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Transcript of 1 A View of Life Lecture 1. 2 Objectives Define: metabolism, homeostasis, heredity, species,...
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A View of Life
Lecture 1
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Define: metabolism, homeostasis, heredity, species, natural selection, evolution, ecology
Outline and describe the properties of life. Describe evolution and its importance. Define and list, in order, the levels of
organization from the simplest to the most complex.
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•Compare and contrast the flow of energy and materials through an ecosystem.•List some ways in which human activities are modifying ecosystems•Explain how and why taxonomists classify organisms.•List the stages of the scientific process and explain how these steps are used. Note the use of controlled studies.
Objectives
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Living things:
◦ Comprised of the same chemical elements e.g. Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
◦ Obey the same physical and chemical laws
◦ Living organisms consist of cells (Unicellular or Multi-cellular). The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living
things e.g. plants, animals, and fungus Cells are produced from preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological
functions
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Living organisms can be Microscopic:
Bacteria
Paramecium
Living organisms can be Macroscopic (Multi-cellular):
Snow goose
HumansCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(Bacteria): © Dr. Dennis Kunkel/Phototake; (Paramecium): © M. Abbey/Visuals Unlimited; (Morel): © Royalty-Free Corbis; (Sunflower): © Photodisc Green/Getty Images; (Snow goose): © Charles Bush Photography
Bacteria Paramecium Morel Sunflower Snow goose
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Each level of organization has Emergent Properties
Levels range from extreme micro (e.g. Atoms, Molecules and Cells) to global (e.g. Community, Ecosystem and Biosphere)
Each level of organization is more complex than the level preceding it
◦ Emergent properties:
Interactions between the parts making up the whole
All emergent properties follow the laws of physics and chemistry
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
OrganComposed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
TissueA group of cells with a common
structure and function
CellThe structural and functional
unit of all living things
MoleculeUnion of two or more atoms ofthe same or different elements
AtomSmallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
BiosphereRegions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphereinhabited by living things
Ecosystem A community plus
the physical environment
CommunityInteracting populations in a
particular area
PopulationOrganisms of the same
species in a particular area
OrganismAn individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems
Organ SystemComposed of several organs
working together
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Energy – required to maintaining organization and conducting life-sustaining processes
◦ The sun:
Ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth
Certain organisms, such as plants, capture solar energy to carry on photosynthesis
Photosynthesis transforms solar energy into chemical energy (Organic Molecules)
Chemical energy is used by other organisms e.g. animals
◦ Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell or in an organism.
Homeostasis - Maintenance of internal conditions within certain boundaries
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Living things interact with the environment and respond to changes in the environment
Response ensures survival of the organism and it often results movement
◦ Vulture can detect and find carcass a mile away and soar toward dinner
◦ Monarch butterfly senses approach of fall and migrates south
◦ Microroganisms can sense light or chemicals
◦ Even leaves of plants follow sun
Activities as a result of Responses are termed behavior
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Organisms live and die
All living organisms must reproduce to ensure continued existence and maintain population
In most multicellular organisms reproduction:
◦ Begins with union of sperm and egg (fertilization)
◦ Followed by cell division and differentiation
◦ Developmental instructions encoded in genes
Composed of DNA
Long spiral molecule in chromosomes
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Adaptation
◦ Any modification that makes an organism more suited to its way of life
◦ Organisms become modified over long period time
Respond to environmental changes by developing new adaptations
◦ However, organisms very similar at basic level
Suggests living things descended from same ancestor
Descent with modification - Evolution
Caused by natural selection11
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Despite diversity, organisms share the same basic characteristics
◦ Composed of cells organized in a similar manner
◦ Their genes are composed of DNA
◦ Carry out the same metabolic reactions to acquire energy
This suggests that they are descended from a common ancestor
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Taxonomy:◦ Discipline of identifying and classifying
organisms according to certain rules
◦ Hierarchical levels (taxa) based on hypothesized evolutionary relationships
◦ Levels are, from least inclusive to most inclusive: Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom,
and domain
A level (e.g. phylum) includes more species than the level below it (e.g. class), and fewer species than the one above it (e.g. kingdom)
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Bacteria
◦ Microscopic unicellular prokaryotes
Archaea
◦ Bacteria-like unicellular prokaryotes
◦ Extreme aquatic environments
Eukarya
◦ Eukaryotes – Familiar organisms
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
BACTERIA
ARCHAEA
EUKARYA
Protists
commonancestor(first cells)
cell with nucleus
Past
Time
Present
Photosyntheticprotist
HeterotrophicProtist
Plants
Fungi
Animalscommon ancestor
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Methanosarcina mazei, an archaeon 1.6 m
• Prokaryotic cells of various shapes• Adaptations to extreme environments• Absorb or chemosynthesize food• Unique chemical characteristics
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Ralph Robinson/Visuals Unlimited
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Prokaryotic cells of various shapes• Adaptations to all environments• Absorb, photosynthesize, or chemosynthesize food• Unique chemical characteristics
Escherichia coli, a bacterium 1.5 m
© A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Archaea – Kingdoms still being worked out
Bacteria - Kingdoms still being worked out
Eukarya
◦ Kingdom Protista
◦ Kingdom Fungi
◦ Kingdom Plantae
◦ Kingdom Animalia
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KINGDOM: Fungi
Coprinus, a shaggy mane mushroom
Protists
Paramecium, a unicellular protozoan
• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts, and ringworms• Mostly multicellular filaments with specialized, complex cells• Absorb food1
• Algae, protozoans, slime molds, and water molds• Complex single cell (sometimes filaments, colonies, or even multicellular)• Absorb, photosynthesize, or ingest food1 m
KINGDOM: Plants
r
Vulpes, a red fox
KINGDOM: Animals
• Certain algae, mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants• Multicellular, usually with specialized tissues, containing complex cells• Photosynthesize food
• Sponges, worms, insects, fishes, frogs, turtles, birds, and mammals• Multicellular with specialized tissues containing complex cells• Ingest food
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(Protist): © Michael Abby/Visuals Unlimited; (Plant): © Pat Pendarvis; (Fungi): © Rob Planck/Tom Stack; (Animal): © Royalty-Free/Corbis
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Binomial nomenclature (two-word names)- used to assign each organism with two part name e.g. Homo Sapience
Universal Latin-based
◦ First word represents genus of organism e.g. Homo
◦ Second word is specific epithet of a species within the genus e.g. Sapience
◦ Always italicized as a Genus species (Homo sapiens)
◦ Genus may be abbreviated e.g. Escherichia Coli as E. Coli
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure.
Deer prefer a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves. Plants withhairy leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population.
Generations later, most plants within the population have hairyleaves, as smooth leaves are selected against.
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Population - Members of a species within an area
Community - A local collection of interacting populations
Ecosystem – A community plus its physical environment
How chemicals are cycled and re-used by organisms
How energy flows, from photosynthetic plants to top predators
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
WASTE MATERIAL, DEATH,AND DECOMPOSITION
heat
heat
heat
heat
heat
solarenergy
Chemical cycling
Energy flow
heat
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1975 Minimal coral death
b.
a. Healthy coral reef
1985 Some coral death with no fish present
1995 Coral bleaching with limited chance of recovery
2004 Coral is black from sedimentation; bleaching still evident
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a: © Frank & Joyce Burek/Getty Images; b (All): © Dr. Phillip Dustan
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Humans modify ecosystems◦ Humans negative impact on ecosystems:
Destroy forest or grassland for agriculture, housing, industry, etc.
Produce waste and contaminate air, water, etc.
However, humans depend upon healthy ecosystems for◦ Food
◦ Medicines
◦ Raw materials
◦ Other ecosystem processes27
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Biodiversity is the zone of air, land, and water where organisms exist
◦ Abundance of species estimated about 15 million.
◦ The variability of their genes, and
◦ The ecosystems in which they live
Extinction is:
◦ The death of the last member of a species
◦ Estimates of 400 species/day lost worldwide
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Scientific method is a standard series of steps in gaining new knowledge through research.◦ Begins with observation
Scientists use their five senses e.g. use visual sense to observe animal behavior
Instruments can extend the range of senses e.g. use microscope to see microorganisms
Take advantage of prior studies
◦Hypothesis A tentative explanation for what was observed
Developed through inductively reasoning from specific to general
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Observation
New observationsare made, and previous
data are studied.
Hypothesis
Input from varioussources is used to formulate
a testable statement.
Conclusion
The results are analyzed,and the hypothesis issupported or rejected.
Scientific Theory
Many experiments andobservations support a
theory.
Experiment/Observations
The hypothesis istested by experiment
or further observations.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Courtesy Leica Microsystems Inc.
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Experimentation◦ Purpose is to challenge the hypothesis
◦ Designed through deductively reasoning from general to specific
◦ Often divides subjects into a control group and an experimental group
◦ Predicts how groups should differ if hypothesis is valid If prediction happens, hypothesis is unchallenged If not, hypothesis is unsupportable
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The results are analyzed and interpreted
Conclusions are what the scientist thinks caused the results
Findings must be reported in scientific journals
Peers review the findings and the conclusions
Other scientists then attempt to duplicate or dismiss the published findings
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Results or Data
◦ Observable, objective results from an experiment
◦ Strength of the data expressed in probabilities
◦ The probability that random variation could have caused the results
Low probability (less than 5%) is good
Higher probabilities make it difficult to dismiss random chance as the sole cause of the results
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Scientific Theory:
◦ Joins together two or more related hypotheses
◦ Supported by broad range of observations, experiments, and data
Scientific Principle / Law:
◦ Widely accepted set of theories
◦ No serious challenges to validity
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Experimental (Independent) variable
◦ Applied one way to experimental group
◦ Applied a different way to control group
Response (dependent) variable
◦ Variable that is measured to generate data
◦ Expected to yield different results in control versus experimental group
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Observations:
◦ Nitrate fertilizers boost grain crops, but may damage soils by altering its properties
◦ When grain crops are rotated with pigeon pea it adds natural nitrogen
Hypothesis:
◦ Pigeon pea rotation will boost crop production as much as nitrates
◦ Pigeon pea rotation will NOT damage soils36
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Dr. Jeremy Burgess/Photo Researchers, Inc.
nodules
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Experimental Design◦ Control Group
Winter wheat planted in pots without fertilizer
◦ Experimental Groups 1-Winter wheat planted in pots with 45 kg/ha nitrate
2-Winter wheat planted in pots with 90 kg/ha nitrate
3-Winter wheat planted in pots that had grown a crop of pigeon peas
◦ All groups treated identically except for above
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
= Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
15
20
10
5
0year 1 year 2 year 3
= no fertilization treatment
= 45 kg of nitrogen/ha
Control Pots
Test Pots
= 90 kg of nitrogen/ha
Wh
eat
Bio
mas
s (g
ram
s/p
ot)
b. Results
a. Control pots and test pots of three types
Test pots
90 kg of nitrogen/ha
Test pots
Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
Control pots
no fertilization treatment
Test pots
45 kg of nitrogen/ha
(All): Courtesy Jim Bidlack
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Experimental Prediction:◦ Wheat production following pigeon pea rotation will
be equal or better than following nitrate fertilizer
Results◦ 45 kg/ha produced slightly better than controls
◦ 90 kg/ha produced nearly twice as much as controls
◦ Pigeon pea rotation did not produce as much as the controls
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Conclusion
◦ Research hypothesis was not supported by results
◦ However, research hypothesis was not proven false by negative results
Revised experiment
◦ Grow wheat in same pots for several generations
◦ Look for soil damage in nitrate pots and improved production in pigeon pea pots
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Results◦ After second year:
Production following nitrates declined Production following pigeon pea rotation was greatest of
all
◦ After third year Pigeon pea rotation produced 4X as much as controls
Revised conclusions◦ Research hypothesis supported
◦ Pigeon pea rotation should be recommended over nitrates
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Defining Life - Emergent Properties
◦ Materials and Energy
◦ Reproduction and Development
◦ Adaptations and Natural Selection
Biosphere Organization
◦ Human Population
◦ Biodiversity
Classification
The Scientific Method
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