07 Miwa Yamazaki

WCA 2007 Conference, Brisbane, July 2007 1

SHIFTING FROM INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE TO

MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE:

A DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT AND THE APPLICATIONS

Miwa Yamazaki

University of Hawaii at Manoa

Honolulu, HI, USA

Description

This is a review paper on communication competence focusing on the concepts described in the keywords.

Areas of communication, health care, counseling, consultation, and education have focused on individuals’

cultural competence differently in past studies. This paper emphasized the importance of shifting our focus to

multicultural communication competence that can be applied to different areas of study.

Abstract

Communicating appropriately and effectively is often emphasized as a key to be a culturally competent

person. However, past research did not always refer to the necessary communication that one needs to

acquire. This study reviewed the different definitions of competences to investigate the underlying emphasis,

and raised the importance of focusing on multicultural communication competence. Knowing that the

individuals’ competence can be an inherent (trait) and/or a learned (state) ability, the author emphasized that

the scholars need to consider both personal (demographic) and situational variables to explain the skills that

need to be acquired to become culturally competent.

Keywords: multicultural communication competence (MCOMC), intercultural communication competence

(ICC), bicultural communication competence (BCOMC), multicultural counseling communication (MCC),

cultural sensitivity, multiculturalism, biculturalism

WCA: Communication in the 21st Century: Exploring Roots; Expanding Visions


Introduction

A growing number of studies have been published in the area of intercultural communication competence

(ICC). About ten years ago, Chen and Starosta (1996) proposed the importance of acquiring the skills to be

an interculturally competent person. Afterwards, awareness toward cultural differences has increased;

however, what the criteria one can follow to acquire skills to be interculturally competent person has not yet

fully investigated.

Several important trends of the late twentieth century, such as technology development, globalization of the

economy, widespread population migrations, and the development of multiculturalism, have transformed the

world into a global village (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Being interculturally competent in communication

transforms a monocultural person into a multicultural person (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Individuals have been

expected not only to increase awareness toward cultural differences but also to gain the skills to perform

appropriately in different communication settings.

Scholars have investigated ICC in the areas are organizational communication context (Méndez García &

Pérez Caňado, 2005; Chen & Starosta, 1996), health care and counseling context (Diaz-Lazaro & Cohen,

2001; Fuertes, Bartolomeo, & Nichols, 2001; Manese, Wu, & Nepomuceno, 2001; Sevig & Etzkorn, 2001;

Toporek, 2001), consultation (Jackson & Hayes, 1993), nursing (Koskinen & Tossavainen, 2004), nurse

education (Culley, 1996), dental hygiene care delivery (Fitch, 2004), tourism (Leclerc & Martin, 2004), and

education (Greenholtz, 2000; Le Roux, 2002; Sercu, 2004; Wilson, 1993). However, the concept of ICC has

not yet fully unified across different disciplines especially focusing on necessary communication skills. In

addition, the past research even used different terms to discuss communication competence. For instance,

researchers from health/counseling context have used MCC that refers to “multicultural counseling

competence” (Diaz-Lazaro & Cohen, 2001; Manese et al., 2001; Sevig & Etzkorn, 2001; Toporek, 2001)

instead of using the term ICC. MCC in that specific context is important in terms of understanding cultural

diversity for providing an appropriate care (Meleis, 1999). In addition to ICC and MCC, another term BCC

that refers to “bicultural communication competence” has been introduced (Kim, 2002). BCC emphasizes

individuals’ communication competence when they keep their ethnic identities without assimilating

completely into the dominant culture (Kim, 2002). Due to the complexity of the abbreviation of each concept,

the present paper distinguishes between ICC and BCC, and also refers BCC as BCOMC. The present paper

also refers to multicultural communication competence as MCOMC to distinguish it from MCC since it refers

to multicultural counseling competence in the past literatures.



Interestingly, many scholars have only emphasized ICC instead of MCOMC in the past. According to the

literature, being flexible, thinking appropriately, and interacting effectively are necessary to be culturally

competence person (Hammer, Bennet, & Wiseman, 2003; Wiseman, 2002). Van der Zee & Brinkmann

(2004) proposed some important elements such as cultural empathy, open-mindedness, social initiative,

emotional stability, and flexibility that are required to be a multiculturally competent person.

As discussed, past research has emphasized only the importance of effective and appropriate skills to be

interculturally or multiculturally competent individuals; yet, the specific skills to be acquired are not well

explained. In fact, studying only ICC is limited due to the lacks of multicultural concepts, for example,

observing cultural differences as a whole. Studying only MCC is also limited as it does not focus on the

communication skills necessary in health and counseling. Many studies about MCC have usually focused on

the concept of multiculturalism; however, they do not usually expand the concept to MCOMC.

The purpose of this review is to propose the importance of shifting our focus from ICC to MCOMC. The

review starts with the definition of ICC, followed by the related constructs (e.g., cultural sensitivity), the past

research about MCC and bicultural communication competence (BCC; in this study, BCC is referred to as

BCOMC). Finally, the paper explains the study of ICC and MCOMC in applied settings.

Literature Reviews

Intercultural Communication Competence (ICC)

Definitions. Defining the meaning of ICC has been one of the major challenges among scholars. Ruben

(1976) identified seven dimension of ICC as (1) the capacity to be flexible, (2) the capacity to be

nonjudgmental, (3) tolerance for ambiguity, (4) the capacity to communicate respect, (5) the capacity to

personalize one’s knowledge and perceptions, (6) the capacity to display empathy, and (7) the capacity for

turn taking. More recently, most definitions have continued to emphasize the ability to interact appropriately

and effectively. Some examples include “the ability to think and act in interculturally appropriate ways”

(Hammer et al., 2003, p. 422); “the knowledge, motivation, and skills to interact effectively and appropriately

with members of different cultures” (Wiseman, 2002, p. 208); and “the ability to negotiate cultural meanings

and to execute appropriately effective communication behaviors that recognize the interactants’ multiple

identities in a specific environment” (Chen & Starosta, 1996, pp. 358-359). In addition, Collier (1989) posed

the idea that the higher the match between avowal and ascription, the higher the intercultural competence.



Interculturally competent persons must know how to negotiate and respect meanings of cultural symbols and

norms that are changing during their interactions (Collier & Thomas, 1988; Kim, 1994). They also need to

know “how to fulfill their own communication goals by respecting and affirming the multilevel cultural

identities of those with whom they interact” (Chen & Starosta, 1996, p. 359).

Kim (1991) introduced three dimensions of ICC in terms of adaptability: the cognitive dimension (discerning

meaning), the affective dimension (emotions involved with willingness to accommodate different cultural

ways), and the operational dimension (behavioral flexibility and resourcefulness in an intercultural

interaction). Furthermore, cultural competence is “an active demonstration of respect for differences,

enthusiastic eagerness to learn about other cultures, an acceptance of different viewpoints on reality (,) and a

flexibility and willingness to adjust, change, and reorientate where required” (Lynch & Lanson, 1999, as cited

by Le Roux, 2002, p. 43). Furthermore, ICC provides “an opportunity for the individual to develop an

awareness of cultural dynamics and to discern multiple identities in order to maintain a state of multicultural

coexistence” (Chen & Starosta, 1996, p. 364).

Approaches. In terms of theories, past research used anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory

(Gudykunst, 1995), personal network approach (Kim, 1986), system-theoretic perspective (Kim, 1991), social

skills perspective (Martin & Hammer, 1989), and identity negotiation (Ting-Toomey, 1993). The approaches

for the ICC are often influenced by the researcher’s definition of competence (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005).

Dinges (1983) introduced six approaches: (1) overseasmanship, (2) subjective culture, (3) multicultural

person, (4) social behaviorism, (5) topology, and (6) intercultural communicator, to identify ICC. Collier

(1989) identified four types of approaches: (1) ethnography of speaking, (2) cross-cultural attitudes, (3)

behavioral skills, and (4) cultural identity. Take immigrant’ competence as an example, Lee & Chen (2000)

studied immigrants’ cultural communication competence and psychological adjustment. In the adaptation

process, immigrants experience four elements: enculturation, deculturation, acculturation, and assimilation.

The assimilation model “focuses on the acquisition of the majority group’s culture by members of the

minority group and assumes a hierarchical relationship between the two cultures” (Kim, 2002, p. 146).

Torres & Rollock (2004) studied the relationship between acculturative distress and intercultural competence

among Hispanic populations. According to them, psychological distress “arises when an individual

determines that he or she lacks the capacity or the means to deal with the stressors of interacting and

succeeding in the new environment” (Torres & Rollock, 2004, p. 157). Besides the stress from the new

environment, contextual variables (e.g. demographic characteristics, the demand of the host society, and

immigration and acculturation experiences) may also influence acculturative stress (Torres & Rollock, 2004).



Also, Wiseman, Hammer, & Nishida (1989) studied the knowledge of host culture, other cultures, stereotypes,

ethnocentrism, and social distance across two cultures of Japan and the U.S.

Definitions of communication competence. Chen and Starosta (1996) discussed the nature of

communication competence, in terms of the two concepts of effectiveness and appropriateness. Effectiveness

refers to “an individual’s ability to produce intended effects through interaction with the environment” (Chen

& Starosta, 1996, p. 356). Effectiveness of the ability could be observed by the people with whom she or he

interacts, instead of her/his feelings of competence (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Appropriateness of behavior

implies three abilities: (1) the ability to recognize how context constrains communication, (2) the ability to

avoid inappropriate responses, and (3) the ability to fulfill appropriately such communication functions as

controlling, sharing, feeling, informing, ritualizing, and imagining (Chen & Starosta, 1996). In addition, the

appropriateness of an individual’s behavior can be judged with the four elements of quantity, quality,

relevance, and manner of message sending (Chen & Starosta, 1996).

One’s communication competence can be identified differently. According to Martin and Hammer (1989),

three specific categories of behaviors could identify communication competence: nonverbal behaviors (e.g.,

listening carefully, having direct eye contact), verbal (topic/content) behaviors (e.g., sharing information

about oneself, seeking topics of mutual interest), and conversational management behaviors (e.g., asking

questions about other person and countries). Those categories appear to be stable across both self and other

judgments of competence in both intracultural and intercultural contexts.

Leclerc & Martin (2004) also used nonverbal, verbal, and trait dimensions to assess tour guides’

communication competence across cultures. The nonverbal dimension included approachability (e.g., smile,

pleasant facial expressions, laugh), poise (e.g., nice appearance, appropriate posture and distance),

attentiveness (e.g., maintaining direct eye contact, paying close attention, using gestures, nodding head,

leaning toward the person), and touch (e.g., shaking hands, touching the other person, talking loudly). The

verbal dimension included language adaptability (e.g., using appropriate grammar, choosing words carefully,

speaking and presenting ideas clearly, avoiding slang), interpersonal inclusion (e.g., inviting others to do

something, asking about the other person, complementing the other person, sharing information about

oneself), and assertiveness (using impressive words, agreeing, talking a lot). Trait dimension included items

such as being open-minded, enthusiastic, interesting, and frank. Leclerc & Martin (2004) found that both

nonverbal and verbal communication skills were more important for American tourists than for French and

German tourists.



As explained, communication competence emphasizes an individual’s nonverbal and verbal communication

ability, skills, and behaviors. However, it has not yet been used to investigate the individual’s nonverbal and

verbal communication competences in different areas inter- or cross-culturally. It is because intercultural

communication scholars emphasize contextual factors more than communication skills themselves when they

discuss ICC (Chen & Starosta, 1996).

Critique on intercultural communication competence (ICC). Studying ICC has been critiqued in terms of

several issues. First, scholars had not been clear about whether competence is an inherent ability (trait) or a

learned ability (state), (Chen & Starosta, 1996). In addition, whether ICC refers to knowledge or actual

performance was also not clarified either (Chen & Starosta, 1996). What is clear is that we have to consider

the process of communication demands not only situational knowledge but behavioral skills as well. Second,

many scholars have discussed that the skills for communicating effectively and appropriately are important

elements to characterizing individuals as interculturally competent persons; however, they do not explain how

to be effective and how to be appropriate in each communication encounter. In addition, many studies have

suggested different traits (e.g., being nonjudgmental; having tolerance for ambiguity; demonstrating respect,

empathy, and an eagerness to learn about cultures; accepting different viewpoints); however, unified traits

across different disciplines are not well explained (Collier & Thomas, 1988; Lynch & Lanson, 1999, as cited

by Le Roux, 2001; Ruben, 1976). To sum up, the essential point to developing the area of ICC research is to

study the inter-relationship between personal (demographic) variables (age, gender, sex, ethnicity, nationality,

etc.) and situational variables (e.g., specific focus of a culture or comparison between two cultures, namely,

cross-cultural relationship, or different communication settings of health care, counseling, organization,

education, etc.) and to understand one’s competence as a whole (Dings & Lieberman, 1989).

Intercultural sensitivity. Cultural sensitivity is the core element when we discuss ICC (Chen & Starosta,

1996). The concept has been defined in terms of an individual’s abilities to experience and to response to

cultural differences (Hammer et al., 2003; Straffon, 2003). Greater intercultural sensitivity is associated with

greater potential for exercising intercultural competence. Past research investigated the doctors’ necessary

skills to be sensitive toward a patient’s cultural and religious backgrounds (Ashraf, 1999).

Intercultural sensitivity also refers to the affective capacity to recognize, acknowledge, and respect cultural

differences (Chen & Starosta, 1996). People’s willingness to engage in different cultures is due to their

flexibility and open-mindedness (Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992). The development of this ability demands new

awareness and attitudes (Milton, 1986). One of the ways of measuring intercultural sensitivity is to

“determine people’s knowledge about and willingness to change behaviors related to the individualistic or



collectivistic background of others” (Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992, p. 418). Education and training are known to

play important roles in the development of an individual’s intercultural sensitivity (Paige, 1993; Pruegger &

Rogers, 1994). As an example, Intercultural development Inventory (IDI) is a developmental model of

intercultural sensitivity (DMIS) with three ethnocentric stages of denial, defense, and minimization and with

three ethno-relative stages of acceptance, adaptation, and integration (Hammer et al., 2003).

Cultural sensitivity and ICC seem to share the same elements; however, little study discussed those two

concepts together. In order to further develop the concept to multicultural communication competence based

on the meanings of cultural competence, it is necessary to discuss other concepts including biculturalism,

bicultural communication competence (BCC), multiculturalism, and MCC, and also MCOMC in different

areas of study.

The concept of biculturalism and bicultural communication competence (BCOMC)

Biculturalism emphasizes a blending of lifestyles, values, and skills. Biculturalism is defined as “an

integration of the competencies and sensitivities associated with two cultures within a single person so that the

person can identify with two or more cultures and participate in them without conflict or maladjustment”

(Kim, 2002, p. 147). In biculturalism, “identity formation and corresponding communication styles in the

context of contact between different groups are always changing to fit the needs of dual group membership”

(Kim, 2002, p. 151). The idea of biculturalism emphasizes that the group characteristics can be used in a

positive way rather than placing groups in a hierarchy of dominance and separating majority and minority

(Kim, 2002).

The concept of BCOMC places less emphasis on assimilation to the dominant culture (Kim, 2002). The

concept refers that individuals can (1) keep their ethnic and cultural membership, and also (2) make choices

between the communication patterns of two or more cultures or groups (Kim, 2002).

Multiculturalism and Multicultural Communication Competence (MCOMC)

Past research attempted to view the issue of multiculturalism in different contexts: examples include

multiculturalism and social work (Gould, 1995), multiculturalism and diverse university situations (Chesler,

2004), multiculturalism and media (Meyrowitz & Maguire, 1993), multiculturalism and a volunteer group

(Yamazaki, 2002), and library and information science education for multiculturalism and diversity (Nilsen,

2004). The following section explains the concept of multiculturalism.



The concept of multiculturalism. Understanding the concept of multiculturalism has been important due to

phenomena like globalization, international migration, and ethnic diversification (Trebing, 2004).

Multiculturalism emphasizes the importance of acknowledging the existence of ethnic diversity, ensuring the

rights of individuals to retain their culture, and coexist in a society (UNESCO, 2007).

Multiculturalism not only promises benefits for underrepresented and previously excluded groups but

provides gains for the majority as well (Chesler, 2004). Many of the efforts to advance diversity and

multiculturalism fail to deal with real and pressing problems in institutional analysis and action planning

(Chesler, 2004). Taking the university context as an example, it is necessary for each university to have a

vision of a multicultural academic organization, to have knowledge about reality and problems, and to design

systematic planning that better suits the complex higher education institutions (Chesler, 2004).

Many scholars acknowledge that multiculturalism will soon be the norm in most contemporary societies.

However, the ideas and thoughts on how to deal with such multicultural diversity differed widely (Breinig,

Gebhardt, & Losch, 2004 as cited by Trebing, 2004). In fact, the definition of one’s ethnic identity, race, and

the country where she/he was born has become blur, and traveling and migration across countries has

accelerated many countries’ development into multicultural and multiethnic societies (Yamazaki, 2002). In

addition, multiracial families through interracial marriages, cross-cultural adoptions, and blended families

through divorce and remarriage have been brought to societies where racial boundaries and cultural

differences are also blurred (Chin, 2004).

Multiculturalism is also often described as “melting pot” where “there is a mixing of people of different races

and nations” (Longman, 1991, p. 791). The ‘melting pot’ never was in reality a thick heavy stew that blended

all Americans rather it was a clear broth derived from straining out many ‘impurities’ (Meyrowitz & Maguire,

1993). The U.S. is a multiethnic society with the majority of the population being White Anglo-Saxon

Protestant (WASP). Demographic changes in the past decade predict that racial/ethnic groups will make up

48% of the total U.S. population by the year 2050. Multiculturalism still holds a concept of who belongs to

the majority group; however, it may not be meaningful to emphasize of the White majority when the line

between majority and minority is ambiguous in a multicultural context (Chin, 2004). It is not yet clear if

exposure to multicultural topics actually increases competence (Pope-Davis et al., 2001); however,

understanding multiculturalism is a basis to discuss which cultures we deal with and what are the necessary

skills to culturally competence in each communication encounter.



Multicultural Competence and Its Applications

Multicultural counseling competence (MCC) in health care/counseling. Multicultural competence has

been the focus of numerous researchers in health care, counseling, and psychotherapy. Many of the studies

focused primarily on training programs that enhance multicultural counseling competencies (Diaz-Lazaro &

Cohen, 2001; Manese, et al., 2001; Sevig & Etzkorn, 2001; Toporek, 2001). Other studies focused on MCC

and social desirability (Constantine & Ladany, 2000; Sodowsky, Kuo-Jackson, Richardson, & Corey, 1998),

or the impact of cross-cultural contact experience on multicultural competencies in the training of counselors

(Diaz-Lazaro & Cohen, 2001).

Since the multicultural competency literature in health care and counseling has rapidly evolved, the scholars

have emphasized a broader conceptualization of culture including face, racial identity, ethnicity, gender,

sexual orientation, physical disability identity, and socioeconomic status (Fuertes et al., 2001).

As we see, culture is one of the major influences contributing to interaction. One study, for example, studied

patients’ motivations for communication approach and avoidance in medical interviews (Kim, Klingle,

Sharkey, Park, Smith, & Cai, 2000). A culturally competent person is able to “recognize differences, identify

similar patterns of responses, avoid stereotyping by acknowledging variations, and balance his or her own

caring actions by recognizing differences and avoiding stereotyping” (Meleis, 1999, p. 12). Additionally,

individuals who are culturally competent have diverse knowledge of communication patterns and aware the

power of language (preference, level of comfort, proficiency) that would influence on how people tend to

perceive, trust, understand, develop meanings, and make sense out of their world (Meleis, 1999). Using an

appropriate use of languages is a necessary skill for physicians to understand how to offer better health care to

their patients

Multicultural competency in counseling and psychotherapy has been developed to ensure the counselor’s

ability to attend to the role of cultural factors in clients’ lives and in counseling, focusing on three areas: the

counselor’s attitudes, knowledge, and skills (Fuertes et al., 2001). The first area, attitudes, includes the

counselor’s racial and cultural self-awareness and also her/his understanding of differences in culture, race,

beliefs, and attitudes about others. The second area, knowledge, focuses on the counselor’s understanding of

the client’s worldview, including the latter’s beliefs, cultural values, and sociopolitical experiences. The third

area, skills, focuses on the counselor’s ability to use intervention strategies that are sensitive and relevant to

the cultural and contextual factors of clients (Constantine, 2001; Fuertes et al., 2001; Ponterotto, Rieger,

Barrett, & Sparks, 1994; Sevig & Etzkorn, 2001).



While there have been studies on the counselor’s and physicians’ perceptions of their competence, how

multicultural competence is experienced by clients or patients is not yet fully examined (Fuertes et al., 2001;

Gibson & Zhong, 2005; Pope-Davis, Liu, Toporek, & Brittan-Powell, 2001). It is also necessary to

understand whether clients perceive and interpret the cultural competency of the counselors’ in a same way

researchers do (Pope-Davis et al., 2001). Besides abilities, knowledge, and skills, counselors’ attributions

such as race, gender, and language, would establish the client’s perceptual schema to positively bias the

interaction as favorable (Pope-Davis et al., 2001). Furthermore, how clients understand multiculturalism, how

they perceive a multiculturally competent counselor, and what is meaningful for clients in counseling are also

needed to be examined.

McGee & Cegala (1998) emphasized the importance of focusing on patients’ communication skills and

developed the training programs that help improve patients’ communication skills in medical consultation.

In terms of training counselors, there seems no research supported consensus as to how to best train

counselors for work in multicultural practice, and an effective program that would help develop multicultural

competencies and the specific cultural skills necessary in training has not yet empirically demonstrated

(Manese, et al., 2001). In fact, few studies have assessed the impact of cross-cultural contact experience in

the training of counselors, nor how the experience affects multicultural communication competencies (Diaz-

Lazaro & Cohen, 2001).

Coleman, Wampold, & Casali (1995) studied counseling on campus and they found that minority students

tend to be struggling with cultural, racial, and ethnic affiliation on a predominantly White campus. Also,

minority students tend to prefer ethnically similar counselors over Euro-American Counselors (Coleman et al.,

1995). As discussed, including client’s perspectives is especially important to process and outcome of therapy

(Fuertes et al., 2001). Researchers must understand the issue of application on how do counselors integrate

the multicultural competencies into specific treatment issues (Fuertes et al., 2001). Therefore, investigating

the method of how to apply the knowledge of being culturally competent person into the practice will become

mandatory in studying multicultural counseling competence. In addition, more study is necessary to develop

the elements to actually determine “multicultural competence” in dealing with communication in health care

context.

Findings about ethnic differences in counseling. Pope-Davis & Ottavi (1994) found that Asian American

and Hispanic American counselors reported more multicultural counseling knowledge than did Caucasian

counselors. In fact, Caucasian counselors might have overestimated their multicultural skills. In addition,

Constantine (2001) found that African American and Latino American counselor trainees were rated as more



multiculturally competent than their Caucasian American peers. Those findings were consistent in terms of

higher competence among minority groups (Constantine, 2001; Pope-Davis & Ottavi, 1994). The findings

imply that those who are from a minority culture in the U.S. have higher sensitivity that leads to their having

greater multicultural competence than their Caucasian counterparts.

Multicultural competence in consultation. Compared to the major focuses of multicultural counseling

competence (MCC), the area of consultation focuses more on communication aspects. Jackson & Hayes

(1993) say that the communication and relationship-building skills of the consultant will largely determine the

success of the consultation. Consultants’ and consultees’ styles of communication are also important to

increase trust and rapport and to reduce perceived resistance (Ingraham, 2003). Ingraham (2003) explained

two styles of communication: indirect and direct communication. Depending on whether the consultant used

indirect communication (e.g., communication emphasizing gentle, non-threatening, more reserved, and polite

form of discourse) or direct communication (e.g., get to the point), a different outcome emerged. To be an

effective consultant, they must acquire both types of communication and use appropriately depending on their

clients’ cultural backgrounds (Ingraham, 2003).

Multicultural competence in nursing. It has been a common theme for health professionals to seek

information on cultural aspects of care (Culley, 1996). Healthcare providers display a lack of awareness of

culture, resulting in cultural insensitivity as the essential problem (Culley, 1996). Health professionals should

reconceptualize their traditional and unicultural perspective toward a multicultural view (Culley, 1996). By

increasing nurses’ awareness and respect cultural differences (e.g. dress, diet, health beliefs, religious

worship, rites and rituals, and illness behavior), they become to have a good balance of communication and

understanding to deliver appropriate care (Culley, 1996). In terms of educating students in nursing, Koskinen

& Tossavainen (2004) suggested a study abroad program, which would be beneficial to gain intercultural

experience that would help with personal maturation, professional development, cognitive growth, and global

understanding.

Multicultural competence in organization. Not many studies exist regarding ICC and multicultural

competence in the organization studies. Chen & Starosta (1996) say that the “new workforce will comprise

persons who are diverse in race, culture, age, gender, and language” and that “the increasing diversity of

workforce and social life in the U.S. will dramatically affect organizational life in the twenty-first century” (p.

355). Individuals who engage in international business exchanges would have reasons such as the creation of

joint ventures and mergers, the exchange of know-how, and the advantage of the resulting synergy (Engelbert,

2004). In order to survive in a foreign country, business people need not only acquire a feeling of greater



autonomy and increased personal stability, but also verbal expression abilities and comprehensions in either

the national language or in a common foreign language (Engelbert, 2004).

Multicultural competence in education. Le Roux (2002) emphasized that effective educators are culturally

competent in cross-cultural encounters in a multi-cultural classroom. In order to be effective educators, they

are required to gain 1) an awareness of one’s own cultural limitations, 2) an openness, respect and

appreciation for cultural differences, 3) regard for intercultural diversity as a source of learning opportunities,

4) the ability to use cultural resources in interventions, and 5) an acknowledgement of the integrity and value

of all cultures (Le Roux, 2002). In order to educate students to be aware of cultural differences in university

settings, using an on-campus cross-cultural conversation partners program increases the intercultural

competence (Wilson, 1993).

Discussion and Future Studies

Based on the research, the present review found that many scholars across different areas apply the concept of

communication competence quite differently. Studies in health care and counseling focused on MCC and

rarely emphasized the necessary communication skills to be multiculturally competent. As discussed

previously, ICC has been critiqued in terms of several issues: unclear definitions of competence; ICC as an

inherent ability (trait) versus a learned ability (state); and ICC referring to knowledge versus actual

performance (Chen & Starosta, 1996). In addition, many scholars have discussed that communicating

effectively and appropriately are important; however, no clear answers on how to be effective and how to be

appropriate have yet provided.

The present study suggested the necessity of focusing on the inter-relationship between personal

(demographic) variables, including age, gender, sex, ethnicity, nationality and situational variables together to

further study effectiveness and appropriateness. Situational variables include the specific focus on a culture,

or a comparison between two cultures, namely, cross-cultural relationship, or different communication

settings of health care, counseling, organization, education and so on.

In studies of multicultural competence, health care and counseling should focus more on MCOMC instead of

just focusing on cultural differences. For instance, Hansen, Pepitone-Arreola-Rockwell, & Greene (2000)

explained 12 practice-related multicultural competencies for the professional psychologist. Most items

focused on awareness and knowledge about cultural values and identity. One of the items explained the

necessity to accurately evaluate emic (culture-specific) and etic (universal) hypotheses related to clients from

identified groups. On the other hand, another emphasized the importance establishing rapport and conveying



empathy in culturally sensitive ways, including considering culturally-bound interpretations of verbal and

nonverbal cues, personal space, and eye contact. Unfortunately, those explanations are still abstract and do

not explain the actual communication skills necessary for a psychologist.

Communication competence and ICC have maintained different emphases (communication skills versus

cultural differences). As mentioned previously, communication skills are rarely emphasized in the study of

MCC. Those two concepts, MCC and communication, should not be separable. It is necessary that they be

studied together as multicultural counseling communication competence (MCCOMC). Too much focus on

cultural aspects in ICC and MCC in the past would blind the researchers and not allow them to focus on the

fundamental communication skills necessary in different cultural contexts.

A strong understanding about cultural diversity has not yet been established because culture is a diverse and

an intricate concept. In addition, it is not yet clear if exposure to multicultural topics actually increases

competence, such that clients notice observable competency-related behaviors, or if these training experiences

allow the counselors to demonstrate interest in a culture (Pope-Davis et al., 2001). Researchers tend to

believe that focusing on multicultural issues increases awareness and helps to acquire the skills to be

multiculturally competent. However, again, a lack of clarification on the necessary communication skills has

still existed. In order to investigate the communication skills need to be acquired, researchers need to take

both culture-general and culture-specific approaches (Chen & Starosta, 1996).

As Leclerc & Martin (2004) surmised, the idea of MCOMC may have U.S. centered competence framework.

Due to the immigrants from outside of the continent, people in the U.S. may perceive multiculturalism from

the majority viewpoints, emphasizing how minority could assimilate or acculturate to the host society rather

than how majority groups understand cultural differences of minority groups. This possible U.S. centered

perspective in understanding multiculturalism affects the study of MCOMC. Researchers would be further

required to consider whether it is appropriate in studying MCOMC to apply a U.S.’s competence framework

to other groups, or not.

In fact, there are no clear-cut ideas for how to improve one’s ability to be multiculturally competent. The

recognition of the obscurity of communication competence has become more widespread, whereas the

application of the skills of ICC and MCOMC in different contexts has not yet been disclosed. We, as

communication scholars, have to continue investigating MCOMC, focusing heavily on communication in

order to keep up with the drastic changes of people in organization, community, and society.



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