09 Flight Techniques 747 400 v10

MANUAL FLIGHT TECHNIQUES 9 - 1

PMDG 747-400AOM DO NOT DUPLICATE Revision – 26JUL05

MANUAL FLIGHT TECHNIQUES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUBJECT PAGEGROUND TAXI OPERATIONS ............................................................................3

Overview: ................................................................................................................................3Turning Radius: .......................................................................................................................3Taxi Turns: ..............................................................................................................................3Turning Procedure ...................................................................................................................3Taxiing In Congested Areas.....................................................................................................3FOD Hazards...........................................................................................................................3Engine Thrus ...........................................................................................................................4Taxi Speed ..............................................................................................................................4Brake Heating/Cooling.............................................................................................................4Directional Control Issues ........................................................................................................4

TAKEOFF PROCEDURES...................................................................................5Takeoff Speeds .......................................................................................................................5Takeoff Position.......................................................................................................................5Throttle Advance......................................................................................................................5Takeoff Roll .............................................................................................................................5Proper Rotation for Takeoff ......................................................................................................6Crosswind Takeoff ...................................................................................................................6Rejected Takeoff......................................................................................................................6Engine Failure During Takeoff..................................................................................................7Double Engine Failure .............................................................................................................8

CLIMBOUT PROCEDURES.................................................................................9Initial Climb..............................................................................................................................9Acceleration in the Climb .........................................................................................................9Engine failure in/during climb .................................................................................................10Double Engine Failure ...........................................................................................................10

CRUISE PROCEDURES ....................................................................................10Optimum Altitude ...................................................................................................................10Fuel Economy........................................................................................................................10Known Fuel Consumption Increases ......................................................................................10

DESCENT PROCEDURES ................................................................................11Leaving Cruise.......................................................................................................................11Speedbrake Usage ................................................................................................................11

9 - 2 MANUAL FLIGHT TECHNIQUES

Revision – 26JUL05 DO NOT DUPLICATE PMDG 747-400 AOM

APPROACH PROCEDURES .............................................................................11Initial Approach......................................................................................................................11Approach Speeds ..................................................................................................................11Flaps Usage ..........................................................................................................................12Stabilized Approach...............................................................................................................12Precision Approach and Landing (ILS) ...................................................................................12Three Engine ILS Approach...................................................................................................13Non-Precision Approaches ....................................................................................................13Circling to Land......................................................................................................................13Missed Approach ...................................................................................................................13

LANDING PROCEDURES .................................................................................14Landing Geometry .................................................................................................................14Flare......................................................................................................................................14VASI......................................................................................................................................15PAPI......................................................................................................................................15Crosswinds............................................................................................................................15Runway Braking.....................................................................................................................15Reverse Thrust ......................................................................................................................16

MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT TECHNIQUES.......................................................17Emergency Descent...............................................................................................................17Stalls .....................................................................................................................................17Steep Turns...........................................................................................................................17Fuel Temperature Issues .......................................................................................................17



GROUND TAXI OPERATIONS

Overview: The significant size of the 747-400 requires additional vigilance on the partof the crew to ensure safe operation in theground environment. Special care shouldbe taken to ensure that tight maneuveringspaces are avoided unless guidemen areused to prevent collision with groundstructures or equipment. In addition, therelative height of the cockpit viewperspective can make judging distancedifficult and crews should use additionalcaution.

Turning Radius: The 747-400 has anextraordinary pavement requirement in orderto conduct a 180 degree turn. A minimum of153 feet of pavement width is required toreverse course on the ground in a singleturn. In spite of this, the 747-400 has arelatively tight turning radius which facilitatesmovement on standard 75 foot widetaxiways.

Taxi Turns: The use of body gear steeringallows the 747-400 to make a 90 degreeeasily even on 75 foot wide taxiways. Inany case where body gear steering isunavailable or should fail, crews are advisednot to attempt turns of 90 degrees or greateron taxiways less than 100 feet wide.

The cockpit of the 747-400 is located sevenfeet ahead of the nose gear. This allowsboth crew members relatively unobstructedviews during turns.

Turning Procedure: To safely conduct aturn on 75 foot wide taxiways, allow thecockpit to travel approximately twenty feetbeyond the centerline of the desired taxiwaybefore commencing the turn. (12 feet forsteering radius and 7 feet for cockpit offsetdistance.) This will ensure that the aircraftwill safely negotiate a 90 degree turn. Thissame procedure applies when lining theaircraft up on a runway or gate area lead-inline.

FOD Prevention: When taxiing on 75 footwide taxiways, both outboard engines willextend over unpaved surfaces. Extreme

caution should be used when selectingthrust settings for these engines in order toprevent FOD damage to the engines,nacelles and rear fuselage areas. If indoubt, use the inboard engines for taxiingand leave the outboard engines at idlethrust.

Taxiing In Congested Areas: The 747-400cockpit affords a relatively good vantagepoint for taxi operations. Care should beexercised, however, as a number of areassurrounding the aircraft are not visible to thecockpit crew, and could represent potentialcollision hazards for unseen personnel andequipment operating within close proximityto the aircraft. Affirmative communicationswith ground handling personnel should bemaintained prior to movement.

When taxiing in congested areas, thewinglets can be used to assist with depthperception and gauging the distance to thewing tip. Due to the location of the center ofthe turning radius, a minimum of 12 feet inlateral clearance is required for the wing tipsas the wing will project forward slightlyduring the turn. The wing tips will describethe most outward arc of the 747-400sturning radius, so 73 feet of forwardclearance is required if measuring from thenose of the aircraft.

The captain should always taxi the aircraft,unless for safety reasons this is notpossible.

When approaching the gate area, the firstofficer should do all possible to provideguidance and obstacle clearanceinformation to the captain, who may bewatching the guideman or Accupark systemand be unaware of an approaching hazard.

FOD Hazards: Aside from the alreadymentioned hazard of the outboard enginesprojecting over unpaved areas, crewsshould be mindful that snow plowed intowind rows, snow removal equipment,construction vehicles, mounds ofconstruction debris, and small upward



slopes adjoining the taxiway can pose aserious hazard to the outboard engines.

Never attempt to taxi beyond an obstacle byassuming the wing will have verticalclearance. When completely fueled, thedownward wing flex will result in engine podclearance of just 4 feet on the inboardengines and just 5 feet on the outboard.

Engine Thrust: At low gross weights (lessthan 600,000lbs) it is possible to taxi withonly two engines running. At medium grossweight (less than 650,000lbs) it is possibleto taxi with three engines running. At highergross weights, all four engines should bestarted prior to taxi.

Due in part to the distance separating thecockpit and the engines, engine noise levelwill be very low from the pilot’s perspectiveand N1% readings should always be usedfor determining safe taxi thrust levels.

The aircraft will respond slowly the throttlemovement, and crews should neveradvance the throttles beyond 40% N1without having obtained clearance fromground personnel to ensure damage is notdone to surrounding buildings, equipment oraircraft.

Care should also be taken to note that athigher N1 settings, the jet blast may kick updebris from unimproved surfaces, causingpotential damage to the aft fuselage,horizontal and vertical stabilizers, as well aspotential injury to ground personnel.

Once forward movement is established, idlethrust is usually sufficient to maintain a safetaxi speed.

Taxi Speed: Care should be taken tomanage the taxi speed of the 747-400,particularly at high gross weights. If theexpected takeoff runway is a long distancefrom the gate, a slower taxi speed isrecommended to protect against tire sidewall overheating.

When negotiating turns, proper care shouldbe taken to ensure excessive side loading isnot placed on the tires or landing gear,especially at high gross weights.

The following speeds are the maximumallowable taxi speeds:

Straight Taxiway 25 knots45 Degree Turn 15 knots90 Degree Turn 10 knots.

From the cockpit it will be very difficult toaccurately judge ground speed, and crewsare advised to use the ground speedreadout on the upper EICAS for speedmanagement.

Brake Heating/Cooling: Proper careshould be taken not to overheat the brakeassemblies while taxiing, as this will reducetheir effectiveness in the event of a rejectedtakeoff.

If braking is needed in order to reduce taxispeed, first reduce thrust to idle, thensmoothly apply brake pressure until thedesired taxi speed is reached. Do not apply,remove and re-apply brake pressure (“ridingthe brakes”) in order to manage taxi speed,as this reduces the effectiveness of brakecooling.

Differential braking is not recommendedwhile taxiing.

Directional Control Issues: The largesurface area of the vertical stabilizer willcause the 747-400 to have a tendency to‘weathervane’ on windy days.

On wet taxiways, care should be taken whensteering to prevent nose wheel skidding, asthis may result in loss of directional control.In the event of a nose wheel skid, do notturn the steering tiller to the point ofactivating body gear steering, as this willaggravate the condition as the body gearturn into the direction of the skid. Usedifferential braking or thrust as necessary tocorrect the skid and bring the aircraft to acomplete stop before continuing.



TAKEOFF PROCEDURESTakeoff Speeds: The speeds appropriatefor the takeoff weight of the aircraft shouldhave been selected and confirmed in theTAKEOFF PERF page of the FMC duringthe initial cockpit setup. If the FMC has notregistered confirmed takeoff speeds, anamber NO V-SPD warning will be displayedon the PFD, near the top of the airspeedscale.

Takeoff speeds are computed using crewinput, and the appropriate V speedindicators and flaps setting markers will bedisplayed on the airspeed scale. Not allsettings will be visible at any given time.

Takeoff Position: Under normal operatingconditions the extended runwayrequirements and relatively wide turningradius of the 747-400 do not allow a ‘runningtakeoff’ to be made. The takeoff roll shouldbegin deliberately from a full stop after theaircraft has been properly aligned with therunway centerline.

If a short delay is anticipated once in thetakeoff position, the parking brake should beset in order to protect against inadvertentmovement of the aircraft due to thrust, windor runway slope conditions. Due to theheight of the cockpit above ground level,movement may not be obvious to a crewimmersed in other tasks.

Upon receipt of the takeoff clearance, theaircraft lights should be configuredaccording to the appropriate checklist, andthe parking brake released.

Throttle Advance: The throttles on the747-400 are shorter than the throttles onprevious versions of the aircraft. As such,there is less ‘throw’ when bringing thethrottles up from idle to the takeoff thrustposition.

If the autothrottle is not being used to settakeoff thrust, the PF should advance thethrottles until reaching approximately 60%N1. Once engine readings have stabilized,the throttles should be advanced to takeoffpower, with final throttle adjustments being

made before the aircraft has accelerated to80 knots.

After reaching 80 knots in the takeoff roll,the throttles should only be adjusted to keepthe engines within operating parameters.

If the autothrottle is being used to set takeoffthrust, the PF should bring the throttlessmoothly forward until approximately 70%N1 is displayed on the EICAS. Once engineindications have stabilized, the TO/GAswitch should be pressed.

As the throttles advance to their FMCdetermined position, it is important that thePF back the throttles up with a hand, andthe hand should only be removed uponreaching V1. Observe also the autothrottleannunciator or on the PFD should read THRREF.

In all cases, the crew should be mindful thatthe engine power settings do not exceed thegreen maximum power settings displayedabove the engine power strips on the EICASdisplay.

Takeoff Roll: At the beginning of thetakeoff role, the PF should maintain slightforward pressure on the controls in order toensure proper directional control throughfirm contact between the nose wheels andthe runway surface. This is not to imply thanuse of the tiller above more than 20 knots isacceptable.

Directional control should be maintainedthrough the use of coordinated rudder andaileron input to ensure a straight takeoff withminimum roll tendency on rotation.

The PNF will call out “80 knots” at theappropriate time, as an indication to the PFthat the aircraft has entered into the highspeed regime of the takeoff.

At 80 knots, the PF should begin to releasethe forward pressure held on the flightcontrols.



The PNF will call “V1” when the indicatedaircraft speed is still 5 knots lower than theactual V1 speeds setting. This buffer isincluded in recognition of the fact that a no-go decision immediately before V1 can bemore effectively made if the PF is aware ofthe rate of acceleration to V1.

Upon reaching V1, the PF should removethe hand which was used to back up thethrottles. This is done to enforce the godecision, and to prevent a reactive decisionto reject a takeoff after reaching V1.

At Vr, the PNF will call “Rotate,” as a signalfor the PF to begin applying back pressureon the controls to raise the nose of theaircraft from the runway.

A proper rate of rotation is 3º per seconduntil a target pitch attitude of approximately8 - 10º nose up is attained. Tail contact withthe runway will occur at pitch attitudesexceeding 11º nose up. In gusty conditions,the rotation may be delayed slightly in orderto prevent inadvertent over-rotation inducedby wind gusts.

A proper rate of rotation will lead to theaircraft attaining V2 at 35 feet above therunway surface. Early, rapid or excessiverotation can extend the takeoff run, cause atail strike condition, and/or activate the stickshaker and stall warning.

Proper Rotation for Takeoff: Theimportance of proper rotation techniquescannot be over stressed with an airplane thesize of the 747-400.

Rotating at too rapid a rate (more than 3degrees per second) or rotating before Vrcan lead to a tail strike as the aircraft leavesthe runway, causing significant damage andinspection requirements to the airframe.

Likewise, under-rotation can be equallyhazardous due to the tendency to elongatethe takeoff roll.

At proper rotation rates, where the airplaneis rotated at 3 degrees /second into the flightdirector bars, the distance that a fully loaded747-400 will cover from the Vr until theaircraft is passes through 35 feet AGL istypically 2,500ft.

If rotated at half of the normal rotation rate(1.5 degrees/second) the distance a fullyloaded 747-400 will travel from Vr to 35’AGL increases to 3,500 feet.

If the airplane is under-rotated and allowedto lift off at a higher speed than planned, thedistance between Vr and 35’ AGL increasesto 3,700.

Crosswind Takeoff: As with other aircrafttypes, the most effective method to maintaindirectional control during the takeoff is touse rudder for directional control asnecessary, and aileron input to control rolltendency.

As the aircraft accelerates, the control inputsshould be gradually reduced so as toachieve a smooth liftoff without banking thewings. An uneven bank angle on rotationproduces a risk of engine nacelle damagefrom striking the runway surface.

Rejected Takeoff: Given the size andrequired takeoff speeds of the 747-400, it isextremely important the crews understandthat a decision to reject a takeoff is notmade because the airplane can stop. A



decision to reject a takeoff is made becausethe airplane will not fly.Once entering the high speed regime of thetakeoff role, a decision to reject the takeoffshould only be made if, from the captain’sperspective, a failure occurring prior to V1sufficiently calls into question the ability ofthe aircraft to fly safely. Crews should keepin mind that rejecting the takeoff at highspeed may place the aircraft at higher riskthan the initial failure.

A decision to reject the takeoff should bemade with authority, and in time that brakingcan be applied before V1 is reached. Thepilot flying should quickly reduce thethrottles to idle, disengage the autothrottleand apply reverse thrust.

If set to RTO, the autobrakes should activatewhen the throttles are returned to idle. If theautobrakes do not activate, the crew shouldapply maximum manual brakingcommensurate with safety.

Reverse thrust should be applied normally,with maximum symmetric thrust being usedin the event of an engine failure.

Engine Failure During Takeoff: In theevent that an engine fails on takeoff but adecision to continue the takeoff is made,directional control must be maintained byapplying rudder to the side opposite that ofthe failed engine. The amount of rudderrequired to maintain directional control willdepend on aircraft weight, crosswindinfluence, airspeed at the time of the failureand which engine failed. It is important thatonly enough rudder be applied to maintaindirectional stability as additional rudder willproduce excess drag or cause the aircraft toyaw away from the failed engine. Thiscondition is undesirable because it mayresult in yaw oscillations during the takeoffroll which will reduce the overallcontrollability of the aircraft.

After an engine failure, avoid rotating theaircraft early or excessively. Rotatesmoothly at Vr and continue the takeoffnormally, accelerating to V2. The pitchattitude during the early climb will be slightlylower than that normally required for an allengines operating takeoff. (Usually 2º lowerthan the normal climb out angle.) Maintain

V2 until reaching the Engine OutAcceleration Height. (E/O Accel Ht.) as setin the FMC takeoff page. On passing theE/O Acceleration Height, lower the nose byone half of the climb pitch attitude, andbegin a normal acceleration and flapretraction sequence. (e.g. from 15° to 8°pitch.) Do not descend during theacceleration sequence. After completion ofthe flap retraction sequence, reduce thrustto the maximum continuous thrust setting,(CON) and continue the climb profile.

In the event the engine failure occurs afterreaching V2, but before reaching V2 + 10,maintain the speed at which the aircraft wastravelling at the time of the engine failure.Use pitch to maintain airspeed, and acceptwhatever rate of climb results unlessobstacle clearance is an issue. Climb to theE/O Acceleration Height and commence theacceleration and flap retraction as describedabove.

If the engine failure occurs at V2 + 10, thenuse pitch to maintain this speed untilreaching the E/O Acceleration Height andcommencing the acceleration and flapretraction sequence as described above.

If the engine failure occurs at a speedgreater than V2 + 10, use pitch to reducespeed to V2 + 10 and climb to the flapretraction/acceleration altitude. Thistechnique will give the best rate of climb forthe given available thrust. The abovedescribed procedure for acceleration andflap retraction applies.

Failure of an engine on one side of theaircraft will cause a yaw tendency towardthe failed engine. Opposite rudder inputshould be applied using trim with enoughrudder deflection to eliminate the aircraft’stendency to change heading. The aircraftshould be considered properly trimmed ifyaw tendency is eliminated and the yokecan be held without aileron input. Althougha slight banking may be noticed, usingailerons to level the wings will cause anincrease in aerodynamic drag, resulting in aless efficient wingform, reduced lifteffectiveness and reduced climbperformance.



Double Engine Failure: In the event that asecond engine fails, continue with the E/OAcceleration Height procedure. In somecases, a second engine failure at high grossweight and slow speed will require a slightreduction in thrust on the surviving outboardengine in order to maintain control of theaircraft. This is due to the decreasedeffectiveness of the rudder at slowairspeeds, and will become less of aconcern as the aircraft accelerates. For thisreason it is extremely important that theaircraft not be decelerated after a secondengine failure.

The 747-400 has a wide range of operatingspeeds and it is absolutely necessary foryou to trim the airplane properly when flyingby hand.

During the transition from low to high speedflight, it will be necessary to trim the nosedown in order to keep pitch control forcesreasonably manageable with a standardjoystick/flight control.

Likewise, during transition from high speedto slow speed, you may easily “run out ofelevator” and find yourself unable to holdpitch attitude if you have not trimmed theairplane properly.

If you ever find yourself holding the flightcontrol/joystick forward or back in order tomaintain altitude, re-trim the airplane.

It is not so easy to forget the trim processwhen flying the actual aircraft based uponthe control feedback. With a standard PC,however this will require some naturalattention as you do not have feedback forout of trim conditions.



CLIMBOUT PROCEDURESInitial Climb: In a normal takeoff condition,the pitch attitude required to maintain V2+10knots in the climb is 15-17º nose up. In lightairplane configurations, this pitch attitudemay be exceeded in order to maximize therate of climb. (Provided the airspeed is notallowed to drop below V2+10.)

Some consideration to passenger comfortshould be given to if the climb anglerequired to maintain V2+10 exceeds 25ºnose up pitch. If this is a concern, a slightreduction in N1 is the best way to reduceclimb angle.

If a turn is required during the initial climboutphase of the flight, bank angle should belimited to 15º or less. In cases where theflight director is being used, bank attitudeaccording to the flight director is satisfactory,as the flight director takes aircraft speed,weight and stall factors into account.

Acceleration in the Climb: If the flightdirectors are not being used in the climb, thepitch angle should be reduced whenclimbing through the Flap AccelerationHeight as set on the FMC Takeoff page.Pitch angle should be reduced by not morethan ½ of the pitch required to maintainV2+10. For example, if 16º nose up wasrequired, then the pitch angle can bereduced to 8º nose up, but not lower. Thiswill allow the aircraft to begin accelerating inthe climb.

Flaps should be retracted according the flapretraction schedule on the airspeedindicator. During the flap retractionsequence, do not select the next flap settinguntil the aircraft has accelerated beyond theamber warning band (on the airspeedindicator) for the next flap setting.

Acceleration should be continued untilreaching 30 REF + 100 or 250 KIAS,whichever is greater. In US airspace wherespeeds above 250 knots are prohibitedbelow 10,000 MSL, notify ATC of theadditional speed requirement prior toreaching 250 knots.

30REF + 100 KIAS is used because itprovides the best climb gradient for a givenweight and thrust performance. Additionally,in level flight, 30REF+100 providesminimum drag and best fuel economy for anon cruise flight environment.

The maneuvering speed flap schedule isdisplayed on the airspeed indicator andfunctions as follows:

Climb Target Speed 30 REF + 100FLAPS 0 30 REF + 80FLAPS 1 30 REF + 60FLAPS 5 30 REF + 40FLAPS 10 30 REF + 20FLAPS 20 30 REF + 10FLAPS 25 25 REFFLAPS 30 30 REF

The simplest way to determine 30 REF +100 is to add 20 knots to the Flaps Upspeed bug on the PFD airspeed indicator.30 REF + 100 can also be determined bychecking the FMC Approach page.

If necessary, modify the pitch, power andflap settings as required in order to complywith ATC clearances or SID requirements.

When reaching Flaps 5, the crew shouldselect the Climb Thrust setting by pressingthe FLCH switch, the THR switch, or via theFMC Climb page. Verify the appropriateCLB setting is displayed on the EICASengine display. Once in this mode, enginethrust settings will be automatically adjustedfor maximum cost/climb performance givencurrent environmental conditions and climbrequirements.

Using the normal flap retraction sequenceduring the climb/acceleration will provideadequate margin for maneuvering. At grossweights exceeding 750,000lbs, bank angleshould be limited to 15º while at airspeedsbelow 30REF + 100. At all times, however,flight director commands may be followed,as the flight director selects bank anglescommensurate with the current flight profile.



Engine failure in/during climb: Onceabove the E/O Acceleration Height, selectthe ENG OUT mode on the FMC ClimbPage. Selecting the engine out mode willchange the commands sent to the VNAVsystem in order to cope with the changedflight characteristics.

After ENG OUT mode is selected, VNAV willcontinue the climb at engine out climb speeduntil reaching cruise altitude, or themaximum engine out cruise altitude,whichever is lower.

If the aircraft is above the maximum engineout cruise altitude, VNAV will commence adrift down procedure with level out uponreaching the maximum engine out cruisealtitude. Upon reaching the requiredaltitude, VNAV will command a speed

change to Long Range Cruise mode. Alonger acceleration to cruise speed shouldbe anticipated after level off.

Double Engine Failure: In the event of asecond engine failure in the climb, it isimportant to adjust the thrust level of theremaining engines so as to minimize theamount of rudder deflection required tomaintain heading. This is especially true ifboth engines fail on the same side of theaircraft.

Remaining engines should be brought toMaximum Rated thrust as soon as ruddereffectiveness permits.

VNAV will manage to the climb or drift downto the two engine out cruise level.

CRUISE PROCEDURES

Optimum Altitude: The FMC VNAV Cruisepage will display both the Optimum cruisealtitude and Maximum Cruise Altitude for thecurrent flight configuration. The Optimumaltitude will give the best ratio of groundmileage for fuel consumed.

Normally, a cruise altitude as close to theOptimum altitude should be selected. Flightabove the optimum altitude will reduce themargin between cruise speed and stallspeed. Flight above optimum altitudeshould be avoided if autothrottles areinoperative.

Fuel Economy: The FMC will continuallymonitor and report on fuel usage during thecourse of a flight. If a change in flightconditions reduces the range of the aircraftand causes a fuel reserves reduction, theFMC message INSUFFICIENT FUEL will bedisplayed.

FMC monitoring of the required fuel leveldoes not remove crew responsibility formonitoring and managing the useful fuelload.

Factors which can cause a change in therequired fuel load include, but are not limitedto:

• Improper Trim Settings• Unbalanced Fuel Load• Excessive Throttle Adjustments• Flight Higher Than Optimum Altitude• Lower Than Planned Cruise Altitude• Temperatures Higher Than Forecast• Faster Airspeed Than Planned• Slower Airspeed Than Planned• Higher than forecast wind conditions.• Infarcts enroute holding.• Unforecast altitude changes.

Known Fuel Consumption Increases:

Enroute Climb of 4,000 feet: 2,000-3,000lbsM.01 over planned speed: 2% Increase2,000 above Optimum Alt: 2% Increase4,000 above Optimum Alt: 3.4% Increase4,000 below Optimum Alt: 4% Increase8,000 below Optimum Alt: 12% Increase



DESCENT PROCEDURESLeaving Cruise: The descent process canbe conducted manually by taking control ofthe flight, or by selecting a lower assignedaltitude in the MCP and pressing FLCH orVNAV. A descent may also be initiated byentering a lower FL___ in the FMC VNAVCruise Page.

Higher profile descents may require the useof speed brakes in order to reach altitude orspeed targets during the descent. Indescents requiring the use of speed brakes,it is important that level off at the lowerassigned altitude be anticipated so thatspeed brakes can be retracted and thrustincreased to obtain a smooth level outprocedure. Late reduction of speed brakesand cause uncomfortable G loading andpassenger discomfort.

The use of flaps to increase aerodynamicdrag in order to facilitate a higher descent

rate is not recommended in the 747-400, asthis places significant wear and tear on theflaps, flap track and flap actuatormechanisms. If additional drag is required,speedbrakes are recommended.

Speedbrake Usage: In all cases wherespeed brakes are used, the speed brakesshould be closed before thrust is added.There are no altitude or speed constraintsfor operating the speed brakes, however,crews should keep in mind that speedbrakeusage with greater than Flaps 10 selectedcauses additional stress loading to beplaced on the trailing edge flaps. This stressloading is a direct result of air passingthrough the wing surface gap left by speedbrake deployment. Although this processwill not adversely affect controllability of theaircraft, it does place additional wear andtear on the flap track mechanisms.

APPROACH PROCEDURES

Initial Approach: Crew workload during theapproach portion of the flight increasessteadily right up to the point of touchdown.As such, the earlier a crew is prepared withall weather, runway and approachinformation the more distributed theworkload will become.

A strong approach briefing allows the crewto plan ahead for various contingencies suchas vectoring through congested airspace,unusual approach procedures, emergencyprocedures, weather related contingencies,etc.

The crew should have all informationregarding ATIS, NOTAMS and aircraftperformance data collected prior todescending below 10,000 feet.

Approach Speeds: The speed bugsdisplayed on the ND airspeed indicator arecontinually computed and updated by the

FMC. Speeds are based on the aircraftweight and fuel remaining. When speed ismaintained at these airspeed/flap limits, afull safety margin for aerodynamic stall ismaintained.

The maneuvering speed for a specific flapsetting is displayed using a green indexmarker with the associated flap numberbeside it.

Prior to entering the approach, the landingflap setting should be selected in the FMCAPPROACH REF page. This page willshow both the 25 REF and 30 REF speedsgiven the current aircraft weight. Theselected flap setting and REF speed shouldbe selected and entered at Line Select Key4R. Once selected, the FMC will notcontinue to adjust the REF speed to reflectcontinued fuel burn. If significant weightchange is experienced due to prolongedholding, reselecting a REF speed is



necessary to update approach and flapmaneuvering speeds.

When selecting speeds independently ofATC instructions, selecting an MCP speedwhich is 10 knots higher than the flapmaneuvering speed bug will provide astable, efficient flight envelope with acomfortable margin for banking turns whichmay be required by ATC.

Flaps Usage: To ensure a normal,stabilized approach, it is good technique tohave Flaps 5 selected by the time the initialapproach is commenced.

Proper deployment technique is to set thenext flap setting as the airspeed passesthrough the next highest flap settingmaneuver speed. For example, selectingflaps 20 will be done as airspeed slowsthrough the flaps 10 maneuver speed.

Stabilized Approach: A stabilizedapproach is important to a consistent andsafe landing technique. This is particularlytrue in the 747-400 aircraft.

A stabilized approach is defined byaccomplishment of the following beforereaching 1000 feet AGL on an instrumentapproach or 500 feet AGL on a visualapproach:

• Landing configuration (gear and flaps)• On descent profile (ILS Localizer and

glide slope, published non precisionprofile, or when conditions have beenmet to allow a visual approach belowDH or MDA on a non precisionapproach.)

• Speed within 5 knots of target REFspeed.

• Rate of descent not in excess of 1000fpm on precision approach or 1200 fpmon non precision approach.

• Engines spooled up normally tomaintain speed and rate of descent.

In order to facilitate a stabilized approach,crews should plan to have the landing geardown and the final approach checklistcompleted prior to crossing the outermarker.

If the approach is unstable, or becomesunstable below 1000 feet on an instrumentapproach or 500 feet on a visual approach,initiate a go around.

Precision Approach and Landing (ILS):The initial approach can be flown using anumber of different modes in the autoflightmode, regardless of whether a manual orautomatic landing is anticipated. The HDGSEL and LNAV modes can be used forlateral tracking of the flight path and VNAV,FLCH or V/S can be used for altitudechanges. Generally VNAV is considered tobe the preferred method, as the VNAVprogram provides speed management notfound in the V/S mode, and as such canmake for a smoother approach with lesssignificant throttle movement and thrustchanges. When VNAV mode is not usable,or at the crews discretion, FLCH will providefor speed management during a descent,but will result in increased throttle movementand cabin noise during small altitudechanges. For small altitude changes, use ofthe V/S mode will minimize autothrottlethrust changes until the new, lower altitudeis reached.

Passenger comfort is maximized and enginewear and tear are minimized when changesin required thrust settings are anticipatedand accounted for by the crew. Forexample, when the landing gear arelowered, timely selection of the next slowerspeed required for the approach willeliminate the need for the autothrottle toincrease thrust in order to compensate forincreased drag from the landing gearimmediately prior to a thrust change for adecrease in approach speed.

Whenever possible, it is helpful to enter thelanding runway into the FMC DEP/ARRpage, as this will display an extendedrunway centerline in the ND MAP mode,which can help with spatial awareness.

When turning onto the localizer interceptheading and commencing the approach,select APP mode on the ND. The expandedcompass rose or full compass rose (HSI)provide for the best approach informationdisplay.



If LNAV is being used to manage lateraltrack navigation, use caution to ensure thatthe aircraft actually captures the ILSlocalizer. In some cases, the aircraft willcontinue to fly the LNAV approach headingwithout actually capturing the localizer,which can lead to dangerous descentconditions if a glideslope capture occurs.

After localizer capture, the heading bug willupdate to reflect to inbound approachcourse. If a large intercept angle was beingflown, the autopilot will perform one interceptmaneuver before stabilizing on the localizer.At intercept angles less than 30 degrees, theautopilot will not require an interceptmaneuver.

The aircraft should be configured for finalapproach prior to reaching the finalapproach fix, and the MCP speed set to 30REF + 10 at the first indication of glide slopemovement after localizer intercept. This willensure an accurate glide slope intercept atthe appropriate speed for the approach.Landing flaps setting should be selectedimmediately after capturing the glideslope,with the MCP speed set to final approachspeed for the landing flaps setting.Normally, landings will be performed at flaps25 unless runway or weather conditionsdictate the use of flaps 30.

Upon glideslope capture, G/S mode will bethe active mode displayed on the PFD.

Three Engine ILS Approach: A normalapproach should be flown to a flaps 25 orflaps 30 landing. Normal approach speedsshould be used. When flying the approachwith an engine out, it is important the crewstabilize the aircraft on the final approachspeed prior to reaching the outer marker.This will provide an opportunity to re-trim theaircraft as required to eliminate yawtendencies at the slower approach speeds.Once the aircraft is trimmed, an normalapproach and landing can be flown.

In some cases, the crew may desire to zeroout any trim influence prior to flying theapproach. This will require that the crewmanually input the control deflectionsnecessary to eliminate the yaw tendenciesof the aircraft. While this is a higher work-

load solution, it is available to the crew andshould be completed prior to reaching thefinal approach fix.

Crews should resist the temptation to adjustrudder trim after crossing the final approachfix as this may distract crew members fromflying the approach effectively.

Non-Precision Approaches: When flyingnon precision approaches, the aircraft mustbe in the landing configuration prior toreaching the final approach fix. FinalDescent checklist should be completed priorto crossing the final approach fix as well.Landing flaps should be set and landingspeed selected on the MCP speed selectorprior to commencing the descent to theMDA.

A rate of descent should be used which willallow visual acquisition of the runwayenvironment (commensurate with MDA) intime to align the aircraft with the landingrunway.

During NDB approaches, the MAP CTRmode provides a good picture of needletracking throughout the approach.

During VOR approaches, the VOR or MAPmodes provides a good situationalawareness picture of the approach.

Circling to Land: When circle to landminimums are met and wind conditionsrequire such a maneuver, the pilot flyingmust maintain visual contact with the fieldonce descent below the clouds incompleted. When circling, bank angles inexcess of 30 degrees should be avoided.Flaps 20 and the associated flaps 20maneuvering speed is recommended for theapproach portion of the procedure as well asthe circling maneuver. Once the turn to finalis commenced, extend landing flaps andcommence a normal visual approach profile.

Missed Approach: To execute the missedapproach, press the TO/GA switch andimmediately rotate the aircraft to the pitchattitude commanded by the flight director.(Approximately 15º nose up.) Select flaps20, but leave the landing gear in the downposition until a positive rate of climb isdisplayed on the VSI.



LNAV or the MCP Heading Select can beused for lateral track navigation of themissed approach procedure. If altitude andspeeds are displayed on the LEGS page,

VNAV can be used for vertical profile.Retract flaps on schedule and accelerate asneeded for the holding pattern or ATCvectors for an additional approach.

LANDING PROCEDURESLanding Geometry: Two factors makelanding the 747-400 a challenge from theperspective of the pilot; the long wheel baseof the aircraft and relative height of thecockpit above the runway.

To make consistently accurate and safelandings, it is important that the pilot have afirm understanding of the 747-400sgeometry in the landing configuration.

The standard ICAO glideslope installationrequires the glideslope to intersect therunway surface 1,000 feet from thethreshold. In this configuration, a 2.5ºglideslope will have a runway thresholdcrossing height (TCH) of 66 feet.

On the 747-400, however, the ILS receiversare located on the nose gear doors, 21 feetbelow the cockpit. As such, if the aircraft isperfectly on glideslope at threshold crossingand flying at the Flight Director commandedpitch angle of 4º nose up, the pilot’sviewpoint will cross the runway threshold at87 feet. The landing gear of the 747-400are located behind and below both thecockpit and the ILS glideslope receivershowever, and will cross the runwaythreshold at only 44 feet.

If the aircraft is flown to the runway in thisconfiguration without a normal flare, themain gear will touch down approximately500 feet from the runway threshold.

If a moderate flare is accomplished, ratherthan simply flying the aircraft onto therunway, the flight path of the main landinggear can be expected to lengthen bybetween 500 and 1000 feet.

It is recommended that the aircraft be flaredto touch down on the runway surfacebetween 1,000 and 1,500 feet from the

threshold. As such, the pilot should use the1,500 foot markings on the runway as thevisual aim point for the approach.

Coincidentally, this aim point will provide agood visual reference for flying both a 2.5ºand 3º glide slope, and result in anappropriately placed touchdown usingnormal flare technique.

Flare: At 50 feet radio altitude above therunway surface, the throttles should bemoved to idle. At 30 feet radio altitude, noseup pitch should be increased from theapproach angle to approximately 6º noseup. If accomplished correctly, the aircraftshould settle onto the runway withoutextended floating.

Keeping power added during the flare maycause extended floating in ground effect justabove the runway surface, which willsignificantly increase landing distance.Crews are likewise cautioned not to continueto increase nose up pitch during the flare asthis may cause a rapid decay in airspeed,reducing aircraft controllability and reducingthe effectiveness of immediate go aroundthrust should it be needed. In addition, apitch attitude of 11º nose up will causefuselage contact with the runway surfaceupon main gear touchdown.

The recommended approach and landingtechnique is to fly a visual aim point 1,500feet down the runway. Reduce thrust to idlebeginning at 50 feet, with the flarecommencing at 30 feet. Fly the aircraft ontothe runway surface and commence therollout procedure.

Effective use of this procedure willconsistently result in a runway touchdownbetween 1,000 and 1,500 feet from thethreshold.



VASI: If landing on a runway equippedwith a standard two bar VASI system, usecaution during the last 200 feet of the visualapproach. Most VASI systems areconfigured to provide a 2º - 3º glideslope tointersect the runway surface 1,000 feet fromthe runway threshold. Crews should use theVASI system for approach guidance initially,but convert to the 1,500 foot aim pointmethod described above for the finalapproach and touchdown portion of theflight.

If a three bar VASI is provided for use bylong bodied aircraft, 747-400 crews areadvised to use this visual approach cue forguidance to the runway surface as thesecond bars are aligned to provide atouchdown zone 1,500 – 1,700 feet from therunway threshold.

PAPI: Most major airport facilities areconverting to the higher precision PAPIsystem. PAPI placement relative to thetouchdown zone will vary, but is generallyaligned to give an approach pathintersecting the runway 1,000 feet from therunway threshold. Crews should employ thesame methods which apply to standard twobar VASI approaches.

Crosswinds: Due to the large verticalsurface of the tail and characteristics uniqueto the four main gear assembly of theaircraft, the 747-400 requires specialhandling during crosswind landings.

When the flying a coupled approach, theautopilot will fly most of the approach withthe airplane’s nose crabbed into the wind.Passing 500 feet, the autopilot will de-crabthe aircraft and fly the remainder of theapproach and touchdown in a wing lowattitude.

As the airplane touches down on the runwaysurface, the upwind wing will be lower thanthe downwind wing, and enough rudderinput will be applied to keep the aircraftaligned with the runway centerline.

This is the best technique for landing theaircraft in a crosswind condition, as itprovides the best directional control of the

aircraft upon touchdown and minimizes wearand tear on the airframe and landing gear.

It is important to note, however, that oncethe main gear touch the runway surface, abank angle of greater than 8º will cause theouter engine nacelle to contact the runwaysurface. This bank angle is the limitingfactor in determining the maximumcrosswind component of the 747-400 andshould be strictly adhered to.

After the nose has been lowered to therunway, rudder and steering tiller input maybe required to keep the aircraft aligned withthe runway during deceleration due to thereduced effectiveness of spoilers andailerons after touchdown.

This is increasingly more important if theaircraft touches down on the runway surfacewith a slight crab. Due to the design of the747s four wheeled main landing gear trucks,the airplane has a strong tendency to travelin the direction of the main gear. As such, aslight nose into the wind deflection canresult in the aircraft travelling toward theupwind side of the runway during the rollout.This should be immediately and preciselycorrect with rudder input while lowering thenose wheel to the runway surface.

Autobrakes provide the best brakingresponse during crosswind landingsbecause of the difficulty in applying evenbrake pressure to rudder pedals that aredisplaced in order to provide rudderdeflection for the final phase of theapproach. As such, crews are advised touse autobrakes whenever possible oncrosswind landings.

Runway Braking: To understand theimportance of steady brake pressureapplication, it is important to understand thatthe antiskid system which is used to preventwheel locking and skidding monitors frictionbetween the tires and the runway surfacethrough a deliberate modulation and testingof braking power to the main gear. If theautobrakes are overridden by flight crewapplication of braking pressure, this processof runway sampling starts again from thebeginning. Repeated pumping of the brakepedals by the flight crew can increase thelanding roll by as much as 75% in some



cases. Crews are advised to apply a steadyrate of pressure on the brake pedals whenautobrakes are not used.

The autobrake system allows for settings 1 –4 and MAX. Autobrakes are recommendedfor any landing being accomplished on arunway shorter than 10,000 feet, or at highgross landing weights on longer runways.During the approach segment of the flight,select the autobrakes power setting requiredfor the landing.

After touchdown, brake application isindicated by a positive rate of decelerationbeginning one or two seconds aftertouchdown. The braking is appliedgradually, with the full selected brakingpower being applied as the nose wheeltouches the runway surface.

If the autobrakes system fails (usuallyaccompanied by an EICAS warning), applymanual brake pressure.

Use of reverse thrust will augment thebraking system and reduce wear on thebrake systems. Regardless of whether ornot reverse thrust is applied, the autobrakesystem seeks a target rate of deceleration(see Landing chapter), rather than a certainbrake power. This will result in a consistentand smooth rate of deceleration aftertouchdown.

The autobrake system is designed to bringthe aircraft to a complete stop upontouchdown, so crew intervention is requiredif a full stop is not desired. Simply disarmthe autobrakes system by selecting OFFafter passing through 60 knots and reducingreverse thrust to idle.

Autobrakes may also be disarmed bymoving the speedbrake lever to the downposition or advancing the throttles.

Reverse Thrust: The 747-400 has aparticularly large rudder, which leads tomuch greater rudder effectiveness attouchdown and rollout speeds than on manyother conventional aircraft. As such, there isno need to wait for nose gear touchdown toengage and use reverse thrust during thelanding roll.

Application and amount of reverse thrust issubject to the discretion of the flight crew.When touching down on wet or slipperyrunways, every effort should be made toensure that only symmetrical reverse thrustis applied. On dry runways, asymmetricalthrust should only be applied with extremecaution, as this may pose a significantdirectional control problem to the flight crew.

When passing through 80 knots beginmoving the throttles so as to reach reverseidle by 60 knots. Use of reverse thrustlevels higher than idle when forward speedis below 60 knots increases the potential forFOD ingestion and engine surging due toingestion of engine exhaust.

The engines should be brought to forwardidle by the time taxi speed is reached.

If directional control problems areencountered during the landing rollout, it isimportant that they be identified and solvedquickly in order to keep the aircraft on therunway centerline and under control.

If a skid is detected during the landing roll:

• Reduce reverse thrust to idle if at highlevels of reverse thrust.

• Verify correct control inputs for currentcrosswind conditions. (aileron into thewind and opposite rudder)

• Use forward differential thrust, ifnecessary to restore directional control.



MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT TECHNIQUES

Emergency Descent: At the firstindication of a cabin altitude /cabin pressureproblem, the crew should immediately donoxygen masks. A quick trouble shootingprocess is to verify that all packs are normaland to close all isolation valves. If this doesnot remedy the problem, or if it is obviousthat cabin altitude is uncontrollable, anemergency descent should be commencedat once.

An emergency descent is best performedunder control of the autopilot, as thisreduced the crew workload and allows themto focus on issues related to localizing andidentifying the aircraft problem.

Immediately select 14,000 feet or MinimumEnroute Altitude, whichever is higher in theMCP Altitude window. Press FLCH, extendthe speedbrakes and verify the MCPcommanded airspeed is in the usable range.

Passing through 16,000 feet begin preparingfor a controlled level out by selecting 290knots in the MCP speed window. Retractspeedbrakes and apply thrust as necessaryduring the level out and consult the requiredchecklists.

Stalls: An aerodynamic stall in any aircraftconfiguration, flight mode, or at any altitudeis an unacceptable flight condition for the747-400. At the first warning of animpending stall, (stick shaker or stall buffet):

• Throttles: Full Forward• Pitch: Adjust to minimize loss of

altitude. Intermittent stick shaker isacceptable in order to preventground or obstacle contact.

• Wings: Level• Configuration: Do not change flap

or gear settings until recovery fromthe stall is complete.

Steep Turns: Turns in excess of 30º arenot normally accomplished during normaloperating modes. For pilot familiarity withthe aircraft in all regimes of flight, is

important the flight crews be able to managesteeper bank angles should they benecessary or desired.

Entry into a 45º bank should beaccomplished with the MCP speed set to280 KIAS. Level flight can be maintainedwith only 2.5º - 3.5º of nose up pitch in theturn. Use of stabilizer trim is recommendedto eliminate approximately half of therequired flight column control input requiredto maintain level flight in the turn.

Fuel Temperature Issues: At higheratmospheric levels, extremely low ambientair temperatures may cause concern for fueltemperature management. During extendedcruise operations, the fuel temperature willtrend slowly toward True Air Temperature.When this reaches the lower limit ofallowable fuel temperatures (see 4-6) waxcrystals will form and settle in the tanks,causing fuel system congestion and possiblefuel starvation. Cold soaked fuel can beprevented by descending to lower altitudeswhere the TAT is higher, or by increasingMach number. A 0.01Mach increase willresult in an increase of up to .7°C in TAT. Insevere cases, a descent to lower altitudeswill be required.



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09 Flight Techniques 747 400 v10

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