History of Ethical Studies

& Human Actions

Definition

•The term Ethics, derived from:• The Greek word “ethos” which means moral principals, character or custom.

•The Latin word “ethicus” , which means spiritual characteristics of community, people or system. 2

• Technical meaning: refers to:

• The philosophical science that deals with the rightness and wrongness of human actions.

• It is a moral principal or set of moral values hold by an individual or group.

3

Terms related to Ethics• Virtues:- The quality/practice of moral excellence or righteousness. - Doing something right because it is the good thing to do.

• Values: - Are matters/convictions that are worth striving for in

general, such as: happiness, justice, charity.- Core beliefs that guide and motivate attitudes and actions

- Norms: - Are rules that prescribe what actions are required,

permitted or forbidden. 4

Classifications of Ethics

Normative Meta-ethics Applied

1. Normative ethics:Seeks to set norms and standards for conduct or General theories about what one ought to do.

2. Meta-ethics:Systematically studies and investigates the meanings and sources of ethical principles (terms, arguments and judgments).

3. Applied ethics:Application of normative theories to practical moral issues/ problems. 5

Ethics, Law and Religion

Western Perspective

Islamic Perspective

Definition of ethics in Islam

- Ethics in Arabic is ‘ilm al-akhlāq (science of morality), is the branch of knowledge that studies akhlāq (morals).

- Al-Akhlāq (the plural of khuluq/ خ�ل�ق) refers to morality, which means a nature, or an innate disposition or temperament. 7

What is Engineering Ethics?: A Western Perspective

“An area of inquiry that studies behavioral practices in engineering, what they have been in the past, what they are now, and what they should be”

Source: Ronald R. Kline, Using history & sociology to teach engineering ethics, IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, Winter 2002/2002, p. 12.

What is Engineering Ethics?: An Islamic Perspective

- An area of inquiry that studies the engineering practices in its holistic context which includes: intentions, thinking, behaviour, usage, and the consequences of all of them.

- Engineering is seen as an Istikhlaf means, thus its should be bound by all the rules of worship acts in Islam especially that pertaining to Maslah (benefit) and Mafsadah (harm).

- Studying ethics in this context, implies usage of an integrated methodology based on imperative consideration of Revelation as ultimate source of the discipline.

- (EE) Is not different from general ethics in Islam.

Cont.EE is not different from the content of general ethics in Islam, all what is considered in the second it applicable in the former. However, when the “engineering” is added to “ethics” a certain specification helping engineers to understand many details of their professional environment are emphasised especially for that types of cases which need a specialized knowledge, typical awareness, possession of relevant skills, carrying specific responsibility.

Islamic Resources on Professional ethics

- 1- Politics: A- Adab Al-Moulouk (King's etiquette), Abu Mansur Al-ta’alibi.B- Siraj Al-Moulouk (King’s Lamp), Abu Bakr Al-tartouchi.

- 2- Education:A- Ethics of Scholars, by Abu Bakr Al-Ajjurri.B- The etiquettes of the knowledge Seekers, by Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi.

3- Medicine: A- Ethics of medical Practitioner, By Mohammad bin Zakariya Al-Razi.B- The etiquettes of Medical practices, by Ishaq Al-Ruhawi.

Revelation: Ultimate Source

• Ethics in Islam comes from one single source, that is: al-Wahy or Revelation. The prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) has stated that he has only been sent to support and elaborate on the ethical virtues (reported by al-Bukhari). Other sources source like customs, social relationships, public, welfare are considered only when they are compatible with the Revelation.

• Revelational ethics are:1. comprehensive.2. Deeply grounded in the self.3. individual & collective level.4. Consistence & Coherence.5. Simple & achievable. No one should be charged beyond his capacity.

Source of Islamic Engineering Ethics

Qur’an & Sunnah Fiqh al-mu‘amalat (ahkam aal-sana’I‘) (Maslah &

Mafsadah). Shari ‘ah Objective History of Engineering Practices.

Source of Western Engineering Ethics

Moral Philosophy History of Science Sociology Science Technology Studies (STS)

The Khalifah Precept

• ض ر�� األ في ج�اعل� �ي ن إ �ة ك �ئ �م�ال ل ل "ك� ب ر� ق�ال� ذ� يف�ة)و�إ ل � خ� �وا ق�ال

�ح� ب �س� ن �ح�ن� و�ن الد�م�اء فك� �س� و�ي فيه�ا د� �ف�س ي م�ن فيه�ا �ج�ع�ل� �ت أ�م�ون� �ع�ل ت � ال م�ا �م� �ع�ل أ �ي ن إ ق�ال� �ك� ل �ق�د�س� و�ن ح�م�دك� .[30البقرة] : ب

And when thy Lord said unto the angels: Lo! I am about to place a viceroy in the earth, they said: wilt Thou place therein one who will do harm therein and will shed blood, while we, we hymn Thy praise and sanctify Thee? He said: Surely I know that which ye know not.

Tasks of IstikhlafIstikhlaf

Scope of Ethics

Scope of Istikhlafi Engineering Ethics

Major Issues in Engineering Ethics

1. Public Safety & Welfare.2. Risk and the Principle of Informed Consent.3. Conflict of Interest.4. Whistleblowing.5. Trade Secrets.6. Accepting Gifts.

Source: Ronald R. Kline, Using history & sociology to teach engineering ethics, IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, Winter 2002/2002, p. 16.

Ethical Theories: An overview

Major Ethical Theories

• Aristotelian Ethics: The Virtuous Life.• Utilitarianism: The Greatest Good.• Kantian Ethics: Duties and Rights.• Egoism.• Kohlberg’s Theory.

Definition

• Moral Theories refer to the compound and diverse techniques that are developed by the ethicists to govern ethical decision making.

• They represent the diverse approaches to ethical issues through the assessment of moral problems.

Major Ethical Theories Virtue Ethics: Aristotle (384-322 BC)

• The virtue or value of the actions is not in the act but it is in the heart of the actor.

• It seeks to have people act out of spontaneous goodness, to produce excellent people who inspire others.

• Everything in the universe has a purpose and it is built in to their nature. Human are not different and have their own purposes which must be achieving the “Good”

• Virtues enable human beings to act in accordance with our “essence” or human nature. The thing that distinguishes humans from all other creatures is our ability to reason.

Cont..

• Asks what kind of character must a person have to be a moral human being.

• A lifetime of virtuous living and avoidance of vice forms a morally virtuous character.

• Virtues exist between a mean that has excess and deficiency at either end.

• A good character is an achievement, not a natural endowment.

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Problems with virtue ethics

1- It doesn't give clear guidance on how to act in specific circumstances. It cannot tell us what the law should be about abortion, euthanasia, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis etc.

2- It gives no clear answer to questions such as 'Is the environment intrinsically valuable?'.

3- There is also uncertainty about how you decide on what the virtues are.

5- Is cultivating the virtues really the best way for an individual to maximize his human potential?

6- People can do the wrong thing for the right reasons (e.g. ignorantly kind).

Utilitarianism: The Greatest Good

• Principle of social utility measured by the resulting amount of pleasure and happiness. Greatest happiness (pleasure) for the greatest number .

• It holds that happiness/utility is good in itself and worth pursuing and increasing for its own sake.

• It Argues that the consequences of an action make that action either moral or immoral. An action that leads to beneficial consequences is right or moral; one that leads to harmful consequences is wrong or immoral.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

John Stewart Mill (1806-1873)

Varieties of Utilitarianism

Act utilitarianism VS Rule utilitarianism

1.Act utilitarianism: An act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative.

2.Rule utilitarianism: An act is right if and only if it is required by a rule that is itself a member of set of rules whose acceptance would lead to greater utility for society than any available alternative.

3.In Act utilitarianism it is alright to break a rule as long as it brings a greater good, while in Rule utilitarianism even if a rule cannot bring a greater good, breaking it will not either.

Problems with Utilitarianism

1- Seemingly immoral acts can be judged moral, e.g. killing an innocent person.

2- Consequences are often difficult or impossible to predict.

3- Limits Emotions.

4- Can justify anything.

5- The morality of an act may depend on chance (how the consequences happen to play out).

6- What happens to minority?

7- Subject to rationalization.

Kantian Ethics (Deontological Ethics)• Argues that the consequences of an

action are irrelevant to a moral evaluation of that action.

• He concentrates on the nature of the action itself as well as its motive in order to determine whether it is right or wrong. Actions that are moral are those that are undertaken out of a sense of duty (Deon the Greek word for duty).

• One does it because it is the “right thing to do.” Categorical Imperative (an unconditional moral law that applies to all rational beings and is independent of any personal motive or desire).

•

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Cont…• The categorical imperative distinguishes between the

right and wrong actions by universalizing the action’s maxim and seeing if this can be done consistently. (Maxims are the everyday reasons or principles that lie behind our actions and motivate them, e.g: when in danger, run).

• It Does for that same what utility does for the Utilitarians by looking at the rationality and consistency of an action not its consequences. (e.g: borrowing money with a false promise to pay it back).

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Problems with deontological ethics

1- Problem of justification for Categorical Imperative – where does it come from?Not all good actions can be universalized

2- Not all people follow reason

3- Reason is fallible.

4- Rigid- E.g. if we have a categorical imperative not to lie, it is wrong to lie even if by lying to a mad gunman, we can save an innocent person’s life.

Egoism

• Right and wrong are determined by the course of action that will bring the most personal pleasure and avoid the most pain.

• Ethical norms are totally subjective. Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900)

Problems with Egoism

• We all have incompatible interests: how do you decide which interest to satisfy?

• Since each individual is out for her or his own self, there is no consensus.

Comparison of Ethical Theories   Consequentialism Deontology Virtue Theory

example Mill's utilitarianism Kantian ethicsAristotle's moral theory

abstract description

An action is right if it promotes the best consequences.

An action is right if it is in accordance with a moral rule or principle.

An action is right if it is what a virtuous agent would do in the circumstances.

more concrete specification

The best consequences are those in which happiness is maximized.

A moral rule is one that is required by rationality.

A virtuous agent is one who acts virtuously, that is, one who has and exercises the virtues.  A virtue is a character trait a human being needs to flourish or live well.

Kohlberg’s Theory

Moral Development

He explained the development of moral reasoning. His theory is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 –

1987)

Cont• Lawrence Kohlberg's ideas of moral development are

based on the premise that at birth, all humans are void of morals, ethics, and honesty.

• He identified the family as the first source of values and moral development for an individual.

• He believed that as one's intelligence and ability to interact with others matures, so does one's patterns of moral behavior.

• He described three main levels of moral development with two stages in each level.

Cont..

The developmental change from behavior that is externally controlled to behavior that is internally controlled

• 3 levels• Each with two stages• Based on the reasons interviewees gave in response to moral

dilemmas

Example of a Moral Dilemma “In Europe a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.

There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggest in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together $1000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggest that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, ‘No, I discovered the drug, and am going to make money from it.’ So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to seal the drug for his wife.”

• Participants would then be asked, “should Heinz have stolen the drug? Was stealing right or wrong? Why?

Kohlberg’s Theory• KOHLBERG'S MORAL STAGES

• Kolberg's theory specifies six stages of moral development, arranged in three levels.

• Level I: Preconventional/Premoral• The child is responsive to rules and evaluative labels, but views them in terms

of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of actions, or in terms of the physical power of those who impose the rules.

• Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation• Egocentric deference to superior power or prestige, or a trouble-avoiding set.• Key concepts: authority, obedience, punishment• Those at this stage: small children• Heinz was wrong: he will wind up in prison! Punishment is proof that it

is wrong.

• Stage 2: Naively egoistic orientation• Right action is that which is instrumental in satisfying the self's needs and

occasionally others'.• Naive egalitarianism, orientation to exchange and reciprocity.• key concepts: fair deal, favors, What’s in it for me?• Those at this stage: schoolchildren• Heinz was right: he wanted to save his wife. After all, she

takes care of his children and maybe some day she will return the favor. Or: Maybe after a while he will see that going to prison to save his wife was a raw deal.

• Level II: Conventional/Role Conformity

• Moral values reside in performing the right role, in maintaining the conventional order and expectancies of others as a value in its own right.

• Stage 3: Good-boy/good-girl orientation• Orientation to approval, to pleasing and helping others.• Conformity to stereotypical images of majority or natural role behavior.• Action is evaluated in terms of intentions.• Key concepts: motive, character, doing what society expects• Those at this stage: anyone who lives only in a face-to-face world: early teens,

people who live in small towns or tribes cut off from the rest of the world• Heinz was right: it is what any good husband would do! No judge with his head

screwed on right would put him in prison. If anyone should go to prison it is that druggist!

Cont• Stage 4: Authority and social-order-maintaining orientation

• Orientation to "doing duty" and to showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order or its own sake.

• Differentiates actions out of a sense of obligation to rules from actions for generally "nice" or natural motives.

• Key concepts: law and order, duty to society• Those at this stage: late teens, most people in large, faceless

societies• Heinz was wrong: without respect for the law, society would fall

apart!

• Level III: Post-conventional/Self-Accepted Moral Principles

• Morality is defined in terms of conformity to shared standards, rights, or duties apart from supporting authority. The standards conformed to are internal, and action-decisions are based on an inner process of thought and judgment concerning right and wrong.

• Stage 5: Contractual/legalistic orientation• Norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem

to have a rational basis.• When conflict arises between individual needs and law , the individual believes the latter

must prevail because of its greater functional rationality for society, the majority will and welfare.

• Key concepts: rights, democracy, changing unjust laws, revolution• Those at this stage: some in their middle twenties or later• Heinz was wrong but the judge should go easy on him. The druggist has a right to profit from

his discovery, but the wife has a right to life.

Cont

• Stage 6: The morality of individual principles of conscience• Orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward

the conscience as a directing agent, mutual trust and respect, and principles of moral choice involving logical universalities and consistency.

• Action is controlled by internalized ideals that exert a pressure to act accordingly regardless of the reactions of others in the immediate environment.

• If one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt result.• Key concepts: duty to justice, civil disobedience• Those at this stage: Gandhi, Martin Luther King. No one Kohlberg

tested had clearly reached this stage!• Heinz was right. We have a duty to justice to break unjust laws.

• Kohlberg Theory:

Criticism of Kohlberg’s Theory

•  Critique 1: One criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values, and so may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions.

• Critique 2: Carol Gilligan has argued that Kohlberg's theory is overlyandrocentric ( placing male human beings or the masculine point of view at the center of one's view of the world and its culture and history). Kohlberg's theory was initially developed based on empirical research using only male participants; Gilligan argued that it did not adequately describe the concerns of women. Although research has generally found no significant pattern of differences in moral development between sexes.

• Critique 3: His theory is culturally biased/not universal.

Utilitarianism: An Islamic View• The essential essence of religion that advocate the belief in

God and certain principles of rules seem to clash with the utilitarian understanding.

• Happiness according to the Islamic worldview is not based on material or wealth ownership. Islam advocates the idea that happiness could be reached only through maintaining ethical codes and behavioral norms in all situations and status.

• The Human psyche should be guided to subject it to the ethical codes so as to control the animolic attitude or greedy intentions.

�ي • ب ر� Cن إ �ي� ب ر� حم� ر� م�ا C ال إ وء الس" ب ة� �مCار� أل Cف�س� الن Cن إ �ف�سي ن ئ� �ر� ب� أ و�م�ا

يوسف ] : حيم� Cر [53غ�ف�ور�• I do not exculpate myself. Lo! the (human) soul enjoineth unto

evil, save that whereon my Lord hath mercy. My Lord is Forgiving, Merciful

Cont…• The next stage would be negative desires of human soul

should be restricted to the intellectual laws and values. • : CوCام�ة الل Cف�س الن ب م� �ق�س أ و�ال� �ام�ة �قي ال �و�م ي ب م� �ق�س أ ال� تعالى الله قال

[2-1القيامة] :

Nay, I swear by the Day of Resurrection Nay, I swear by the accusing soul (that this Scripture is true).

• However, when the human psyche passes through the aforementioned two levels without feeling guiltiness, criminality and any other negative attitude, it would then be possible for a person to reach the level of happiness or the complete soul as mentioned in the Quran:

في • ف�اد�خ�لي Cة) ضي مCر� �ة) اضي ر� �ك ب ر� ل�ى إ جعي ار� Cة� ن �م�ط�م�ئ ال Cف�س� الن �ه�ا Cت ي� أ �ا ي

الفجر ] : ي Cت ن ج� و�اد�خ�لي �ادي ب [30- 27ع• But ah! thou soul at peace Return unto thy Lord, content in His good

pleasure! Enter thou among My bondmen! Enter thou My Garden

Egoism: An Islamic Perspective• God almighty has ordained differences between

human beings in their mental capabilities, languages, the color of their skin and their perception and thoughts. All these naturally give rise to multiplicity and variety of opinions and judgment.

• Disagreement may be prompted by egoistical desires to get personal psychological satisfaction or to achieve certain personal objectives such as: showing off one’s knowledge and ingenuity.

Cont…

• To cause this type of disagreement is totally blameworthy in that egoism or selfish desire suppresses the search for the truth and does not promote integrity, veracity and honor. It was such egoism that beguiled Satan and let him into disbelief.

• The Quran reminded its followers in many of its verses of the following:

�ن� • اب عيس�ى �ا �ن �ي و�آت ل س� الر" ب �ع�ده ب من �ا �ن و�ق�فCي �اب� ت �ك ال م�وس�ى �ا �ن �ي آت �ق�د� و�ل�ه�و�ى ت � ال م�ا ب س�ول� ر� �م� ج�اءك Cم�ا �ل �ف�ك أ �ق�د�س ال وح ر� ب �اه� Cد�ن �ي و�أ �ات �ن �ي �ب ال �م� ي م�ر�

البقرة ] : �ون� �ل �ق�ت ت ( و�ف�ريقا �م� �ت �ذCب ك ( ف�ف�ريقا �م� ت �ر� �ب �ك ت اس� �م� ك �نف�س� [87أ• And verily We gave unto Moses the Scripture and We caused a train of messengers to follow

after him, and We gave unto Jesus, son of Mary, clear proofs (of Allah's sovereignty), and We supported him with the holy Spirit. Is it ever so, that, when there cometh unto you a messenger (from Allah) with that which ye yourselves desire not, ye grow arrogant, and some ye disbelieve and some ye slay?

One of the results of following egoistical desires, people have swerved just practices in their dealings:

ع�ل�ى �و� و�ل \ه ل ل ه�د�اء ش� �قس�ط ال ب ق�وCامين� � �وا �ون ك � �وا آم�ن Cذين� ال "ه�ا ي� أ �ا ي

و�ل�ى � أ \ه� ف�الل ( ف�ق�يرا و�

� أ ( \ا ي غ�ن �ن� �ك ي ن إ ين� ب �ق�ر� و�األ �ن د�ي �و�ال ال و� أ �م� ك �نف�س أ

\ه� الل Cن ف�إ � �ع�رض�وا ت و�� أ � �و�وا �ل ت ن و�إ � �وا �ع�دل ت �ن أ �ه�و�ى ال � ع�وا Cب �ت ت � ف�ال هم�ا ب

النساء ] : ( يرا ب خ� �ع�م�ل�ون� ت م�ا ب �ان� [135كO ye who believe! Be ye staunch in justice, witnesses for Allah, even though it be

against yourselves or (your) parents or (your) kindred, whether (the case be of) a rich man or a poor man, for Allah is nearer unto both (than ye are). So follow not passion lest ye lapse (from truth) and if ye lapse or fall away, then lo! Allah is ever Informed of what ye do.

• In fact deviations and slip ups are due to fact that one allows his own desires and whims to take the lead in life. The Quran reads:

• د�ون من �د�ع�ون� ت Cذين� ال �د� �ع�ب أ �ن� أ �هيت� ن �ي ن إ ق�ل�من� � �ا �ن أ و�م�ا ( ذا إ �ل�ت� ض�ل ق�د� �م� �ه�و�اءك أ ع� Cب ت

� أ C ال ق�ل \ه اللاألنعام ] : �دين� �م�ه�ت [56ال

• Say: I am forbidden to worship those on whom ye call instead of Allah. Say: I will not follow your desires, for then should I go astray and I should not be of the rightly guided.

• Egoistic behaviour and pilot selfishness and valueless character and in most cases hypocrisy:

�ك�ن • ن �م� �ل أ � �وا ق�ال \ه الل م�ن� �ح� ف�ت �م� �ك ل �ان� ك ن ف�إ �م� ك ب Cص�ون� ب �ر� �ت ي Cذين� ال�م� �ك �ي ع�ل �ح�وذ� ت �س� ن �م� �ل أ � �وا ق�ال �صيب� ن �افرين� �ك ل ل �ان� ك ن و�إ �م� مCع�ك

�ج�ع�ل� ي �ن و�ل �ام�ة �قي ال �و�م� ي �م� �ك �ن �ي ب �م� �ح�ك ي \ه� ف�الل ين� �م�ؤ�من ال م�ن� �م �ع�ك �م�ن و�نالنساء ] : ( يال ب س� ين� �م�ؤ�من ال ع�ل�ى �افرين� �ك ل ل \ه� [141الل

• Those who wait upon occasion in regard to you and, if a victory cometh unto you from Allah, say: Are we not with you? and if the disbelievers meet with a success say: Had we not the mastery of you, and did we not protect you from the believers? Allah will judge between you at the Day of Resurrection, and Allah will not give the disbelievers any way (of success) against the believers.

• Meanwhile the Quran affirms that egoistic aspirations are the antithesis of knowledge. It seeks to stifle truth and promote corruption.

• ع Cب �ت ت و�ال� �ح�ق� ال ب Cاس الن �ن� �ي ب �م ف�اح�ك ر�ض� األ� في يف�ة) ل خ� �اك� �ن ج�ع�ل Cا ن إ د�او�ود� �ا ي

�ه�م� ل Cه الل يل ب س� ع�ن �ضل"ون� ي Cذين� ال Cن إ Cه الل يل ب س� ع�ن �ضلCك� ف�ي �ه�و�ى الصـ ] : �حس�اب ال �و�م� ي وا �س� ن م�ا ب ديد� ش� [26ع�ذ�اب�

• (And it was said unto him): O David! Lo! We have set thee as a viceroy in the earth; therefor judge aright between mankind, and follow not desire that it beguile thee from the way of Allah. Lo! those who wander from the way of Allah have an awful doom, forasmuch as they forgot the Day of Reckoning.

• Absolute truth will never be in accord with ego:�ل� • ب Cنفيه و�م�ن ر�ض�

� و�األ� م�او�ات� Cالس د�ت �ف�س� ل �ه�و�اءه�م� أ �ح�ق" ال �ع� Cب ات �و و�لالمؤمنون ] : م"ع�رض�ون� �رهم ذك ع�ن ف�ه�م� �رهم� ذك ب �اه�م �ن �ي �ت [71أ

• And if the Truth had followed their desires, verily the heavens and the earth and whosoever is therein had been corrupted. Nay, We have brought them their Reminder, but from their Reminder they now turn away.

• Societies could lead others astray if the source of their knowledge is ego

م� • Cح�ر مCا �م �ك ل ف�صCل� و�ق�د� �ه �ي ع�ل \ه الل م� اس� ر� ذ�ك ممCا � �وا �ل �ك �أ ت C �ال أ �م� �ك ل و�م�ا j �م ل ع �ر غ�ي ب هم �ه�و�ائ أ ب �ضل"ون� Cي ل ( يرا �ث ك Cن و�إ �ه �ي ل إ �م� ت اض�ط�رر� م�ا C ال إ �م� �ك �ي ع�ل

األنعام ] : �دين� �م�ع�ت ال ب �م� �ع�ل أ ه�و� Cك� ب ر� Cن [119إ• How should ye not eat of that over which the name of Allah hath been

mentioned, when He hath explained unto you that which is forbidden unto you, unless ye are compelled thereto. But lo! many are led astray by their own lusts through ignorance. Lo! thy Lord, He is best aware of the transgressors.

ع�ون� • Cب �ت ي ن إ \ه الل يل ب س� ع�ن �ضل"وك� ي ر�ض� األ في م�ن �ر� �ث ك

� أ �طع� ت ن و�إاألنعام ] : ص�ون� �خ�ر� ي C ال إ ه�م� ن� و�إ CنCالظ C ال [116إ

• If thou obeyedst most of those on earth they would mislead thee far from Allah's way. They follow naught but an opinion, and they do but guess.

Action Evaluation: An Islamic Perspective

•Source: Revelation (indisputable and Practical Ethics)1- Surely His is the judgment (Anaam: 62)2- But nay, by thy lord, they will not believe (in truth)

until they make thee judge of what is in dispute between them and find within themselves no dislike of that which thou decidest, and submit with full submission. (Al.Nisaa: 65)

•The Quran uses a strict and authoritative way to implement its rules and moral values . At the same time it tries to remind us of the great rewards, benefits and advantages behind good deeds.

• Different levels:1. Tawhid: The core of Islamic ethics. (to achieve total freedom) 2. Love of Allah and his religion: will ease our submission to his rules and the fulfillment of our duties.3. The legality of the action.4. The effect of Intention (good and bad deeds, The Permissible (Mubah).5. Tawakal (Trust In Allah): To Do our best and leave the consequences to Allah’s will.

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• Characteristics of Moral Duties:1. Comprehensiveness and Inclusiveness: for instance: justice as a value must applicable to all at all times.2. Simple & achievable: No one should be charged beyond his capacity.3. Flexibility: Different levels of morality (Maximum and minimum). 4. Moderation: “Thus We have appointed you a middle nation” Al-Baqarah: 143).

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