1 7 Emotions and Culture. 2 Emotions and Rationality Emotions and Rationality People tend to believe...

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1 7 7 Emotions and Culture Emotions and Culture

Transcript of 1 7 Emotions and Culture. 2 Emotions and Rationality Emotions and Rationality People tend to believe...

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Emotions and CultureEmotions and Culture

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Emotions and RationalityEmotions and Rationality

People tend to believe that emotions make us People tend to believe that emotions make us do irrational things.do irrational things.

But emotions must be beneficial. Otherwise But emotions must be beneficial. Otherwise natural selection would have eliminated them.natural selection would have eliminated them.

Emotions are conscious experiences, but they Emotions are conscious experiences, but they seem immune to conscious control (one seem immune to conscious control (one cannot decide to feel guilty, jealous, joyful,...).cannot decide to feel guilty, jealous, joyful,...).

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Emotions are valuable functions in linking Emotions are valuable functions in linking motivations to thought and action. motivations to thought and action.

E.g.: one avoids actions which make one E.g.: one avoids actions which make one feels bad, one pursues positive emotions.feels bad, one pursues positive emotions.

Among cultural animals the emotional Among cultural animals the emotional system is highly plastic.system is highly plastic.

E.g.: one feels sad about one’s team result, E.g.: one feels sad about one’s team result, envious about someone’s car, …. Thus envious about someone’s car, …. Thus culture can influence people’s behavior.culture can influence people’s behavior.

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The nature of emotionsThe nature of emotions

emotions emotions vs.vs. affects: affects:

The former are complex, the latter are simply The former are complex, the latter are simply positive or negative feelings (anxiety, anger, positive or negative feelings (anxiety, anger, jealousy, … are all grouped together as jealousy, … are all grouped together as negative affects).negative affects).

Affects are fast reactions, while emotions can Affects are fast reactions, while emotions can take some time to develop.take some time to develop.

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Affects seem linked to the automatic mind Affects seem linked to the automatic mind while emotions seem more closed to the while emotions seem more closed to the conscious system. conscious system.

Emotions are usually conscious experiences.Emotions are usually conscious experiences.

Affects can occur at the margin of Affects can occur at the margin of consciousness.consciousness.

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Emotions have two components: Emotions have two components:

(i) physical arousal and (i) physical arousal and

(ii) mental label. (ii) mental label.

The arousal doesn’t produce an emotion but The arousal doesn’t produce an emotion but it makes it likely to be felt. it makes it likely to be felt.

The mental label is based on how one The mental label is based on how one interprets the situation and thus determines interprets the situation and thus determines which emotion will be felt.which emotion will be felt.

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The temporality of emotionsThe temporality of emotions

Emotions are triggered by changes and Emotions are triggered by changes and departures from the status quo. As such they departures from the status quo. As such they help drawing one’s attention toward help drawing one’s attention toward something that just changed.something that just changed.

Affect is one important component of Affect is one important component of attitudes. So attitudes toward most things can attitudes. So attitudes toward most things can be assessed on a scale that simply ask for one be assessed on a scale that simply ask for one dimensional rating: dimensional rating: liking liking vs.vs. disliking disliking..

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The human psyche has The human psyche has two separate emotion two separate emotion systemssystems, one for positive and pleasant , one for positive and pleasant emotions, the other for unpleasant ones. This emotions, the other for unpleasant ones. This reflects a mixture of contradictory patterns: one reflects a mixture of contradictory patterns: one cannot feel good and bad simultaneously.cannot feel good and bad simultaneously.

Another dimension of emotions is Another dimension of emotions is high/low high/low arousalarousal (e.g. sadness is low in arousal). (e.g. sadness is low in arousal).

Four categories of emotions: 1. high arousal + Four categories of emotions: 1. high arousal + pleasant; 2. low arousal + pleasant; 3. high pleasant; 2. low arousal + pleasant; 3. high arousal + unpleasant; 4. low arousal + arousal + unpleasant; 4. low arousal + unpleasant.unpleasant.

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Emotions and Cultural DifferencesEmotions and Cultural Differences

People from different cultures can translate People from different cultures can translate emotion words and recognize facial emotion words and recognize facial expressions of emotions. expressions of emotions.

Thus Thus some aspectssome aspects of emotions are of emotions are universal and innateuniversal and innate..

Innate emotional tendencies: babies express Innate emotional tendencies: babies express various emotions long before they could learn various emotions long before they could learn them (e.g.: blind babies smile when happy).them (e.g.: blind babies smile when happy).

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Facial expressionsFacial expressions

They “translate” the natural innate part of They “translate” the natural innate part of emotions.emotions.

Culture Culture

Can teach people to Can teach people to concealconceal their feelings. their feelings.

E.g.: people don’t maximally express their E.g.: people don’t maximally express their facial expressions.facial expressions.

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The role of culture is not to create emotions The role of culture is not to create emotions but to restrain and conceal them. but to restrain and conceal them.

Culture can use emotions to control behavior Culture can use emotions to control behavior insofar as it can teach people to have various insofar as it can teach people to have various emotional reactions to some particular emotional reactions to some particular events.events.

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The purpose of emotionsThe purpose of emotions

Emotions help to evaluate events in helping Emotions help to evaluate events in helping to compare current circumstances to some to compare current circumstances to some goals or standards. goals or standards.

They typically use one’s needs and wants as They typically use one’s needs and wants as the basis for evaluation. the basis for evaluation.

So emotions apprise events as good/bad So emotions apprise events as good/bad depending of one’s strivings.depending of one’s strivings.

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Emotions communicate from motivation to Emotions communicate from motivation to both cognition and action.both cognition and action.

They help keeping the cognitive system They help keeping the cognitive system focused on things that matter.focused on things that matter.

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Emotions and BelongingnessEmotions and Belongingness

Emotions operate to guide and support the Emotions operate to guide and support the effort to belong.effort to belong.

Positive emotions are linked to Positive emotions are linked to forming/upgrading relationships.forming/upgrading relationships.

E.g.: unpleasant emotions coming from E.g.: unpleasant emotions coming from damaging or breaking off relationships.damaging or breaking off relationships.

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AnxietyAnxiety

It’s the most powerful form of emotional It’s the most powerful form of emotional distress.distress.

Two main categories: (i) less common and less Two main categories: (i) less common and less powerful is the fear of death and accident; powerful is the fear of death and accident;

(ii) more powerful and common is the fear of (ii) more powerful and common is the fear of social exclusion (e.g.: rejected by loved ones, social exclusion (e.g.: rejected by loved ones, by partner, …).by partner, …).

Shyness and social anxiety often have the Shyness and social anxiety often have the effect of making one avoiding other people for effect of making one avoiding other people for fear of being rejected.fear of being rejected.

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Emotions link motivation and cognitionEmotions link motivation and cognition

Emotions force people to think about things Emotions force people to think about things that matter (as defined by one’s wants and that matter (as defined by one’s wants and needs). needs).

One doesn’t have emotional reaction about One doesn’t have emotional reaction about things one doesn’t care about.things one doesn’t care about.

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Mental effect of emotional arousalMental effect of emotional arousal

During emotions one is alert and typically During emotions one is alert and typically focused on the present.focused on the present.

One performs better at an intermediate One performs better at an intermediate levels of arousal.levels of arousal.

No arousal means indifference while high No arousal means indifference while high arousal can be disruptive.arousal can be disruptive.

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Emotions get the body ready for action and Emotions get the body ready for action and arise in connection with the image of the arise in connection with the image of the anticipated outcome.anticipated outcome.

As such they help planning.As such they help planning.

Yet the emotional system doesn’t distinguish Yet the emotional system doesn’t distinguish well between different probabilities. well between different probabilities.

It works on the It works on the definitely/maybe scaledefinitely/maybe scale without recognizing the varies scales of without recognizing the varies scales of maybe. This facilitates quick actions.maybe. This facilitates quick actions.

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Emotional distress makes people react Emotional distress makes people react quickly, ignoring risks and focusing merely quickly, ignoring risks and focusing merely on the outcome. on the outcome.

Hence emotions don’t always produce the Hence emotions don’t always produce the optimal outcome.optimal outcome.

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Emotionless peopleEmotionless people

Patients (with brain damage) lacking emotions Patients (with brain damage) lacking emotions find it difficult to make up their mind. They’re find it difficult to make up their mind. They’re unable to make choices.unable to make choices.

The thinking system merely contemplate and The thinking system merely contemplate and envisage plenty of ideas and potential envisage plenty of ideas and potential outcomes, but it is unable to evaluate them.outcomes, but it is unable to evaluate them.

E.g.: a patient was unable to chose among two E.g.: a patient was unable to chose among two dates and he finally accepted the doctor dates and he finally accepted the doctor choice.choice.

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Emotions are vital for Emotions are vital for evaluationevaluation..

Evaluation is done by reference to what is Evaluation is done by reference to what is important (considering the people’s set of important (considering the people’s set of wants and needs). wants and needs).

Emotions are a crucial link between Emotions are a crucial link between motivation and cognition.motivation and cognition.

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PlanningPlanning

Anticipated emotions enable people to Anticipated emotions enable people to compare and chose among various options compare and chose among various options that seemingly have noting in common.that seemingly have noting in common.

E.g.: should I go for a walk, watch the game, E.g.: should I go for a walk, watch the game, do the homework, clean the house,…?do the homework, clean the house,…?

The option that promises the best The option that promises the best emotional emotional outcomesoutcomes is probably a good choice. is probably a good choice.

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Nature furnished us with some way to chose Nature furnished us with some way to chose among multiple diverse outcomes and to among multiple diverse outcomes and to make of rational analysis a good guide. make of rational analysis a good guide.

Otherwise cultural animals would freeze up Otherwise cultural animals would freeze up at all sort of dilemma, like a computer at all sort of dilemma, like a computer lacking the program enabling it to select the lacking the program enabling it to select the data.data.

Choosing by effect and emotions is a Choosing by effect and emotions is a remarkable solution to the design problem.remarkable solution to the design problem.

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Emotions and ActionsEmotions and Actions

Emotions prepare the body for action (more Emotions prepare the body for action (more blood and thus more oxygen is sent to the blood and thus more oxygen is sent to the brain and muscle so one notices more, brain and muscle so one notices more, focuses, …).focuses, …).

But emotions don’t cause behavior in a direct But emotions don’t cause behavior in a direct and reliable manner.and reliable manner.

Behavior is based on the outcome.Behavior is based on the outcome.

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Emotions affect behavior only insofar as they Emotions affect behavior only insofar as they affect how people process information and affect how people process information and envisage potential outcomes.envisage potential outcomes.

It is thus wrong to think that emotions’ It is thus wrong to think that emotions’ primary function is to be the initiators of primary function is to be the initiators of behaviors and even more wrong to think that behaviors and even more wrong to think that they trigger behavior.they trigger behavior.

Emotions are an important Emotions are an important consequenceconsequence of of behavior rather than a cause.behavior rather than a cause.

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Emotions and LearningEmotions and Learning

Emotions contribute to learning and, Emotions contribute to learning and, therefore, future actions benefit from past therefore, future actions benefit from past experiences (i.e., past emotional outcomes).experiences (i.e., past emotional outcomes).

Without emotions people may fail to profit Without emotions people may fail to profit from experience.from experience.

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FearFear

It may be the best candidate for the view It may be the best candidate for the view that emotions directly causes action.that emotions directly causes action.

But in most of the cases people don’t react But in most of the cases people don’t react fast enough when they face a dangerous fast enough when they face a dangerous situation. situation.

Fear like most emotions may be slow to rise. Fear like most emotions may be slow to rise. One often feel fearful after one faced a One often feel fearful after one faced a dangerous event or situation.dangerous event or situation.

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GuiltGuilt

It is a good example showing that It is a good example showing that behavior behavior pursues emotionspursues emotions. .

Guild doesn’t directly make one to move one’s Guild doesn’t directly make one to move one’s body; guilt comes after one has done body; guilt comes after one has done something wrong.something wrong.

Emotions stimulate Emotions stimulate counterfactual thinkingcounterfactual thinking, , i.e. imagining events and outcomes that differ i.e. imagining events and outcomes that differ from reality. This is ideal for learning and from reality. This is ideal for learning and planning.planning.

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People experience emotions when People experience emotions when performing new, unfamiliar actions (routine performing new, unfamiliar actions (routine does not stimulate emotions).does not stimulate emotions).

Habitude and routine do not generally Habitude and routine do not generally require learning, while new and require learning, while new and unfamiliar unfamiliar actions are linked to learningactions are linked to learning. .

Thus emotions can facilitate learning by Thus emotions can facilitate learning by making people think and analyze their recent making people think and analyze their recent actions.actions.

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Learning based on emotions isLearning based on emotions is highly highly suited for a cultural animalsuited for a cultural animal who who understand action within a system of values, understand action within a system of values, expectations, communications, etc..expectations, communications, etc..

Emotionless people’s reactions are often bad Emotionless people’s reactions are often bad and they tend to engage in dangerous and they tend to engage in dangerous behaviors, for they don’t fear the outcome behaviors, for they don’t fear the outcome and the emotional reactions.and the emotional reactions.

The effect of emotions is to consolidate one’s The effect of emotions is to consolidate one’s lesson so as to influence future behavior.lesson so as to influence future behavior.

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Studies on Studies on sadnesssadness show that sad people are show that sad people are more likely to engage in helping. Sadness more likely to engage in helping. Sadness seems to influence behavior.seems to influence behavior.

A better explanation may be that sad people A better explanation may be that sad people engage in helping to feel better. If this is the engage in helping to feel better. If this is the case we have case we have behavior pursuing emotionsbehavior pursuing emotions..

Sadness leads people to helping only if the sad Sadness leads people to helping only if the sad one thinks that helping will change her mood. one thinks that helping will change her mood.

Helping is a strategy for bringing about a Helping is a strategy for bringing about a change in one’s emotional state.change in one’s emotional state.

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AggressionAggression is also done for the sake of is also done for the sake of improving one’s mood. improving one’s mood.

Angry people tends to behave more Angry people tends to behave more aggressively because they think that aggression aggressively because they think that aggression make them feel better. make them feel better.

But if angry people are told that they got a But if angry people are told that they got a mood-freezing pill they don’t act aggressively. mood-freezing pill they don’t act aggressively.

Again, one behaves in order to change one’s Again, one behaves in order to change one’s mood.mood.

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Depressed people eat more cookies and junk Depressed people eat more cookies and junk food than happy people because they expect food than happy people because they expect the food to make them feel better.the food to make them feel better.

Again, the patterns is behavior pursuing Again, the patterns is behavior pursuing emotional outcomes.emotional outcomes.

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Representation of emotionsRepresentation of emotions

The ability to represents other people The ability to represents other people emotions is as important as mindreading.emotions is as important as mindreading.

Deficit in this ability (e.g. autism) may result Deficit in this ability (e.g. autism) may result in devastating social impairments.in devastating social impairments.

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Feelings Feelings (cf. Damasio. 1994. (cf. Damasio. 1994. Descartes’ ErrorDescartes’ Error) )

It is wrong to consider the working of the brain It is wrong to consider the working of the brain and mind as separate from the working of the and mind as separate from the working of the body.body.

The mind is part and parcel of the body.The mind is part and parcel of the body.

E.g.: background feelings, i.e. the underlying E.g.: background feelings, i.e. the underlying awareness of the state that your body is in. awareness of the state that your body is in.

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Background awareness depends on the Background awareness depends on the various neuronal and hormonal signals arising various neuronal and hormonal signals arising from the body organs (skin, hearth, …) that from the body organs (skin, hearth, …) that are sent to and processed by the brain.are sent to and processed by the brain.

These signals provide a continuous update on These signals provide a continuous update on the changes that your body state undergoes.the changes that your body state undergoes.

These background feelings provide our sense These background feelings provide our sense of ‘self’.of ‘self’.

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We process information emanating from our We process information emanating from our entire body.entire body.

Hence, we wouldn’t be the same person if Hence, we wouldn’t be the same person if our brain were transplanted in another our brain were transplanted in another person. person.

For the body would provide different For the body would provide different information.information.

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On top of background feelings we also have On top of background feelings we also have stronger feelings arising when we experience stronger feelings arising when we experience emotions in response to particular events.emotions in response to particular events.

New born babies tend to show only primary New born babies tend to show only primary emotions (e.g. fear) which are innate and emotions (e.g. fear) which are innate and pre-organized.pre-organized.

As we grow we develop and make more use As we grow we develop and make more use of secondary emotions which are primary of secondary emotions which are primary emotions emotions tempered by experiencetempered by experience..

Emotions become associated with particular Emotions become associated with particular experiences. Thus their link with learning.experiences. Thus their link with learning.

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Somatic markers Somatic markers (Damasio 1994)(Damasio 1994)

They are a special category of secondary They are a special category of secondary emotions and are used in decision making emotions and are used in decision making (often unconsciously).(often unconsciously).

They can function either as alarm bells (in They can function either as alarm bells (in the case of a negative somatic marker such the case of a negative somatic marker such as fear or sadness) or add incentive (positive as fear or sadness) or add incentive (positive somatic marker).somatic marker).

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Somatic markers can speed up the process of Somatic markers can speed up the process of decision making by ensuring that only the decision making by ensuring that only the most reasonable options are considered.most reasonable options are considered.

They may be an integrated component of our They may be an integrated component of our theory of mind by biasing our mindreading theory of mind by biasing our mindreading abilities toward the most appropriate abilities toward the most appropriate predictions for other people behavior and predictions for other people behavior and mind states.mind states.

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PeptidesPeptides

Are neurotransmitters produced in the brain.Are neurotransmitters produced in the brain.

They are also active in the human immune They are also active in the human immune system and endocrine system. system and endocrine system.

Hence, they participate in the constant Hence, they participate in the constant relationship between the brain and the body.relationship between the brain and the body.

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Brain and emotionsBrain and emotions (cf. LeDoux. 1994. (cf. LeDoux. 1994. The The Emotional BrainEmotional Brain))

Information is transmitted to the brain in two Information is transmitted to the brain in two distinct ways:distinct ways:

1. “quick and dirty” route via the 1. “quick and dirty” route via the amygdalaamygdala: : this is unconscious and trigger instinctive this is unconscious and trigger instinctive responsesresponses

2. via the 2. via the cortexcortex: this produce conscious : this produce conscious awareness of the emotion (e.g. feeling of fear).awareness of the emotion (e.g. feeling of fear).

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The The cerebral cortexcerebral cortex is a brain structure in is a brain structure in vertebrates. vertebrates.

In non-living, preserved brains, the outermost In non-living, preserved brains, the outermost layers of the cerebrum has a grey color, layers of the cerebrum has a grey color, hence the name "grey matter". Grey matter is hence the name "grey matter". Grey matter is formed by neurons and their unmyelinated formed by neurons and their unmyelinated fibers while the white matter below the grey fibers while the white matter below the grey matter of the cortex is formed predominantly matter of the cortex is formed predominantly by myelinated axons interconnecting different by myelinated axons interconnecting different regions of the central nervous system. The regions of the central nervous system. The human cerebral cortex is 2-4 mm (0.08-0.16 human cerebral cortex is 2-4 mm (0.08-0.16 inches) thick and plays a central role in many inches) thick and plays a central role in many complex brain functions including memory, complex brain functions including memory, attention, perceptual awareness, "thinking", attention, perceptual awareness, "thinking", language and consciousness. (Wikipedia) language and consciousness. (Wikipedia)

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CortexCortex

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The The amygdala amygdala are almond-shaped groups of are almond-shaped groups of neurons located deep within the medial neurons located deep within the medial temporal lobes of the brain in complex temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans. Shown in vertebrates, including humans. Shown in research to perform a primary role in the research to perform a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional processing and memory of emotional reactions, the amygdalae are considered part reactions, the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system. (Wikipedia)of the limbic system. (Wikipedia)

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In complex vertebrates, including humans, In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation and storage of memories formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Research associated with emotional events. Research indicates that during fear conditioning, indicates that during fear conditioning, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of the stimuli. The association with memories of the stimuli. The association between stimuli and the aversive events they between stimuli and the aversive events they predict may be mediated by long-term predict may be mediated by long-term potentiation, a lingering potential for affected potentiation, a lingering potential for affected synapses to react more readily. (Wikipedia)synapses to react more readily. (Wikipedia)

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Memories of emotional experiences imprinted Memories of emotional experiences imprinted in reactions of synapses in the lateral nuclei in reactions of synapses in the lateral nuclei elicit fear behavior through connections with elicit fear behavior through connections with the central nucleus of the amygdalae. The the central nucleus of the amygdalae. The central nuclei are involved in the genesis of central nuclei are involved in the genesis of many fear responses, including freezing many fear responses, including freezing (immobility), tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), (immobility), tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), increased respiration, and stress-hormone increased respiration, and stress-hormone release. Damage to the amygdalae impairs release. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the acquisition and expression of both the acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of classical conditioning of emotional responses.classical conditioning of emotional responses.

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Amgdala is evolutionary ancient (it’s present Amgdala is evolutionary ancient (it’s present in many vertebrates).in many vertebrates).

This doesn’t mean, though, that it is not This doesn’t mean, though, that it is not involved in higher cognitive processes.involved in higher cognitive processes.

It is associated with several aspect of the It is associated with several aspect of the theory of mind.theory of mind.

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The interconnections between the cortex and The interconnections between the cortex and the amygdala runs both ways, but the the amygdala runs both ways, but the amygdala can exert a much stronger amygdala can exert a much stronger influence over the cortex than vice versa.influence over the cortex than vice versa.

This is why we often let our emotions getting This is why we often let our emotions getting the better of us.the better of us.