform, taps and a roof made of iron sheets) and fragile in comparison with the kiosks that were constructed in Chipata, Zambia and in parts of Kenya (Kitale, Malindi). The current designs are adapted in the sense that they are a response to climatic conditions. During the hot season, when the temperature can reach 45 degrees Celsius, a closed kiosk would be unsuitable. The fragile design and the fact that most kiosks are in good technical condition also shows that levels of theft and vandalism are low in Burkina Faso. Perhaps a number of devastating droughts have resulted in the population of Burkina Faso attributing much value to safe water and water supply?


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water supply infrastructures. In other words, instead of approaching future beneficiaries, the service provider should approach customers who have acquired a lot of experience whilst using water kiosks. This means that existing (and relatively successful) designs are taken as a point of departure and evaluated by the various user categories. The long-term objective of the CuAD will then be to gradually improve the design of say a water kiosk. In May 2001 GKW Consult carried out a technical/ergonomic evaluation of the water kiosks in Chipata (Zambia), which were inaugurated in 1998. On the basis of this participatory evaluation, more than 20 improvements were made in the design of the kiosk. Meanwhile this improved kiosk has been constructed in many Zambian towns. In other words, the proposed approach seeks to combine CuAD and the standardisation objective. One of the major challenges will be to create kiosks which are more or less vandalism proof. Improving the ergonomic aspects of water supply outlets and their user-friendliness, involves closely observing the movements and practices of clients and Operators. It also means discussing kiosk design with the most important customer categories; the women and children. Customers, Kiosk Operators and WSP staff (meter readers, engineers) should be given the opportunity to evaluate the existing structures and to come up with improvements. These improvements should be included in the new design (and drawings) of the kiosk. 6 7

2.3.2.3 Development of Kiosk (Management) ConceptsAccording to participants in the group discussions, the water supply/kiosk management system can and should be adapted to the needs and wishes of the (future) clients.

The WSP could implicate a local CBO, the Chief or the members of the Project Task Team when it intends to recruit Kiosk Operators or establish communal tap committees and caretakers.

The service provider should promote the role of women by recruiting and training female Kiosk Operators, caretakers, etc.

The community should be consulted when it comes to determining kiosk business hours and procedures related to special circumstances (fires, funerals, etc.).

The community can play a role during the elaboration of a payment system (tokens, water on credit, pre-payment exercise books, cards) adapted to the needs, capacities and wishes of (future) users.

2.3.3 Project/Programme ImplementationThe urban community, CBOs (e.g. water committees and neighbourhood health committees) and local health centres, can play an active role during:

6 CuAD should also include the design of the meter chamber (if not part of the kiosk itself) and soakaways.7 A common problem with the design of kiosk throughout Africa, is the quality of the taps itself and every consultant and development organisation seems to have fixed ideas on what constitutes the best tap (push taps, pull taps, etc.). Also in Burkina Faso and Kenya the quality of the taps used is not satisfactory and many taps are leaking, this to the discontent of many vendors. The problem is that usually taps are installed that were made for household use. In Zambia the best kiosk taps are the Japanese taps that were installed in George Complex, Lusaka.


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The design and implementation of sensitisation and information campaigns. For example, campaigns aimed at introducing the kiosk system, a new tariff, educating the population on health and hygiene matters.

The collection of data on the population, water supply and sanitation infrastructures (open wells, hand pumps, windlass wells, pit latrines, etc.).

The collection of data on water consumption levels, water related diseases, the willingness and ability to pay.

The implementation and inauguration of a kiosk system.

2.3.4 Daily Management of Water Supply FacilitiesThe community and existing CBOs can play an important role during the operation of the peri-urban water supply (management) system:

Prevention of vandalism (social control, reporting and imposing sanctions). An active role should be given to neighbourhood watch committees and neighbourhood water committees (if such CBOs exist). The project Task Team, together with the service provider, will have to sensitise the population.

Assuring cleanliness and hygiene at the kiosks. Reporting (to the WSP) damage and leakages by residents and community

representatives. Collecting and communicating complaints to the service provider in case of

poor service levels (for instance problems with pressure or water quality). Establishing efficient lines of communication between residents and the WSP.

(customer complaints forms, organisation of feedback and quick response in case of reported damage or customer complaints).

Assisting in health and hygiene education or sensitisation campaigns (for instance, the neighbourhood health committees and the neighbourhood water committees).

Being responsible for the recruitment of new Kiosk Operators.8

By giving cooperation with local organisations and community participation a meaningful content and by assuring that the peri-urban population identifies itself with “its kiosks or communal taps”, the service provider can contribute, albeit in a modest way, to community building and the strengthening of the local civil society.All the above-mentioned proposals made by residents of low income urban areas can only be implemented successfully if the service provider has acquired a detailed knowledge on, and has established a good communication with the communities concerned.

2.4 Working with CommunitiesIn order to ensure that community participation is given meaningful content during the implementation and operation of a water supply project/scheme, the WSP should:

Include residents, Chiefs and CBOs in the Project Task Team.

8 Kiosks do not need to be operated by individuals. In Burkina Faso (towns like Dori) and in Kenya some kiosks are managed quite successfully, by groups (for instance by local women associations). This example shows that community participation and the commercial operation of kiosk can be compatible.


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Establish a strong presence and continuous in the project area.

2.4.1 Establishment of a Multi-Stakeholder Project Task TeamThrough the creation of a multi-stakeholder Project Task Team, the WSP can ensure that the suggestions and concerns of the residents of the project area are taken into consideration. The Project Task Team should be composed of:

Relevant WSP staff. Staff of the Water Services Board (WSB). Council staff. The Chief. The Public Health Officer. The Community Health Extension Worker (CHEW). Representatives of relevant CBOs. Residents and local opinion leaders (church elders, etc.). The Police (in areas with high levels of vandalism).

The creation and functions of the Project Task Team are discussed in detail in Module 3, Section 2).

2.4.2 Creating a Strong WSP presence in the Low Income Urban AreasAfter the commissioning of the water supply project, the WSP should not withdraw from the project area. On the contrary, a strong local presence of the WSP is the key to a successful and sustainable water supply scheme. The new or rehabilitated water supply scheme should be supervised by dedicated WSP staff. These staff members should carry out the following tasks:

Inspect the water kiosks and other water supply infrastructure. Monitor the Kiosk Operators. Communicate with customers and community representatives. Provide customer care and collect customer complaints. Identify illegal connections. Carry out disconnections. Collect customer application forms. Carry out minor repairs. Report and follow-up major damage.

Establishing a strong WSP presence in low income urban areas is discussed in more detail in Module 4, Section 9 of this Toolkit.

3. Communication during the Different Phases of a Project / Programme

3.1 IntroductionThe document on data collection and needs assessment (see Module 2, Section 1, Data Collection and Needs Assessments) emphasised the importance of data collection and assessment of needs. This section of the Toolkit focuses upon the need for the WSP to communicate with low income urban communities.


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So far no attention was given to the various phases of a sensitisation or social marketing campaign, a HHE programme or a peri-urban water supply improvement programme involving the introduction of water kiosks. How do data collection, needs assessment and a communication strategy become part of a project or programme? What is their contribution to the successive phases of the elaboration and implementation of a programme or campaign? We have seen how communication with urban communities are an essential part of data collection and needs assessment exercises, but how is communication between the WSP and the urban community (or a specific target group) given shape during the subsequent phases of a project. Answering this question also involves looking at the various phases that constitute the intervention of the service provider in the communities it serves or intends to serve.

3.2 Main Objectives of Projects and Programmes The main social, public health, commercial/financial and technical objectives of the service provider should be at the basis of all interventions, programmes and communications. For example, the WSP does not play a role in solving a conflict within a hand pump user committee, but has to respond when kiosks are vandalised, because a damaged or non-functional kiosk puts the achievement of all objectives in jeopardy.

3.3 Data Collection and Needs AssessmentsData collection and needs assessment aim at identifying the opportunities and constraints that may facilitate or hamper the achievement of the objectives of the WSP. Data collection and needs assessment also includes the search for relevant target groups within the project area.

3.4 Communication within the WSP OrganisationThe main objectives of the WSP and the results of the data collection and needs assessment exercise, provide the necessary elements for internal deliberations and consultations aimed at translating the findings into concrete project proposals (for instance, a sensitisation campaign). A project proposal, prepared by WSP staff should contain 2 main parts:

The content of the intervention. The practicalities of the intervention.

3.4.1 Content of Community-Level ProjectsDiscussions within the WSP concerning the content of the intervention should address the following issues:

The main objectives of the intervention and a set of indicators that can be used to monitor and evaluate the intervention.

The main message(s). The target group and the intended and expected coverage. If a programme

aims at educating the women of a compound, what proportion of the female population has to be reached by the intervention?


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(Communication) methods and techniques The media (local radio stations, group discussions, a baraza organised by

the Chief, posters, etc.) that will assure that the message is heard, understood, remembered and used (put into practice).

The duration of the intervention. Timing and synchronisation of various activities and the harmonisation of

the different interventions planned by the WSP. For example, the introduction of a kiosk system by means of a sensitisation campaign should adapt itself to the technical works that are required.

Possible partners (the staff of the local clinic, the Public Health Officer or Community Health Extension Worker) and their responsibilities.

Training needs (Does the CHEW need to be trained in order to take part in the HHE programme?).

“Replicability” of the intervention.

3.4.2 Practicalities of Community-Level ProjectsDiscussions concerning the practicalities of the programme, scheme or project should address the following subjects:

A step-by-step implementation programme and a timetable. A list of equipment, logistical means, and resource materials (reports,

sensitisation materials, etc.) needed. Required human resources. A list of partners able and willing to participate in the intervention A budget proposal.

3.4.3 Diffusion of Good Practices When discussing and deciding upon messages, media and target groups, the service provider should address issues such as coverage and the expected diffusion of k nowledge, a ttitudes and p ractices (KAP) . The questions underlying these issues are:

Will we eventually reach all members of our target population? Will our effort be sustained after the programme has ended?

For example, it is difficult to reach the whole population with a HHE programme, as the WSP and most other organisations simply lack the necessary financial and human resources. Many HHE and other education/sensitisation programmes, therefore, rely on the further diffusion of messages and good practices. During this diffusion process, the participants in the programme play a major role. These participants (CHEWs, residents, Kiosk Operators, church elders, etc.) diffuse the message but these persons are not professional trainers or extension workers. There are many examples of messages or practices being transformed during the diffusion process, sometimes to such an extent that they have become counter productive (in the eyes of those who designed the programme). This means that the message or the practice should be;

simple and straightforward and therefore easy to communicate and to copy.


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3.5 Detailed Design of the Project/ProgrammeThe main activity during this phase involves the actual design of the intervention. In order to assure that the programmes are adapted to the needs and knowledge levels of the target groups and categories, the WSP should adopt a participatory approach. In other words, members of the target populations should play an active role in the design of the programme. This can be achieved by organising intervention design sessions with target group/category members, preferably within the areas concerned. During these sessions, the above-mentioned elements of the intervention proposals should be the starting point.

3.6 About Messages, Programmes and Target Groups The main objectives of the WSP determine the main messages the Company wants to communicate to the low income urban communities. All messages are directly related to water supply, sanitation, health and hygiene. We can make also distinguish the following types of messages:

Policy and commercial messages: the main objectives of the service provider, the introduction of new tariffs, why every citizen has to pay for treated water supplied by the WSP, the introduction of a sanitation approach for low income urban areas (etc.).

Technical messages : concerning water quality, interruptions, network extensions etc. water conservation methods, the introduction of water meters (etc.).

Implementation messages: concerning the introduction and implementation of a kiosk system or of a mass disconnection/re-connection programme (etc.).

Educative/health messages : the importance of consuming treated water, how to store water (etc.).

Some messages consist of, for instance, policy and technical elements. When introducing water conservation methods and techniques, the WSP has to explain why water conservation is important and subsequently how residents can help to conserve water by preventing water wastage, reporting leakages and vandalism. The message accompanying the introduction of the meter contains technical and commercial elements. It is also possible to make the distinction between vertical and horizontal messages and programmes (see also Evans: 3, 6). Vertical programmes are “top-down” in the sense that the intervening party presents the message and the receiving party, the target population merely consumes the message without having the possibility to intervene by asking clarifications, making proposals, criticising the message or presenting alternative messages. Vertical programmes often make use of mass media. Horizontal programmes are more focussed upon achieving a face-to-face communication with the target group, an exchange of experiences and views between interveners and participants. The advantage of such an approach is that the message and the techniques can constantly be adapted to the target group. The disadvantage of a horizontal approach is that, as it relies upon face-to-face communication, it can only reach small number of persons.


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It should be noted that there exists an interrelatedness between the various “content” elements of the intervention in the sense that for example:

The target population, its size and characteristics have an impact upon the choices with regard to the message and the media as well as with regard to the duration of the intervention. If the WSP wishes to reach the whole population of a town, in order to introduce and explain a new tariff, small-scale methods and techniques based upon face-to-face encounters are not very useful and the message does not require a campaign with a long duration. The messages and media of a HHE programme aimed at reaching adults and schoolchildren should be adapted to the knowledge levels of each category. One may decide to reach the adult population through group education meetings and/or radio programmes, whereas children can be approached through comic strips, posters, theatrical performances, school competitions, etc. When choosing the media and designing the message, the WSP or Project Task Team should take into account that the target category, the adult population, can be subdivided in for instance literate and illiterate adults.

The message and the target group determine the type and duration of the communication. For example, health education is considered to be an ongoing activity, whereas one or two information/sensitisation campaigns will usually suffice to inform the population of a town, or the customers of the kiosks, about an upcoming tariff increase. If the target group consists of the staff of local clinics, a short campaign will suffice whereas health education at schools should be part of the curriculum.

Although the message and the characteristics of the target populations have an impact upon the media, it is quite possible to tackle the market with a so-called media mix. During the 1990’s, Government sponsored HIV/AIDS campaigns in the Netherlands focused upon explaining into some detail, the possible consequences of unsafe sex. TV programmes and brochures contained details on how one can contract and how to avoid contracting HIV/AIDS. These efforts were accompanied by easier messages and even humoristic TV adverts promoting the use of condoms among young people. In the case of a HHE programme a detailed message, communicated during group meetings or lessons at school, may be followed by posters that - by providing a short point by point summary of the message - act as a reminder. In Rwanda, a HHE programme of the Ministry aimed at reaching the population of a large rural area. This area, the Bugesera-Sud region, had recently received treated water supply by means of a new treatment plant, a distribution network (of 160 kilometres) and 66 water kiosks. The HHE programme consisted of several elements:

Six radio programmes. Two laminated (A1 size) posters containing comic strips on water hygiene and

health (put up at all public buildings in the area). A “water, hygiene and health” school competition. Water health and hygiene shows organised in all “sectors” of the project areas

and attended by 400 to 1,200 persons. The shows consisted of 2 sketches, water quality tests (comparing the quality of the water fetched at unprotected


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sources with the quality of treated water supplied by the project), public addresses by staff of local clinics and discussions with participants.

Visits to the water treatment plants (approximately one percent of the total population of 108,000 persons was given the opportunity to visit the treatment works).

The ongoing activities of the programme were: A HHE programme at the local clinics. HHE programmes for the primary and secondary schools.

3.7 Need for Coordination: Community Sensitisation & Technical WorksOne of the main constraints during the water supply project in Bugesera-Sud turned out to be the synchronisation of sensitisation activities and technical works (the construction and inauguration of the supply network and the kiosks) and the fact that the team responsible for the non-technical component of the project had to carry out 2 sensitisation/education programmes; a HHE programme and a kiosk introduction sensitisation programme. The successful introduction of the kiosk system, to a large extent depends upon the right timing of the various activities and the careful synchronisation of sensitisation activities, implementation programmes and technical works. If, for example, a sensitisation programme which is designed to introduce and explain the kiosk system, is not directly followed or accompanied by the technical programme (i.e. the actual construction of water kiosks), the introduction of the kiosk system is jeopardised and the image of the service provider may suffer as customers loose faith in the capacity of the provider to keep its promises and live up to expectations.

3.8 Need for One Subject MessagesThe sensitisation effort aimed at introducing and facilitating the introduction of the kiosk system often consists of 2 separate programmes of campaigns: 1. A campaign aimed at introducing and explaining:

The WSP (objectives, roles and responsibilities). Why residents of low income urban areas also have to pay for treated water. The kiosk system itself (opening hours, payment methods, community

participation, the rights and responsibilities of all stakeholders, sanctions, tariffs, etc.).

2. A health and hygiene sensitisation/education programme or campaign aimed at explaining the advantages of consuming treated water.

Why having two separate programmes or campaigns? Experience shows that messages, introduced during awareness and (social) marketing campaigns, are only well understood, remembered and put into practice if the message is straightforward and only addresses one main issue. The creation of “one subject” messages also allows for a better segmentation of the population and facilitates the identification of target groups or categories, which in turn facilitates the choice of media, methods and techniques to be used during the campaign. The achievement of the above-mentioned task requires the development of two separate sets of messages:1. A message, which focuses on:


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The main social and commercial objectives of the WSP and the objectives the provider wishes to achieve with the introduction of a water kiosk system.

Why urban residents, including peri-urban residents, have to pay for water. The fact that the kiosk system is an attractive, affordable and safe (from a

public health perspective) water supply solution. The actual functioning of the kiosk system (operation/management of the

kiosks; the responsibilities and rights of the Kiosk Operator, of the service provider and of the clients, opening hours of the kiosk, the payment system).

The need to protect public infrastructures against vandalism and the responsibilities of all stakeholders when it comes to preventing and reporting acts of vandalism.

2. A health and hygiene message, which is based upon a so-called risk and solution approach . The risk element of the message and of the sensitisation/education programme focuses upon explaining the possible consequences, for the health of household members, of consuming untreated water from open wells and other unsafe sources. It also involves explaining that the pollution of water from open wells, as a result of subterranean and/or surface communication between pit latrines and wells, can result in the outbreak of water-related diseases such as typhoid and cholera.

3.9 Implementation and Monitoring Throughout the implementation phase, the WSP or the Project Task Team should monitor the project/programme, using a set of progress indicators. Such a set should consist of quantitative indicators such as attendance, coverage but also a number of qualitative indicators that reflect participant satisfaction. It is equally important to assess whether the recipients of the message have understood it and are putting it into practice. In other words, the focus should be on knowledge (transfer) attitude (change) and change of practice (KAP). Using these indicators, involves communicating with the target population(s). The objective of monitoring is that it renders the intervention flexible in the sense that all necessary adaptations can be made.

3.10 Evaluation of the Intervention The same indicators used for monitoring the intervention, can be used to evaluate the programme or project. During the evaluation one has to make the distinction between:

the programme itself and the adoption & diffusion process.

Evaluating the programme means analysing, with a participatory approach, the different elements of the intervention (messages, the chosen media, the duration, attendance, coverage, etc.). Analysing the adoption and diffusion process is a more complicated and long-term affair and involves “following” the message or the practices that have been promoted during the intervention: is the message being diffused, transformed, put into practice?


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“Following the message” also requires having in-depth discussions with members of the target populations. It is also possible to collect quantitative data with regard to the impact of the intervention. The baseline data collected before the start of the intervention can help to analyse the impact of the programme. For example, if quantitative data have been collected on water treatment methods at the household level (boiling water, adding WaterGuard), they can be compared with the data on domestic water treatment practices after the implementation of the HHE programme.

4. Some Remarks about the Diffusion of Messages and Practices It is important to note that the introduction and diffusion of a message or a new concept are related in the sense that the way in which the message is introduced is likely to have an impact upon its further diffusion. Designing the message together with the target group and community participation during the implementation phase are likely to have a positive impact upon the adoption process. This does not mean, however, that the diffusion/adoption of an innovation is completely determined by the approach adopted during its introduction. Adoption (for example of an improved sanitation technology such as ECOSAN) can take time and may follow a rhythm and a pattern that does not necessarily follow the plans and time periods anticipated by the WSP or the other stakeholders. Experience shows that diffusion/adoption processes tend to develop, so to say, their own dynamic. There are many examples of projects, which after their evaluation were labelled as a failure, that many years later but many years later are considered successful as a result of unforeseen developments that contributed to adoption and diffusion.9

Designing measures aimed at guiding the diffusion process should equally be part of the intervention approach. The WSP should, for instance, formulate a number of success/failure indicators by which the diffusion process is monitored and evaluated. Although the diffusion process is an autonomous process that is given shape by the decisions and actions of individual households, the WSP can have a significant impact upon the diffusion process. The diffusion process can be influenced by providing certain incentives to those who are interested in the new technologies or by providing assistance in the form of advice or technical or financial assistance. The choice of target groups can also have an important impact upon the diffusion process. A HHE team may decide to involve a Community Health Extension Worker (CHEW) or a local Health Committee, as a kind of intermediary, in order to assure that the message is diffused among the population. If, however, the CHEW is not respected by the community or if the committee is not recognised by the community, it is not likely that the message is spread or accepted by the population.

9 For example, the introduction of ox-ploughing and other modern farming practices such as the use of compost and cattle dung, in Serenje District in Zambia during the 1950’s (within the framework of the Peasant Farming Scheme) was evaluated as being a failure as only a few farmers outside the project area had adopted the agricultural innovations. Many years later, however, during the 1970’s and 1980’s, ox ploughing became a widespread phenomenon as a result of the introduction of hybrid maize and chemical fertilisers. During the diffusion of ox ploughing the few farmers who had adopted the plough during the 1950’s played an important role. They were the ones who explained the technique to others, trained oxen, etc.


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5. An Example of a Health & Hygiene Education ProgrammeTable 5.1 provides an example of a HHE planning sheet, which was prepared for the Southern Water and Sewerage Company in Zambia. The HHE programme consists of 3 parts:

A programme for schools, A programme for the local clinics, A number of radio programmes.

The same sheet can be used for other interventions, such as the introduction of a kiosk system, a campaign to fight and prevent vandalism, etc.


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Table 5.1: A Health education programme for the Monze kiosk project in Zambia

Elements/Scale Primary schools Local clinics Mass media programme

Objectives Improve the health and hygiene knowledge and practices of the members of the target population

Target group Pupils and teachers Patients/pregnant women Total population

Expected coverage 100% 70% 50%

Communication Horizontal Horizontal Vertical

Media Posters/written and electronic documents

Posters and written documents Local radio station

Hardware Laptop/beamer/generator - -

Software Teaching programme and package/PowerPoint slides

Teaching programme and package, posters

Written script and recorded interviews with members of

target population

Duration Ongoing Ongoing 6 programmes in a period of 6 weeks

Human resources of the SWSC

Community Relations Officer (CRO) of the WSP

CRO, Central Board of Health Community Relations Officer

Partners UNICEF staff, teachers Central Board of Health Radio station/UNICEF

Training needs Training of teachers by UNICEF staff and CRO

Training of relevant clinic staff by Central Board of Health

Training of relevant staff of the radio station

Timing Each year, period September – November

(“diarrhoea period”)

All year Same period as the school elements of the programme

(two week intervals)

Logistical means 1 service provider vehicle 1 service provider vehicle 1 service provider vehicle

Budget KSh 120,000 KSh 100,000 KSh 30,000

Funding SWSC/UNICEF SWSC/UNICEF SWSC/UNICEF


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List of AbbreviationsCBO: Community-based organisationCD: Compact discCHEW: Community Health Extension WorkerCRO: Community Relations Officer CuAD: Customer-aided designDANIDA: Danish International Development AgencyHHE: Health and hygiene education KAP: Knowledge, Attitude, PracticeKSh: Kenyan ShillingsNGO: Non-governmental organisation PHO: Public Health OfficerUNICEF: United Nations Children’s FundVIP: Ventilated Improved Pit latrineWS: Water supplyWSB: Water Services BoardWSP: Water Service ProviderWSS: Water supply and sanitation

BibliographyBolt, E. Schouten, T. and Moriarty, P. (2001) From systems to service: scaling up community management, in: People and Systems for Water, Sanitation and Health, Pre-prints of the 27th WEDC Conference, (2001) Lusaka, Zambia

Evans, P. (1997) Health Education Strategy, Non-Technical Components Report, Chapter 5, (pp 5-1-5-31), GKW Consult

Habermas (1984) The Theory of Communicative Action Vol. 1. Reason and the Rationalisation of Society, Boston, Beacon Press

Kunneman, H. (1985) Habermas' Theorie van het Communicatieve Handelen: een samenvatting, Amsterdam: Boom Meppel.

Ministry of Local Government and Housing, African Development Bank (January 2002) Sanitation Study for Seven Centres in Central Province, Development Plan Report, Main Report, GKW Consult, PriceWaterhouseCoopers, BCHOD, Lusaka, Zambia.

Wijk-Sijbesma, C. van (1985) Participation of women in water supply and sanitation: roles and realities. (Technical paper series; no. 22) IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, The Hague, The Netherlands


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