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1 Chapter 5- The Structure and Function of Macromolecules Carbohydrates AP BIOLOGY

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Macromolecules Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids 2

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Carbohydrates 3

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4 Polymer Vs. Monomer Polymer: A large molecule made up of identical or similar building blocks Ex. Polysaccaride Starches Monomer: the building block that is used to make polymers Glucose

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Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are composed of C, H, O Most names for sugars end in ose CH 2 O (Empirical Formula) (CH 2 O) C 6 H 12 O 6 Contains a Carbonyl (C=O) & many Hydroxyl (OH) Function: Energy & Storage ex: sugars, starches, cellulose, chitin C 6 H 12 O 6 (CH 2 O) x

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6 Monosaccharides Simple 1 monomer sugars Exs: Glucose Frucotose Galactose sugar

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Biological function of monosaccharides ENERGY!!!! Key parts of other molecules (e.g. nucleic acids, ATP) Monomers for Disaccharides & Polysaccharides. They form polymers in dehydration reactions.

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Classifying Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are uniquely identified based on: The location of the carbonyl carbon in the straight chain form The number of carbons present The spatial arrangement of carbons

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Sugar structure 5C & 6C sugars form rings in solution Where do you find solutions in biology? In cells!

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Identifying monosaccharides The arrangement of the OH group on the #1 carbon does not matter when naming sugars. The location of the other groups on the 2,3,4, and 5 carbons does matter. alpha-glucosebeta-glucose

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C CC C C C 1' 2'3' 4' 5' 6' O energy stored in C-C bonds Carbons are numbered

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Carbon Skeleton 3-7 Carbons long Classified by number of carbons 6C = hexose (glucose) 5C = pentose (ribose) 3C = triose (glyceraldehyde) OH H H HO CH 2 OH H H H OH O Glucose H OH HO O H H H Ribose CH 2 OH Glyceraldehyde H H H H OH O C C C 653

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Functional groups determine function Ketone Carbonyl in middle Aldehyde Carbonyl at end

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Forming Disaccharides glucose+ glucose= Disaccharide monomer monomer Polymer 14

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15 Disaccharides 2 monomers Held by glycosidic bonds Exs Sucrose Lactose Maltose DisaccharideMonosaccharides SucroseGlucose + Fructose LactoseGlucose + Galactose MaltoseGlucose + Glucose

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Building sugars | fructose | glucose monosaccharides sucrose (table sugar) disaccharide H2OH2O Dehydration synthesis

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Building sugars glycosidic linkage | glucose | glucose monosaccharidesdisaccharide | maltose H2OH2O

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18 Lactose

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19 Glucose and Fructose Glucose

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Polysaccharides Polymers of sugars costs little energy to build Function: energy storage starch (plants) glycogen (animals) in liver & muscles structure cellulose (plants) chitin (arthropods & fungi)

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Polysaccharides Polymers of sugars joined by glycosidic linkages. Serve two main functions Storage- glycosidic linkages are hydrolyzed to obtain monosaccharides as energy is needed. Structural- make up the materials that are used to protect the organism.

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Glycosidic Bonds Chemical linkage between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, and polysaccharides, which is formed by the removal of a molecule of water Condensation reaction Condensation reaction Bond forms between the carbon-1 on one sugar and the carbon-4 on the other.

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& Glycosidic Bonds An -glycosidic bond- formed when the OH group on carbon-1 is below the plane of the glucose ring A -glycosidic bond is formed when it is above the plane. Ex. Cellulose- formed of glucose molecules linked by 1-4 -glycosidic bonds (Above plane) Ex. Starch- composed of 1-4 -glycosidic bonds (Below plane ) in starch in cellulose

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24 Polysaccharides- 100s to 1000s of monosaccharides Storage PolysaccharidesStructural Polysaccharides Starch Plants Cellulose Plants Glycogen Animals Chitin Animals-Insects Fungi

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Structural Polysaccharides Key in forming the structure of an organism. Most common structural polysaccharide is cellulose. Makes up cell walls in plants Used to make paper Chitin Polymer of glucose Forms via 1-4 glycosidic linkage.

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Cellulose Most abundant organic compound on Earth herbivores have evolved a mechanism to digest cellulose most carnivores have not cellulose = undigestible rougha ge But it tastes like hay! Who can live on this stuff?!

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Cow can digest cellulose well; no need to eat other sugars Gorilla cant digest cellulose well; must add another sugar source, like fruit to diet

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Helpful bacteria How can herbivores digest cellulose so well? BACTERIA live in their digestive systems & help digest cellulose-rich (grass) meals Rumen-Upper part of stomach

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Digesting starch vs. cellulose starch easy to digest enzyme cellulose hard to digest

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Plant Storage Polysaccharides Starch is the main storage polysaccharide- Found in two forms. Amylose- main storage polysaccharide found in plants. 1-4 glycosidic linkage found in glucose. Amylopectin- also in plants. Like starch with branching. Branch occurs with a 1-6 glycosidic link.

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Storage Polysaccharide in Animals Glycogen is the main storage polysaccharide in animals. It is even more highly branched than amylopectin. Stored primarily in muscle and liver cells and is used when glucose stores are low.

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Polysaccharide diversity Molecular structure determines function isomers of glucose structure determines function in starchin cellulose

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Linear vs. branched polysaccharides starch (plant) glycogen (animal) energy storage slow release fast release

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Fig. 5-6 Glycogen Branched Starch Glycogen Amylose Chloroplast Starch Unbranched Amylopectin Mitochondria Glycogen granules 0.5 m 1 m

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Difference between starch and cellulose Starch production involves 1-4 glycosidic linkage of -glucose monomers. Helical shape Cellulose production involves 1-4 glycosidic linkage of -glucose monomers Never branched, straight - Glycogen - Cellulose Does this matter?

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Fig. 5-7a (a) and glucose ring structures Glucose Glucose

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Fig. 5-7bc (b) Starch: 14 linkage of glucose monomers (c) Cellulose: 14 linkage of glucose monomers

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Chitin Chitin is the structural polysaccharide in arthropods Ex. insects, spiders, crustaceans, and fungi. Similar to cellulose, but it has a slightly different monomer that is a derivative of glucose

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Fig. 5-10 The structure of the chitin monomer. (a) (b) (c) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods. Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible surgical thread.

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YES, It matters! Cellulose has a much different structure than starch. In storage polysaccharides, the polymer hydrogen bonds mainly with itself to form helices (spirals) Ex. Glycogen In structural polysaccharides, the polymer hydrogen bonds with other polymer strands to form a strands that form thread like structures Ex. Chitin & Cellulose

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41 Starch vs. Cellulose Helix Sheet

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IT REALLY MATTERS Animals lack the enzymes (cellular machinery) to break down cellulose. Only a few bacteria and fungi can break down cellulose.