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Worldwide Rating
of Drinking Water Safety
What is SWIT Rating?
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Drinking water quality is the standard indeveloped countries. Waterborne diseasesare almost inexistent. Only about 20% of
the world countries have this top classifi-cation.
4 Drops CountriesMain cities have generally safe watersup-
plies, which are monitored and regularlytested by an independent board.
But level of service of rural & small townssystems could be substandard. Prevalenceof waterborne diseases is low.
3 Drops CountriesThe level of service quality variesconsiderably between urban and ruralresidence, and between regions.
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Some systems comply with WHO Guideli-nes, but many of them have intermittentservice and lack of disinfection.
Monitoring and testing is not fully reliable.Some waterborne diseases are endemic. 2 Drops Countries
Some water supplies comply with WHOGuidelines, but most of them not. There isnot permanent monitoring and testing. U-sually water quality is not good. Prevalen-ce of waterborne diseases is high.
1 Drop Countries Is almost impossible
to find drinking water that complies withWHO Guidelines. There is not monitoringand testing. Waterborne diseases are themain cause of infant mortality. Usually isdangerous for foreign visitors to drink tap
water.
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Bahamas Caribbean
Bahrain Western South Asia
Bangladesh Middle South Asia
Barbados Caribbean
Belarus Eastern EuropeBelgium Western Europe
Belize Central America
Benin Sub-Saharan Africa
Bermuda North America
Bhutan Middle South Asia
Bolivia Tropical South America
Bosnia and Herzegovina Eastern Europe
Botswana Southern Africa
Brazil Tropical South AmericaBritish Virgin Islands Caribbean
Brunei Eastern South Asia
Bulgaria Eastern Europe
Burkina Faso Sub-Saharan Africa
Burundi Sub-Saharan Africa
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Cambodia Eastern South Asia
Cameroon Sub-Saharan Africa
Canada North America
Cape Verde Sub-Saharan Africa
Cayman Islands CaribbeanChad Sub-Saharan Africa
Chile Temperate South America
China East Asia
Colombia Tropical South America
Comoros Sub-Saharan Africa
Congo Sub-Saharan Africa
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Sub-Saharan Africa
Cook Islands Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Costa Rica Central AmericaCte dIvoire Sub-Saharan Africa
Croatia Eastern Europe
Cuba Caribbean
Cyprus Western South Asia
Czech Republic Eastern Europe
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Denmark Western Europe
Djibouti Sub-Saharan Africa
Dominica Caribbean
Dominican Republic Caribbean
East Timor Eastern South AsiaEcuador Tropical South America
Egypt Northern Africa
El Salvador Central America
Equatorial Guinea Sub-Saharan Africa
Eritrea Sub-Saharan Africa
Estonia Eastern Europe
Ethiopia Sub-Saharan Africa
Faeroe Western Europe
Falkland Islands(Malvinas) Temperate South America
Fiji Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Finland Western Europe
France Western Europe
French Guiana Tropical South America
French Polynesia Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
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Gabon Sub-Saharan Africa
Gambia Sub-Saharan Africa
Gaza Strip Western South Asia
Georgia Middle South Asia
Germany Western Europe
Ghana Sub-Saharan Africa
Gibraltar Western Europe
Greece Eastern Europe
Greenland North America
Grenada Caribbean
Guadeloupe Caribbean
Guam Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Guatemala Central America
Guinea Sub-Saharan Africa
Guinea Bissau Sub-Saharan Africa
Guyana Tropical South America
Haiti Caribbean
Holy See Europe
Honduras Central America
Hong Kong East Asia
Hungary Eastern Europe
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Iceland Western Europe
India Middle South Asia
Indonesia Eastern South Asia
Iran Middle South Asia
Iraq Western South AsiaIreland Western Europe
Isle of Man Western Europe
Israel Western South Asia
Italy Western Europe
Jamaica Caribbean
Japan East Asia
Jordan Western South Asia
Kazakhstan Middle South Asia
Kenya Sub-Saharan Africa
Kiribati Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Korea, Democratic PeoplesRepublic of East Asia
Korea, Republic of East Asia
Kuwait Western South Asia
Kyrgyzstan Middle South Asia
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Laos Eastern South Asia
Latvia Eastern Europe
Lebanon Western South Asia
Lesotho Southern Africa
Liberia Sub-Saharan AfricaLibyan Arab Jamahiriya Northern Africa
Liechtenstein Western Europe
Lithuania Eastern Europe
Luxembourg Western Europe
Macau East AsiaMacedonia Eastern Europe
Madagascar Sub-Saharan Africa
Malawi Sub-Saharan Africa
Malaysia Eastern South Asia
Maldives Middle South AsiaMali Sub-Saharan Africa
Malta Western Europe
Marshall Islands Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Martinique Caribbean
Mauritania Sub-Saharan Africa
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Mauritius Sub-Saharan Africa
Mexico North America
Micronesia (Federated States of) Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Moldova Eastern Europe
Monaco Western EuropeMongolia East Asia
Montserrat Caribbean
Morocco Northern Africa
Mozambique Sub-Saharan Africa
Myanmar Eastern South AsiaNamibia Southern Africa
Nauru Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Nepal Middle South Asia
Netherlands Western Europe
Netherlands Antilles CaribbeanNew Caledonia Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
New Zealand Main Oceania
Nicaragua Central America
Niger Sub-Saharan Africa
Nigeria Sub-Saharan Africa
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Niue Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Northern Mariana Islands elanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Norway Western Europe
Oman Western South Asia
Pakistan Middle South AsiaPalau Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Panama Central America
Papua New Guinea Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Paraguay Tropical South America
Peru Tropical South AmericaPhilippines Eastern South Asia
Pitcairn Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Poland Eastern Europe
Portugal Western Europe
Puerto Rico CaribbeanQatar Western South Asia
Runion Sub-Saharan Africa
Romania Eastern Europe
Russian Federation Eastern Europe
Rwanda Sub-Saharan Africa
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Saint Helena Southern Africa
Saint Kitts and Nevis Caribbean
Saint Lucia Caribbean
Saint Pierre and Miquelon North America
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines CaribbeanSamoa Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
San Marino Western Europe
Sao Tome and Principe Sub-Saharan Africa
Saudi Arabia Western South Asia
Senegal Sub-Saharan AfricaSeychelles Sub-Saharan Africa
Sierra Leone Sub-Saharan Africa
Singapore Eastern South Asia
Slovakia Eastern Europe
Slovenia Eastern EuropeSolomon Islands Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa
South Africa Southern Africa
Spain Western Europe
Sri Lanka Middle South Asia
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Sudan Sub-Saharan Africa
Suriname Tropical South America
Swaziland Southern Africa
Sweden Western Europe
Switzerland Western EuropeSyrian Arab Republic Western South Asia
Taiwan East Asia
Tajikistan Middle South Asia
Tanzania Sub-Saharan Africa
Thailand Eastern South AsiaTogo Sub-Saharan Africa
Tokelau Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Tonga Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Trinidad and Tobago Caribbean
Tunisia Northern AfricaTurkey Western South Asia
Turkmenistan Middle South Asia
Turks and Caicos Islands Caribbean
Tuvalu Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Uganda Sub-Saharan Africa
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Ukraine Eastern Europe
United Arab Emirates Western South Asia
United Kingdom Western Europe
United States of America North America
Uruguay Temperate South America
US Virgin Islands Caribbean
Uzbekistan Middle South Asia
Vanuatu Melanesia and Micronesia-PolynesiaVenezuela Tropical South America
Vietnam Eastern South Asia
Wallis and Futuna Islands Melanesia and Micronesia-Polynesia
Western Sahara Northern AfricaYemen Western South Asia
Yugoslavia Eastern Europe
Zambia Sub-Saharan Africa
Zimbabwe Sub-Saharan Africa
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How is SWIT Rating defined? To assess drinking water quality is among
the most difficult problems on a nation-wide basis, due to the lack of available da-ta and the magnitude and complexity ofmeasuring drinking water quality everytime and everywhere.
In practice, to define the degree of risk li-kely in each country trough direct indica-tors is extremely difficult. But there areindirect indicators that could serve as sig-nals of how safe is water in a country or aregion.
A factor taken into account in the definit-ion of the SWIT Rating is that tourism isan important source of income for manycountries and to label specific areas asbeing of high risk for waterborne diseasesmay be misinterpreted.
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Human Development Index, calculated bythe United Nations Development Program,in percentage of the highest level (in 2001
is Norway's , with 0.936) Infant Mortality, measured by the World
Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF,and expressed as children dead youngerthan 1 year old, per 1000 infants born.
Existence or lack of it, of independent, qu-alified and reliable monitoring and testingof water supplies, as recommended andsurveyed by theWorld Health Organizat-ion (WHO)and Pan American Health Orga-nization (PAHO) .
Uninterrupted supply and adequate disin-fection (idem WHOand PAHO).
How are countries rated ?
C t i t d i th f ll i it i
http://www.unicef.org/http://www.unicef.org/http://www.who.org/http://www.who.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.paho.org/http://www.who.org/http://www.who.org/http://www.who.org/http://www.unicef.org/ -
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Criteria 5 DropsCountries
4 DropsCountries
3 DropsCountries
2 DropsCountries
1 DropCountries
RATING
INCOME LEVEL High or UpperMiddle
(GNP>9360U$S or PPP>11300U$S)
Upper Middle(GNP>4900
U$S orPPP> 8320
U$S)
LowerMiddle
(GNP>2000U$S or
PPP> 4880U$S)
Low(GNP>1200
U$S orPPP>1800
U$S)
Very Low(GNP
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TAP WATER Is tap water safe around the world?
In developed countries, piped water ofhigh quality is continuously available tohousehold connections.
Nevertheless, in spite that most cities andlarge towns around the world have largepiped water systems, tap water is onlysafe to drink if it has been fully treated &disinfected, and all the water system iswell operated and maintained.
These conditions of water supply are, glo-bally in the world, the exception ratherthan the rule,quotting the World HealthOrganization (WHO),in their "Guidelinesfor drinking-water quality, 1993".
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It is estimated that over one-third of theurban water supplies in Africa, and in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, and more
than half those in Asia, operate intermit-tently. Also, the United Nations Environ-mental Program(UNEP)said:
"Every eight seconds, a child dies from
a water-related disease50 percent of people in developingcountries suffer from one or more waterrelated diseases; ;
80 percent of the diseases in the deve-loping world are caused by contamina-ted water;
50 percent of people on Earth lack ade-quate sanitation;
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20 percent of freshwater fish specieshave been pushed to the edge ofextinction by contaminated water"
According to the "World Banks WorldDevelopment Indicators 1997", between1985 and 1993, 24 countries have seentheir urban populations access to safedrinking water decrease.
The safety of tap water needs to bedetermined on the basis of water qualitymonitoring, and evidence of effectivetreatment.
This is not always guaranteed if you willbe traveling in countries other thanWestern Europe, USA and Canada,Australia and New Zealand, Singapore andJapan.
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You cannot see, smell or taste the germsand other contaminants. Because ofwaters different sources and the different
ways in which water is treated, the tasteand quality of drinking water varies fromplace to place.
Even in areas where the tap water is safe
to drink the level of chemical treatmentmay be sufficient to render it unpalatableto travelers from developed countries.
Common complaints about wateraesthetics include temporary cloudiness
(typically caused by air bubbles) orchlorine taste
How will a traveler know if tap water is safeto drink?
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The hotel or resort owner, or operator,must notify you if tap water meets interna-
tionally accepted drinking water standards(such EPA or WHO standards) or if there isa waterborne disease emergency.
In the section "Is water Safe in?", SWITbrings public available information of water
quality regarding health, from sources likeWorld Health Organization (WHO)and theU.S.Center for Diseases Control (CDC),butthat information only gives a general ideaof how safe is tap water in an area.
If there is no specific notice of your hotelowner or operator, or you don't trust it,better safe than sorry.
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How can I know what is risky to do,if tap water is not safe?
See "Frequently Asked Questions" to knowif is risky toothbrushing, taking a shower,etc, and how to take care where tap wateris not safe.
What can I do if I need to use unsafe
tap water? Boiling is the most reliable method to
make water safe to drink. Bring water to avigorous boil, and then allow it to cool; do
not add ice. At high altitudes, allow waterto boil vigorously for a few minutes or usechemical disinfectants. Adding a pinch ofsalt or pouring water from one containerto another will improve the taste.
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Portable boiling coils are very useful forboiling water in hotel rooms. Chemical dis-infection can be achieved with either iod-
ine or chlorine, in spite that are often inef-fective if the water is visibly cloudy. Iodineprovides greater disinfection in a wider setof circumstances (chlorine based are lesseffective against amoebic cysts than
iodine). If the water is cloudy, then strain it
through a clean cloth & double disinfectantdose added. If the water is very cold, eit-her warm it or allow increased time fordisinfectant to work. For disinfection withiodine, use either tincture of iodine(4drops of 2% tincture of iodine should beadded to each liter of water and left for 15minutes).
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Run it for a minute or so first. It can beused for not swallowing uses, as brushingteeth, in an emergency.
How can I test my tap water?
If you are going to stay in a place for along time, could be wise that you test yourtap water, if you don't trust the hotel own-
er or operator. Drinking water, including bottled water,
may reasonably be expected to contain atleast small amounts of some contamin-
ants. As long as they occur below EPAs orWHO's standards, they dont pose a signi-ficant threat to health, although peoplewith severely compromised immune sys-tems & children may have special needs.
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You have to test for specific contaminantsthat can vary from city to city, or any ot-her contaminant youre concerned about.
The most important safety concern is fromorganisms that cause diseases. Theseorganisms, called pathogens, are difficultto address because there are so manyvarieties that it would not be feasible to
test for all of them individually. Instead, usually are made tests for "indi-
cator organisms", bacteria which typicallyare not pathogens, but which alert thatwater is susceptible to contamination. We
may click on section "TEST YOUR WA-TER" to get a list of acceptable laborato-ries in the country. A trustful and skilledlaboratory will give you the instructions toget a representative sample.
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Depending on how many contaminants wetest for, a water test can cost from fewdollars to hundreds of dollars.
What if I have a severely compromis-ed immune system?
Some people may be more vulnerable tocontaminants in drinking water than the
general population. People with severelycompromised immune systems, such aspeople with cancer undergoing chemothe-rapy, people who have undergone organtransplants, people with HIV/AIDS or ot-
her immune system disorders, some eld-erly, and infants can be particularly at riskfrom infections. These people should seekadvice about drinking water from theirhealth care providers.
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BOTTLED WATER
What is bottled water?
The U.S.Food and Drug Administration's(FDA) product definition for bottled wateris water that is sold for human consump-tion in sanitary containers and contains noadded sweeteners or chemical additives .
It must be calorie-free & sugar-free. Fla-vors, extracts or essences may be addedto drinking water, but they must compriseless than one-percent-by-weight of the
final product. Some bottled waters containnatural or added carbonation. While theterm bottled water is widely used, theterm packaged water is perhaps moreaccurate.
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Water that has been produced by distillat-ion, deionization, reverse osmosis or othersuitable processes may be labeled as puri-fied bottled water.
Which are the hazards regardingbottled water?
If bottled-water is not produced undercertified methods of quality control, may
be contaminated by a range of chemical,microbial and physical hazards that couldpose risks to health if they are present athigh levels. Examples of chemical hazardsinclude lead, arsenic and benzene. Micro-
bial hazards, include bacteria, viruses andparasites, such as Vibrio cholerae, hepati-tis A virus, and Crytosporidium parvum,respectively. Physical hazards includeglass chips and metal fragments.
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Are there international standards forbottled water?
Because of the large number of possiblehazards in bottled-water, the developmentof standards requires significant resourcesand expertise, which many countries areunable to afford.
Fortunately, guidance is available at theinternational level. According to the USCenters for Disease Control and Prevent-ion (CDC), bottled water that meets thestandards set by the U.S.Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) has never been res-ponsible for an out-break of waterborneillness. To ensure that bottled water is assafe as possible the producers must useone or more of the following practices:
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source protection and monitoring, reverseosmosis, distillation, filtration, ozonationand disinfection. The International Bottled
Water Association (IBWA), has set stand-ards, contained in the IBWA "Model Code,"that exceed the FDA regulations currentlyin place for bottled water.
The intergovernmental body for the deve-
lopment of internationally recognizedstandards for food is the Codex Aliment-arius Commission (CAC). WHO, one of theco-sponsors of the CAC, has advocatedthe use of the Guidelines for Drinking-wa-
ter Quality as the basis for derivation ofstandards for all bottled waters.The CAChas developed a Codex Standard for Natu-ral Mineral Waters and an associated codeof practice.
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The Codex Standard describes the productand its labeling, compositional and qualityfactors, including limits for certain chemic-
als, hygiene, packaging and labeling. TheCodex Code of Practice for Collecting, Pro-cessing and Marketing of Natural MineralWaters provides guidance to the industryon a range of good manufacturing pract-
ices matters. While CAC standards & recommendations
are not strictly mandatory, Codex healthand safety requirements are recognized bythe World Trade Organization as repre-senting the international consensus forconsumer protection and any deviationfrom Codex recommendations may requirea scientifically-based justification.
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How I know if that bottled watermeets the standards?
International bottler members of IBWAthat sell products with "IBWA label" mustsubmit a certificate of inspection toIBWA.As a condition of membership, bot-tlers must submit to an annual, unanno-unced plant inspection administered by an
independent, internationally recognizedthird-party inspection organization.
Another well know & trustful certifier ofbottled water is the National SanitationFoundation (NSF). NSF Certification means
that a credible, objective, independentthird-party, widely recognized by publichealth officials, has actually tested andverified that bottled water complies withspecific standards.
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NSF maintains policies that establish addi-tional requirements that a company mustcomply with to maintain NSF Certification
and authorization to place the NSF Markon products. These include initial and peri-odic testing and/or evaluation, and annualunannounced inspections.
Bottlers meeting all requirements are au-thorized to use the NSF Listing Mark andare included in the published Listing Book.All European producers of bottled watermust meet strict standards set by the Eur-opean Union and also, if they export their
production to the U.S., they have to meetthe federal and state standards. So youcan trust that a bottled water with theIBWA or NSF label or a well known Europ-ean brand is safe for drinking.
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Y h
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You can search at:
NSF site: www.nsf.org/Certified/BWPIor
IBWA site:www.bottledwater.org/public/WhatIsBrandList.htm
FOOD & BEVERAGE WATER
What is food and beverages water?
Is water that is used for food andbeverages preparation and dishwashing.Ifthe water is contaminated, the food andbeverages will also be unsafe to use.
How important is safe kitchen water?
In many developing countries tap water isoften untreated, or not adequatelytreated, and is unsafe to drink.
http://www.nsf.org/Certified/BWPIhttp://www.bottledwater.org/public/WhatIsBrandList.htmhttp://www.bottledwater.org/public/WhatIsBrandList.htmhttp://www.bottledwater.org/public/WhatIsBrandList.htmhttp://www.bottledwater.org/public/WhatIsBrandList.htmhttp://www.bottledwater.org/public/WhatIsBrandList.htmhttp://www.nsf.org/Certified/BWPI -
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It is very important to use safe water forwashing fruits and vegetables,preparingbeverages and meals that will not boil and
making ice cubes. Also is important to use safe water to
clean the surfaces used for food preparat-ion and for washing the dishes, if dish-wahing machines that sterilize the contentare not used.
What can a hotel or resort do to havesafe kitchen water?
If tap water is not safe, the following mea-sures can be taken to treat water:
1. Boiling: is the best method of disinfec-ting.
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Disinfectant UK EC USAUSA
(Michigan)Germany Italy
Free chlorine 12 1.03.0 0.41.0 0.30.6 0.71. 0.71
Bromine 1.53.5
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Disease andTransmission
Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in Water Supply General Symptoms
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Amebiasis(hand-to-mouth)
Protozoan(Entamoebahistolytic) (Cyst-like appearance)
Sewage, non-treated drinking water,flies in water supply
Abdominal discomfort,fatigue, weight loss,diarrhea, gas painsFever, abdominal pain,diarrhea
Campylobacteriosis(oral-fecal)
Untreated water, sewage, poorhygiene, crowded living conditionswith inadequate sewage facilities
Watery diarrhea,vomiting, occasionalmuscle cramps
Cholera(oral-fecal)
Bacterium (Vibriocholerae)
Untreated water, sewage, poorhygiene, crowded living conditionswith inadequate sewage facilities.
Diarrhea, abdominaldiscomfort
Cryptosporidiosis(oral)
Protozoan(Cryptosporidium
parvum)
Collects on water filters andmembranes that cannot bedisinfected, animal manure,seasonal runoff of water.
Flu-like symptoms,watery diarrhea , loss ofappetite, substantial lossof weight, bloating,increased gas, stomach
Cyclosporiasis Protozoanparasite
(Cyclosporacayetanensis)
Sewage, non-treated drinking water cramps, nausea,vomiting, muscle aches,
low-grade fever, andfatigue
Giardiasis (oral-fecal) (hand-to-mouth)
Protozoan(Giardia lamblia)Most commonintestinal parasite
Untreated water, poor disinfection,pipe breaks, leaks, groundwatercontamination, campgrounds wherehumans and wildlife use samesource of water. Beavers andmuskrats act as a reservoir forGiardia.
Diarrhea, abdominaldiscomfort, bloating, gasand gas pains
Hepatitis A
(oral-fecal)
Virus (Hepatitis
A)
Raw sewage, untreated drinking
water, poor hygiene, ingestion ofshellfish from sewage-flooded beds
Fever, chills, abdominal
discomfort, jaundice,urine dark
Salmonellosis(oraltransmission)
Bacterium(Salmonellaspecies)
Contaminated water, shellfish,turtles, fish
Gastroenteritis, feverand rapid blood-poisoning.
Shigellosis(oral-fecal)
Bacterium(Shigella species)
Sludge, untreated wastewater,groundwater contamination, poorlydisinfected drinking water.
Fever, diarrhea, bloodystools
Schistosomiasis(immersion)
Schistosoma Contaminated fresh water withcertain types of snails that carry
schistosomes
Rash or itchy skin.Fever, chills, cough, and
muscle aches
Typhoid fever Bacterium Raw sewage (carried and excreted Fever, headache,
Estimates of Global Morbidity and Mortality of Water-Related
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DiseaseMorbidity (episodes/year or
people infected)Mortality
(deaths/year)
Diarrheal
Diseases 1,000,000,000 3,300,000
IntestinalHelminths
1,500,000,000 (people infected) 100,000
Schistosomiasis 200,000,000 (people infected) 200,000
Dracunculiasis 150,000 (in 1996) -
Trachoma 150,000,000 (active cases) -
Malaria 400,000,000 1,500,000
Dengue Fever 1,750,000 20,000
Poliomyelitis 114,000 -
Trypanosomiasis 275,000 130,000
BancroftianFilariasis
72,800,000 (people infected) -
Onchocerciasis17,700,000 (people infected;
270,000 blind)
40,000 (mortality
caused by blindness)
Diseases (early 1990s)
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WATER QUALITY STANDARD
Water Quality Standards
There are no international mandatory drinking water standards.TheWorld Health Organization (WHO)publishes Guidelines for
Drinking-water Quality which many countries use as the basis toestablish their own national standards. The Guidelines represent ascientific assessment of the risks to health from biological andchemical constituents of drinking-water and of the effectiveness ofassociated control measures. As the WHOGuidelines for Drinking-water Quality are meant to be the scientific point of departure for
standards development, including bottled water, actual nationalstandards will sometimes vary from the Guidelines.
Microbiological Quality Guidelines
Chemical Quality Guidelines
Safe Water for International Travelers
Safe Water for International Travelersis an independent
organization that provides the most reliable information about watersafety around the world.
http://www.who.int/http://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_microb.htmhttp://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_microb.htmhttp://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_chemic.htmhttp://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_chemic.htmhttp://www.safewateronline.com/http://www.safewateronline.com/http://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_chemic.htmhttp://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_chemic.htmhttp://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_microb.htmhttp://www.safewateronline.com/wqs_microb.htmhttp://www.who.int/