Paper 2:

The Cold War

Origins of the Cold War

The collapse of the wartime alliance led to a Cold War between the two superpowers.

America

Russia

1. The richest country in the world.

1. The biggest country in the world.

2. A democracy with free elections, led by an elected president.

2. A one-party state led by a dictator. There were elections, but you could only vote for the Communist Party.

3. Freedom of speech and belief.

3. State control: censorship, secret police, terror and purges.

4. Capitalism - private ownership and the right to make money.

4. Communism - state ownership of the means of production, and the belief that wealth should be shared.

5. Led by Truman, who believed that Communism was evil.

5. Led by Stalin, who believed that capitalism was evil.

6. Had the atomic bomb - but was scared of Russia's conventional army.

6. Had the biggest army in the world - but was angry that Truman had not warned that he was going to drop the atomic bomb.

7. Feared the spread of communism throughout the world.

7. Was angry because America and Britain had invaded Russia in 1918-19 to try to destroy communism.

8. Angry about the Nazi-Soviet Pact that was a major factor in starting the Second World War.

8. Believed that America and Britain had delayed opening the second front (attacking France) to let Germany and Russia destroy each other on the eastern front.

9. Wanted reconstruction - to make Germany a prosperous democracy and a trading partner.

9. Wanted to wreck Germany, take huge reparations for the damage done during the war, and set up a buffer of friendly states around Russia to prevent another invasion in the future.

Capitalism v Communism

Businesses / farms owned by private people

Profit is good a reward for risk-bearing

Businesses and farms owned by the state and

run by the government for the benefit of all people

Profit is a form of oppression

Democracy v Dictatorship

Multi-party system

Free elections

Parliament (UK) / Congress (USA) make the laws separate executive and legislative branches

Elections to the Soviets

One party only the Communist party which

rules the country

Stalin de facto (in fact) an absolute dictator

Freedom v Human Rights

His Majestys Opposition minority party in UK

Protests and demonstrations

Human rights respected in law

Dissidents imprisoned

KGB arrest grumblers

The gulag

Free Market v Command Economy

Laws of supply and demand control production

Competition keeps prices low and quality up the weak go out of business

Strikes and unemployment

Freedom of choice

Workers ordered to a job / area

Wages and hours fixed by law

No unemployment everyone has a job

Equal Opportunity v Equality

Everyone has a chance to succeed

Consumer economy

Great differences in wealth and class millionaires v poverty

Private medicine, houses, etc (health care is very good, but very expensive)

Poor standard of living producer goods (goods made are good for the producer, not necessarily good for the consumer) / empty shops

Fewer very poor people

Free health care / state-provided housing (health care is poor, but available to everyone)

Free Press v Censorship

Freedom of speech

Newspapers, books, radio / tv / films not censored

Media openly criticize government (Washington Post , New York Times)

No freedom of speech

The media are owned and run by the government

Censorship and propaganda (Pravda, Izvestia)

Yalta

Potsdam

Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin

Attlee, Truman and Stalin

Germany to be split into four zones.

Arguments about the details of the boundaries between the zones.

Germany will pay reparations.

Disagreements about the amount of reparations Russia wanted to take. It was agreed that Russia could take whatever it wanted from the Soviet zone, and 10 per cent of the industrial equipment of the western zones, but Britain and the US thought this was too much.

A government of 'national unity' to be set up in Poland, comprising both communists and non-communists.

Truman was angry because Stalin had arrested the non-communist leaders of Poland.

Free elections in the countries of eastern Europe. This part of the agreement was called the Declaration of Liberated Europe.

America and Britain were alarmed because communists were coming to power in the countries of Eastern Europe.

Russia would help against Japan when Germany was defeated.

Truman dropped the atomic bomb so that Japan would surrender before Russian troops could go into Japan. America had the bomb in July 1945, but Truman did not tell Stalin about it. When he saw how he had been tricked, Stalin was furious.

Complete Mission 1

Nature and Development of the Cold War

Salami Tactics

Country

Date

Method

Albania

1945

The Communists immediately took power.

Bulgaria

1945

In the 1945 elections, a Communist-led coalition was elected, but the Communists executed the non-Communists.

East Germany

1945

East Germany was the Soviet zone of Germany. In 1949, they set up a Communist-controlled state called the German Democratic Republic.

Romania

1947

In the 1945 elections, a Communist-led coalition was elected to power. The Communists gradually took over and in 1947 they abolished the monarchy.

Poland

1947

Stalin had promised to set up a joint Communist/non-Communist government at Yalta, but then he invited 16 non-Communist leaders to Moscow and arrested them. Thousands of non-Communists were arrested, and the Communists won the 1947 election.

Hungary

1947

The non-communists won the 1945 elections with Zoltan Tildy as president. However, the Communists' leader, Rakosi, took control of the secret police (the AVO), and executed and arrested his opponents. Tildy was forced to resign and Cardinal Mindzenty, head of the Catholic Church, was imprisoned. By 1948, Rakosi had complete control of Hungary.

Czechoslovakia

1948

A coalition government was set up and led by the non-Communist Benes. However, the Communists' leader Gottwald made sure they controlled the radio, the army and the police. Gottwald became prime minister and set up a secret police force. Non-Communists were arrested. In 1948, Communist workers went on strike, the non-Communist minister Masaryk committed suicide and Gottwald took over the government.

Complete Missions 2 and 3.

Development of the Cold War

FDR (1933-1945)

Date

Summary

Detailed Information

Stalin (1927-1953)

February 4th - 11th 1945

Yalta Conference

Meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin to decide what would happen at the end of the war.

Partitioning of Germany

Fate of Poland

The United Nations

German reparations

Truman (1945-1953)

May 8th 1945

V E Day

Victory in Europe as Germany surrenders to the Russian army.

July 17th - August 2nd 1945

Potsdam Conference

Formally divided Germany and Austria into four zones.

Berlin would be divided into four zones.

The Russian Polish border was determined

Korea was to be divided into Soviet and American zones.

August 6th 1945

Hiroshima

Russia/Japan

The United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima

Russia entered the war in the Pacific

August 8th 1945

Nagasaki

The United States dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki.

August 14th 1945

V J Day

The Japanese surrendered bringing World War Two to an end.

September 2nd 1945

Vietnam Independence

Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam an independent republic.

March 5th 1946

Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech

Churchill delivers his 'Sinews of Peace' speech which contain the famous phrase "..an iron curtain has descended on Europe"

March 12th 1947

Truman Doctrine

President Truman promised to help any country facing a Communist takeover (Greek Civil War)

Truman Doctrine

Greece

After WWI Greece appeared to be under threat from Communism

Britain was unable to support Greece (as it had done in the past)

In 1947 Greece was under attack from Communist rebels and asked the USA for help

Communism

Truman was concerned about the spread of Communism and was determined to take action

He offered arms, supplies and money to Greece

Communism in Greece was defeated by 1949 following a civil war

Doctrine

Truman was determined that the USA would not live in isolation

Offered assistance to all free peoples resisting attempted subjugation

June 5th 1947

Marshall Plan

Marshall Plan

Truman saw war ravaged Europe as a breeding ground for Communism

He felt it was vital to encourage countries to become prosperous again to recover from the war

US Secretary of State, George Marshall, proposed Marshall Aid

Total aid from 1948 1951 was close to $13 billion US

Just Being Helpful?

Helping European countries to recover also meant creating a market for US exports

Also (although not publicly admitted) it was a clear aim to prevent the spread of Communism

Stalin saw this as America trying to buy support

Countries receiving aid included UK, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ireland, Iceland

Success?

1948 1952 saw period of growth in European history

Agricultural production surpassed pre-war levels

Forged North Atlantic alliances

Political stability was achieved in the countries receiving aid

Rationing was ended, poverty and starvation disappeared

Tension

Aid was vital for European economic recovery

However, Stalin refused Marshall Aid and banned Eastern European countries under the USSRs control from accepting it

This created tension on both sides

July 1947

Containment

Kennan coins the term Containment - contain Communism, but not push it back Containment

September 1947

Cominform

The USSR set up Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) which was the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties responsible for the creation of the Eastern bloc.

Complete Missions 4 and 5.

Truman (1945-1953)

February 1948

Czechoslovakia

Communists take over

Stalin (1927-1953)

June 1948

Formation of West Germany

The French, USA and UK partitions of Germany were merged to form West Germany

Complete Mission 6

June 24th 1948

Berlin Blockade

Berlin Blockade 1948

Yalta Background

Had been agreed to split Germany into four zones between USSR, France, Britain and USA. Berlin was similarly divided

In 1948 USA, Britain and France merged their zones into West Germany and West Berlin

USA poured large sums of money into West Berlin

Stalins Concerns

Stalin was convinced this was a capitalist plot to lure East Germans and East Berliners

He was angry that he wasnt consulted about decisions such as the new Deutschmark

Stalin may have thought the US and its allies were planning to reunite Germany

Stalins Reaction

June 24, 1948 Stalin ordered all road, rail and canal routes between West Germany and West Berlin to be closed

He hoped to force the US and her allies into submission

US reacted strongly, claiming this was Stalins first step in a take-over of Western Europe

Allied Reaction Berlin Airlift

The Allies didnt want to force their way into Berlin for fear of sparking a war, so they began to fly supplies in

Flights began on June 26, reaching a peak of one every 3 minutes by September 1948

Consequences for USSR

Stalin couldnt just shoot the planes down

He had to eventually back down on May 12, 1949 he ended the blockade it was a major embarrassment

Stalin realized the USSR needed the atom bomb to stand up to the US. Atomic testing was increased

Consequences for USA

Seen as proof that the USSR had plans to take over Europe

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in April 1949 as a result

Stalin saw this as a deliberate threat

In 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, the USSR-led Warsaw Pact was formed

Complete Mission 7

April 4th 1949

NATO formed

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization formed with member states Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States

May 12, 1949

End of Berlin Blockade

Russia ended the blockade of Berlin.

September 1949

Mao Zedong

Russians Have Atomic Bomb

Communists are in control of China

Russians explode 1st atomic bomb

February 1950

McCarthys Witch hunt

Red Scare

Complete Mission 8

April 1950

NSC 68

Containment w/ force and not diplomacy

June 25th 1950

Korean War

The Korean war began when North Korea invaded South Korea.

The Korean War

The decade after the Second World War saw communism spread to the Far East. In 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea and within three months, had conquered most of their land. Following their policy of containment, the USA got UN backing to send troops into Korea to re-take the south, and if possible take the north too. The war lasted three years and peace was only achieved when the use of the atomic bomb was threatened.

In 1945, Korea was split along the 38th parallel between a communist north led by Kim IL Sung, and a non-communist south led by Syngman Rhee.

But communism was growing in the Far East. In 1949, the Communists had taken power in China. The US developed the 'domino theory' - the idea that, if one country fell to communism, others would follow like a row of dominoes. Then, in 1950, a report by the American National Security Council ('NSC68') recommended that the US stop containment and start to roll back communism.

The war

In 1950, after getting the support of Russia and China, Kim IL Sung invaded South Korea.

The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily defeated the Republic of Korea's army (the ROKs).

By September, the NKPA had conquered almost the whole of South Korea.

The USA went to the United Nations and got them to send troops to defend South Korea.

The Russians couldn't veto the idea because they were boycotting the UN at the time.

In September, UN troops, led by the US General MacArthur, landed in Korea and drove the NKPA back.

By October, the UN forces had almost conquered all of North Korea.

In November 1950, Chinese People's Volunteers attacked and drove the Americans back.

They recaptured North Korea, and advanced into South Korea.

The Americans landed more troops and drove the Chinese back to the 38th parallel, where Truman ordered General MacArthur to stop and sacked him when he disagreed.

The war went on as border clashes until 1953 when America's new president, Eisenhower, offered peace, but threatened to use the atomic bomb if China did not accept the offer.

Recently, historians have shown that the Korean crisis almost led to a third world war - many US advisers wanted to use the atomic bomb.

Complete Mission 9

isenhower (1953-1961)

March 5th 1953

Death of Stalin

Joseph Stalin died at the age of 74. He was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev.

Khrushchevs Soviet Union 1953-1964

De-Stalinization

Feb 1956 Secret Speech (report to govt criticizing Stalins purges and cult of personality)

Attacked image and reputation of Stalin

More freedom for writers and artists

Size and power of secret police reduced

Political prisoners released

Agricultural Policies

Aim was to produce more food

Virgin Land Scheme take fallow land and cultivate it using govt resources

Introduce maize

Small collective farms became independent

Bigger, more efficient Collective Farms were created

Khrushchev thought he was an expert, but was not

Virgin Land Scheme failed

Maize was unsuitable (climate, soil, etc)

New collective farms did not work well

Industrial Policies

Sovnarkhozy Regional Economic Councils

Controls on workers relaxed

Decisions to be taken at a more regional level

Ordered more luxury goods

Developed Space program

What sort of Communism is it that cannot produce a sausage?

Industrial Problems

Sovnarkhozy didnt work

Managers and workers were not used to the freedom

Led to more bureaucracy

Consumer goods sacrificed for space program

1961 slogan Turn Khrushchev into sausage meat

Whilst Gagarin orbited the earth, we counted on abacuses housewife, 1990

Why did he Resign?

Prices rose by 30%

Agricultural policies had failed

Industrial policies had failed

Failed foreign policies Cuba

Embarrassment UN shoe stamping incident during a speech

Criticism of Stalin had gone too far for many

Forced to resign in 1964

More Peaceful?

Khrushchev said that he wanted peaceful co-existence

BUT

By peaceful co-existence he really meant peaceful competition

Friendlier?

Khrushchev had a sense of humor and was always laughing and smiling

BUT

He was NOT gentle and easy-going Stalin had used him to run the terror purges after WWII

Gentler?

In 1956, Khrushchev said that Stalin was a murderer, and he began to destalinize Russia. Political prisoners were set free and Beria (responsible for Stalins Great Purge) was executed

BUT

Destalinization did not mean a change back to capitalism, or freedom from Russia

Summits?

Khrushchev often met western leaders at summit meetings

BUT

Khrushchev loved to argue. This often caused tension between leaders

Iron Curtain?

In 1955 Khrushchev told Tito of Yugoslavia there are different roads to communism. Western leaders thought this meant an end to the Iron curtain

BUT

When communist countries went too far in their reforms, Khrushchev sent in the army (eg Hungary 1956)

Thaw?

At first, the western powers hoped that this would be the start of a thaw in the Cold War

BUT

Khrushchev gave countries like Burma and Afghanistan economic aid if they supported Russia

Complete Mission 10

Khrushchev (1953-1964)

July 27th 1953

Korean War

The Korean war ended. North Korea remained affiliated with Russia while South Korea was affiliated with the USA. 38th parallel.

1954

Iran and Guatemala

US helps overthrow unfriendly regimes

Summer 1954

Geneva Accords

Ended the French war with the Vietminh & divided Vietnam into North and South. The communist leader of North Vietnam was Ho Chi Minh while the US friendly south was led by Ngo Dinh Diem.

Eisenhower (1953-1961)

May 14th 1955

Warsaw Pact

Communist Pact: East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union.

Khrushchev (1953-1964)

October 23rd 1956

Hungary

Background

In 1945, USSR installed puppet government in Hungary

Designed to remove opposition and enforce loyalty

Soviet propaganda everywhere and protest groups emerged wanting democracy

Khrushchev

In February 1956, Khrushchev criticized parts of Stalins rule, suggesting that Soviet policy might be changing

Those who heard about the speech thought this might mean countries like Hungary would be allowed to have self-determination

Overthrow

In October 1956 the Communist dictatorship was overthrown

Opposition groups unite and support ex-Prime Minister Imre Nagy

Red Army

November 4, 1956 Khrushchev orders Red Army to take control

Tanks and soldiers enter Budapest

Bitter street fighting, but Communist leader Rakosi was restored

Pleas for Help

Opposition group leaders were all captured and executed

Desperate pleas over the radio for US assistance but there was no US intervention

Imre Nagy was imprisoned and then executed

Consequences

Around 30,000 Hungarians died including 20 opposition group leaders and Imre Nagy

Showed Soviet policy countries in her sphere of influence would stay in her sphere of influence

USA showed no desire to get involved (this must have made USSR happy)

Complete Mission 11

October 30th 1956

Suez Crisis

Following military bombardment by Israeli forces, a joint British and French force invaded Egypt to regain control of the Suez Canal which had been nationalized by the Egyptian leader Nasser. The attack was heavily criticized by World leaders, especially America because Russia had offered support to Egypt. The British and French were forced to withdraw and a UN peace keeping force was sent to establish order.

January 5 1957

Eisenhower Doctrine

1) United States would use armed forces upon request in response to imminent or actual aggression to the United States.

2) Countries that took stances opposed communism would be given aid in various forms

October 1954

Sputnik I

Russia Launched1st in space

November 1st 1957

Space Race

USSR Sputnik II carried Laika the dog, the first living creature to go into space.

November 1958

Berlin

Khrushchev demands withdrawal of troops from Berlin

Complete Mission 12

January 1959

Castros Cuba

Cuba taken over by Fidel Castro

September 1959

Disneyland

Khrushchev visits United States; denied access to Disneyland

May 1960

U2

Talks between Nikita Khrushchev and Dwight Eisenhower concerning the fate of Germany broke down when a USA U2 spy plane was shot down over Russian airspace.

Complete Mission 13

JFK(1961-1963)

January 1961

Kennedy Doctrine

Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.

April 12th 1961

Space Race

Russian cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyvich Gagarin became the first human being in space.

Khrushchev (1953-1964)

April 17th 1961

Bay of Pigs Invasion

A force of Cuban exiles, trained by the CIA, aided by the US government attempted to invade Cuba and overthrow the Communist government of Fidel Castro. The attempt failed.

Complete Mission 14

August 13th 1961

Berlin Wall

Background

At Yalta, Berlin had been divided into four zones (just as Germany had been)

In 1948-49, the Berlin Blockade saw Stalin attempt to starve West Berlin into submission

Stalin was forced to back down following the Berlin Airlift

Differences

Apart from the Berlin Blockade, those living in Berlin could travel freely live in the East and work in the West and vice versa

Khrushchev proclaimed that Berlin was being used by the West as a base for spying and sabotage

Problems

In reality, he wanted to prevent all the highly skilled and educated from working in West Berlin

East Berlin was still suffering badly, whereas West Berlin was recovering well

Between 1945-60 it is thought 3 million people crossed from East to West Berlin

August 13, 1961

Overnight a well guarded fence was constructed dividing the city in two

People were trapped in either East or West Berlin

The fence was guarded by Red Army machine gun posts

Concrete Wall

By August 17th, the barbed wire fence was replaced with a concrete wall, split only by well guarded checkpoints

From 1961 to 1989 nearly 90 people died trying to cross

The wall became a symbol of the division between Communism and Capitalism

Consequences

In some ways it was a propaganda victory for the West they claimed Communist countries had to build a wall to imprison people

However, there was very little the West could do to stop it and the wall did serve its purpose

Complete Mission 15

1962

Vietnam

US involvement in Vietnam increases

October 14th 1962

Cuban Missile Crisis

Background

In 1959 Fidel Castros rebels overthrew corrupt pro-US government in Cuba

Castro tried to make a trade agreement with the USA

USA refused as they saw Castro as a Communist

Thus Castro turned to the USSR, who readily made a deal

Nuclear Site Spotted

In return for buying Cuban goods, the USSR got permission to build a nuclear missile site in Cuba

On October 14, 1962 a US U2 spy plane spotted the nuclear site being built

ExComm Set Up

US President Kennedy set up ExComm a committee to decide what to do

On October 22, Kennedy ordered the US navy to blockade Cuba

He stated that any Soviet vessel that tried to break the blockade would be destroyed

On the Brink of War

On October 23, the United Nations backed the US and ordered any missiles to be removed

Soviet ships were spotted heading towards Cuba

The world was on the brink of all out nuclear war

Compromise

On October 27, Khrushchev secretly offered to pull out of Cuba if the USA pulled out of Turkey

Kennedy agreed and a day later Khrushchev ordered Soviet ships to turn around

Consequences

Major propaganda victory for USA they looked to have won

As the compromise was a secret, Khrushchev appeared to have backed down

Both sides began seeking ways of improving relations (a hotline was set up providing immediate contact)

Complete Mission 16

July 1963

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

Banned nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water.

November 22nd 1963

JFK Assassination

JF Kennedy was assassinated while on a visit to Dallas. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the murder but there has always been speculation that he was not a lone killer and that there may have been communist or CIA complicity.

Johnson(1963-1969)

August 1964

Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Resolution

US claimed N Vietnam attacked our ship; not true

Johnson and declare war in SE Asia

How the US got involved

During the Second World War, South-East Asia had been under Japanese control, but, in 1945, the French re-occupied Indo-China, which had been a French colony before the war.

During the war the Japanese had been opposed by a Vietnamese nationalist group called the Vietminh, led by Ho Chi Minh. The Vietminh, however, had been fighting for their independence, and not to reinstate the French Empire, so now they tried to drive out the French. In 1954, the Vietminh surrounded and wiped out the French army at Dien Bien Phu.

The French realized they would have to leave, and over the next 20 years, America was dragged into fighting a costly and disastrous war in Vietnam.

How the US got involved

At the Treaty of Geneva in 1954, Indo-China was divided into Laos, Cambodia, North Vietnam and South Vietnam, although it was agreed to hold elections in 1956 to unify the two parts of Vietnam.

Ngo Dinh Diem, the ruler of South Vietnam, refused to hold elections.

Ho Chi Minh was a communist, who was supported by China. In 1960, he set up the National Liberation Front (NLF) in South Vietnam, which started a guerrilla war to take over South Vietnam from Diem and his American backers.

The Americans called the NLF guerrillas the Vietcong, and supported Diem with military advisers and money.

Diem's government was made up of rich Christian landowners. It was corrupt and unpopular and persecuted the poor Buddhist peasants. By 1963, most of South Vietnam's rural areas were under Vietcong control - the ARVN (South Vietnamese army) could not defeat them.

In 1963, the US supported a military coup, which murdered Diem and put a military government in South Vietnam.

In August 1964, sailors on the American warship USS Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin claimed they had been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. The US Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin resolution, allowing the American President Lyndon B. Johnson to take direct military action in retaliation.

In February 1965, the Vietcong attacked American air bases and killed American soldiers. President Johnson declared war against North Vietnam.

Why did the US get involved?

1. Containment

China had fallen to communism in 1949, and America had fought in Korea in 1950-53 to contain the spread of communism.

The US president, Lyndon B. Johnson, said: "I am not going to be the president who saw South-East Asia go the way China went."

2. Domino theory

Americans believed that, if South Vietnam fell, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand - and then Burma and India - would follow.

President Johnson said: "If you let a bully come into your garden, the next day he'll be in your porch, and the day after that he'll rape your wife."

3. ARVN's weakness

It was obvious the South Vietnamese could not resist communist infiltration by the Vietcong without help.

In 1963, the American commander reported that the ARVN - the South Vietnamese army - were "ill-equipped local militia who more often than not were killed asleep in their defensive positions".

US advisers believed that good government and an efficient, large-scale war would defeat the Vietcong.

4. The US was attacked

The North Vietnamese had attacked the USS Maddox in August 1964, and then killed US soldiers in February 1965.

Johnson became convinced that action in South Vietnam alone would never win the war: "We are swatting flies when we should be going after the manure pile."

The Vietnam War did not seem like a fair match. The Americans, under their president, Lyndon B. Johnson, had a huge army, money and technology at their disposal - the Vietcong were an underground army, which used underground tactics. So why couldn't the Americans defeat the Vietcong?

- In February 1965, President Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder - a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam. - He sent US troops - 500,000 by 1969 - to fight in Vietnam.

- In November 1965, General William Westmoreland, the US commander, lured the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) to attack a force of American troops at Ia Drang, then destroyed the attackers with a massive air strike.

- In 1968, the CIA started Operation Phoenix, arresting, interrogating and killing suspected Vietcong activists.- Despite this, the Americans could not succeed in driving the Vietcong out of the rural areas.

- In January 1968, the NVA launched the Tet Offensive, capturing a number of towns in South Vietnam. - The North Vietnamese lost 58,000 men, including many officers. Their morale was damaged - the offensive proved that they could not defeat the Americans by direct attack.- It took the Americans a month to recover the towns. Their confidence was badly shaken. They won the Tet Offensive, but realized that they would never defeat the Vietcong.

Vietcong and American tactics

The Vietcong's tactics

They fought a guerrilla war, ambushing US patrols, setting booby traps and landmines, and planting bombs in towns. They mingled in with the peasants, wearing ordinary clothes. The Americans couldn't identify who the enemy was.

They were supplied with rockets and weapons by China and Russia. They used the Ho Chi Minh Trail - a jungle route through Laos and Cambodia - to supply their armies. The Americans couldn't attack their supply routes without escalating the war.

Their tactic was "hanging onto the belts" of the Americans - staying so close to the Americans so they could not use air or artillery backup without killing their own men.

The Americans' tactics

They fought a hi-tech war, using B52 bombers, artillery, helicopters, napalm and defoliants (Agent Orange). This killed many innocent civilians, and failed to stop the Vietcong guerrillas.

They forced the peasants to leave Vietcong-controlled areas and made them live in defended strategic hamlets in loyal areas. This created immense opposition, and allowed Vietcong infiltrators into loyal areas.

American troops were sent on patrols, then supported by air and artillery when attacked. This demoralized the soldiers, who realized they were being used just as bait.

Search and destroy patrols went out looking for "Charlie", as they called the Vietcong. But the patrols were very visible, and easy to ambush. This led to atrocities such as "zippo raids" to burn villages, and the unprovoked massacre of peaceful villagers at My Lai in 1968.

The US gets out

The Americans didn't leave Vietnam until 1973 - by which time 58,000 US soldiers had lost their lives. Vietnam had been a total disaster for America - financially, politically and morally.

- In 1968, the US president, Lyndon B. Johnson, ordered an end to American bombing of North Vietnam.- There were increasing problems in the American army in Vietnam.- There was increasing opposition to the war in America.- Richard Nixon, who became US president in 1969, began Vietnamization - pulling US troops out but giving financial support to the South Vietnamese army (the ARVN). - On occasions, the US escalated the war, launching attacks into Cambodia (1970) and Laos (1971) to pursue the Vietcong who were hiding there.

- In October 1972 Henry Kissinger worked out a peace agreement with the North Vietnamese.- Nguyen Van Thieu, the president of South Vietnam, refused to sign (he thought the Americans were going to abandon him), so the North Vietnamese pulled out of the talks.

- Richard Nixon mounted huge bombing raids on North Vietnam until the North Vietnamese were forced to sign.- Nixon told Thieu he had to make peace whether he agreed with it or not, so Thieu was forced to sign too.- January 1973: the Paris Peace Agreement was signed, and the Americans left Vietnam.

Why did America lose the war?

Take a look at this table highlighting the differences between the Americans and the Vietcong.

Americans

Vietcong

The American hi-tech tactics continually killed the wrong people and demoralized their own troops.

The Vietcong's guerrilla tactics were appropriate to the nature of the conflict.

The US was trying to supply a war 8,000 miles from America.

The Vietcong were supplied with weapons by China and Russia.

The South Vietnamese regime was weak, brutal and corrupt.

The South Vietnamese peasants supported and sheltered the Vietcong.

Their short (one-year) tour of service meant that American troops were always inexperienced.

The Vietcong had been continuously at war since they resisted the Japanese during the Second World War.

The morale of Americans soldiers was rock bottom - they took drugs, shot their officers ('fragging') and deserted.

The Vietcong were fanatically determined to drive out the Americans, whatever the cost.

The war became very unpopular in the US, and lost public support.

The North Vietnamese were motivated, fighting at home to unite their country.

Why did the war arouse so much opposition in America?

1. 58,000 Americans - average age 19 - were killed.

2. It was hard for Americans to believe that they were defending America by fighting in a war 8,000 miles away.

3. Extensive media coverage brought all the failures and horrors of the war into US homes.

4. Atrocities such as the massacre at My Lai undermined the moral authority of the US to continue the war.

5. The cost of the war meant that the US president Lyndon B. Johnson had to cancel his Great Society program of reform.

6. The war was opposed particularly by Martin Luther King and by America's black community (because wealthier white men could avoid the draft by going to university or to Canada, and young black men were twice as likely to be killed).

After the Vietnam War

In 1975, two years after the Americans left, South Vietnam was united with the North - it was now a communist state.

Vietnam united- Although the Americans left Vietnam in 1973, they continued to support the South Vietnamese army - the ARVN - with financial and military aid.- In April 1975 the South Vietnamese regime collapsed and Vietnam was united.

The impact on Vietnam- The North Vietnamese army - the NVA - massacred thousands of South Vietnamese after the Americans had left. Many people tried to flee South Vietnam (eg the "boat people").- The Vietnamese had to fight wars against Cambodia and China before their independence was secured.- Vietnam was ruined - its infrastructure was destroyed, thousands of its people had been killed, and its farmland was polluted by American chemical warfare. It remains one of the poorest countries in the world.

The impact on America- 58,000 Americans died in Vietnam.- The war had cost so much that President Johnson's Great Society program of social reform had to be cancelled.- Loss of confidence: America had failed to "contain" communism. In 1973, Nixon announced that America was abandoning the Truman Doctrine. It was nearly 20 years before America again intervened militarily in world affairs.- The domino theory was proved to be wrong. The fall of South Vietnam to communism was not immediately followed by a similar effect in other countries.- News of atrocities such as the killings at My Lai lost the US its claim to moral superiority, and its status as the world's defender of freedom and right.- 700,000 Vietnam veterans suffered psychological after-effects.

Complete Mission 17

October 15th 1964

USSR

Nikita Krushchev removed from office. He was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev.

Brezhnev (1964-1982)

July 1965

Vietnam War

150,000 US troops sent to Vietnam.

August 20th 1968

Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia

Warsaw Pact forces entered Czechoslovakia in a bid to stop the reforms known as 'Prague Spring' instigated by Alexander Dubcek. When he refused to halt his program of reforms Dubcek was arrested.

Czechoslovakia 1968

For four months in 1968, Czechoslovakia broke free from Soviet rule, allowing freedom of speech and removing some state controls. This period is now referred to as the Prague Spring.

1. There were no riots or demonstrations but, during 1967, students and writers were complaining about the lack of freedom, and the poor performance of the Czechoslovak economy.2. But when Antonin Novotny, the Czechoslovak president, asked Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet leader, for help, Brezhnev did not support him.

3. Novotny fell from power and on 5 January 1968, Alexandr Dubcek - a reformer - took over as leader of the Communist Party (KSC).

4. In April 1968, Dubcek's government announced an Action Plan for what it called a new model of socialism - it removed state controls over industry and allowed freedom of speech.

5. For four months (the Prague Spring), there was freedom in Czechoslovakia. But then the revolution began to run out of control. Dubcek announced that he was still committed to democratic communism, but other political parties were set up.

6. Also, Dubcek stressed that Czechoslovakia would stay in the Warsaw Pact, but in August, President Tito of Yugoslavia, a country not in the Warsaw Pact, visited Prague.

7. At a meeting in Bratislava on 3 August 1968, Brezhnev read out a letter from some Czechoslovakian Communists asking for help. He announced the Brezhnev Doctrine - the USSR would not allow any Eastern European country to reject Communism.

8. On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubcek and three other leaders were arrested and sent to Moscow.

9. The Czechoslovakians did not fight the Russians. Instead, they stood in front of the tanks, and put flowers in the soldiers' hair. Jan Palach burned himself to death in protest.

10. Brezhnev put in Gustav Husak, a supporter of Russia, as leader of the KSC.

Causes and effects of the Prague Spring

Causes of the Prague Spring

1. The policy of dtente encouraged the uprising. Romania had also broken free of Russian control, and was improving relations with the West.

2. The Czechs hated Russian control, especially:- Russian control of the economy, which had made Czechoslovakia poor.- The censorship and lack of freedom.

3. Some Czechs thought the USA would help them.

Effects of the invasion of Czechoslovakia

1. Czechoslovakia returned to communist control and Russian troops were stationed there. Half the leadership of the KSC, along with the directors of many firms (especially publishing companies) were sacked and 47 anti-communists were arrested.

2. Russia stayed in control behind the Iron Curtain. The Brezhnev Doctrine stated that Iron Curtain countries would not be allowed to abandon communism, "even if it meant a third world war".

3. Increase of the Cold War. People in the West were horrified and so were many communist countries, especially Romania and Yugoslavia.

Similarities and Differences between Hungary 1956 and Czechoslovakia 1968

Similarities

- Same causes - hostility to Russian control, repression, poor economic performance/poverty.- Change started when Russia refused to support the old regime.- Rakosi = Novotny, Nagy = Dubcek- Brief period when the new government introduced reforms and freedom of speech.- Russia got scared when Hungary planned to leave the Warsaw Pact; Tito visited Czechoslovakia.- A letter from some Communists asking for Russia's help was used as the excuse to invade.- Russia invaded with overwhelming force.- Kadar = Husak- The West failed to help either Nagy or Dubcek.Differences

- Started with riots in Hungary, but not in Czechoslovakia.- Czechoslovakia was much more planned than Hungary; Dubcek's government had a proper Action Plan.- Nagy announced he was going to leave the Warsaw Pact; Dubcek stressed that he would stay in the Warsaw Pact.- The Hungarians introduced democracy; Dubcek stressed that he wanted communism, albeit "democratic communism".- Four months of freedom in Czechoslovakia; five days of freedom in Hungary.- The Catholic Church took a lead in events in Hungary, but not in Czechoslovakia.- Hungary fought back; Czechoslovakia had passive resistance.- Some 4,000 Hungarians executed, while 47 Czechoslovaks were arrested.- Dubcek was arrested; Nagy was executed.

Complete Mission 18

November 1968

Brezhnev Doctrine

When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries."

December 21st 1968

Space Race

US launched Apollo 8 - first manned orbit of the Moon.

Brezhnev (1964-1982)

Nixon (1969-1973)

20th July 1969

Space Race

US Apollo 11 landed on the Moon and Neil Armstrong became the first man on the Moon.

November 3, 1969

Nixon Doctrine

Detente

1) United States will keep all of its treaty commitments.

2) provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us

3) military and economic assistance when requested

4) Leads to Dtente

Detente

You will have come across the term dtente when reading about the Cold War during the late 1960s and 1970s. The policy of dtente refers to the time when the two superpowers eased tension and tried to co-operate to avoid conflict.

1968

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: powers with nuclear weapons agreed not to give any other countries nuclear technology.

1971

The US table tennis team played in China.

1971

The US dropped its veto and allowed China to join the United Nations.

1972

President Nixon visited China.

1972

Russia and America signed the SALT1 Treaty (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) agreeing to limit their anti-ballistic missiles and bombers.

1975

The Helsinki Agreement recognized Soviet control over Eastern Europe, concluded a trade agreement, and Russia promised to respect human rights.

1975

Russian and American spacecraft docked in space.

Causes and limitations of dtente

Causes of dtente1. America was shocked by the Vietnam War and wanted to stay out of world affairs. There was also a vociferous CND movement in the West.

2. The arms race was very expensive for both superpowers.

3. The price of oil rocketed in the 1970s, and both superpowers experienced economic problems.

Limitations of dtente

1. The Non-Proliferation Treaty did not stop other countries developing nuclear weapons (eg China, and perhaps South Africa and Israel).

2. Neither Russia or America kept to the SALT1 agreement. Neither side reduced their conventional weapons. Further talks were much less successful and a SALT2 Treaty in 1979 added little.

3. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, America supported Israel, and Russia supported Egypt and Syria.

4. The Helsinki Agreement achieved nothing - it confirmed the Iron Curtain and Russia ignored its promises about human rights.

5. Table tennis and space meetings were just one-off propaganda stunts.

6. Brezhnev said that Communists would still try to destroy capitalism. Some historians suggest that Nixon only went to China to drive a wedge between Russia and China.

April 30th 1970

Vietnam War

President Richard Nixon ordered US troops to go to Cambodia.

February 1972

China

Nixon visits China

May 1972

Moscow

Nixon visits Moscow

May 26th 1972

SALT I

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty signed between the US and USSR.Anti-Ballistic Missiles

August 15th 1973

Vietnam

The Paris Peace Accords ended American involvement in Vietnam.

September 1973

Chili

US helps overthrow Chili Govt

October 1973

Egypt and Syria attack Israel

Egypt asks for Soviet help

August 1974

Nixon Resigned

Watergate

Ford (1974-1977)

April 17th 1975

Cambodia Killing fields

The Khmer Rouge attacked and took control of Cambodia. Any supporters of the former regime, anyone with links or supposed links to foreign governments as well as many intellectuals and professionals were executed in a genocide that became known as the 'killing fields'.

April 30th 1975

Vietnam

North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese led to the whole country becoming Communist.

July 1975

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

Joint space venture between USA and USSR heralded as an end to the 'Space Race'

Carter(1977-1981)

January 20th 1977

Carter President

Jimmy Carter became the 39th President of the United States

July 1979

SALT II

1979 SALT 2 treaty proposed to cover long-range nuclear missiles.

Never ratified by US Congress due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

USSR claimed they had been asked to restore order. US saw it as an invasion and supported Afghan rebels

Joe Biden was in on the discussions with Gromyko

November 4th 1979

Iranian hostage crisis

A group of Iranian students and militants stormed the American embassy and took 53 Americans hostage to show their support for the Iranian Revolution.

December 24th 1979

Afghanistan

Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan

Brezhnev (1964-1982)

Complete Mission 19

January 1980

Carter Doctrine

Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force.

July 1980

Olympic Boycott by USA

A number of countries including the USA boycotted the summer Olympics held in Moscow in protest at the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Other countries including Great Britain participated under the Olympic flag rather than their national flag

December 13th 1980

Poland

Martial law was declared to crush the Solidarity movement

Reagan (1981-1989)

January 20th 1981

Iranian hostage crisis ended

The Iranian hostage crisis ended 444 days after it began

June 1982

START

During a summit in Geneva Reagan proposed Strategic Arms Reduction Talks

1983

Star Wars

Ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles

Andropov (1982-1984)

July 1984

Olympic boycott by Russia

Russia and 13 allied countries boycotted the summer Olympics held in Los Angeles in retaliation for the US boycott of 1980.

Chernenko (1984-1985)

March 11th 1985

Govbachov leader of USSR

Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union

Gorbachev (1985-1991)

1985

Iran-Contra Affair

Arms sold to Iran, profits used to support contras (rebels) in Nicaragua

April 26th 1986

Chernobyl Disaster

An explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine remains the worst nuclear disaster in history

June 1987

Glasnost and Perestroika

Mikhail Gorbachev announced his intention to follow a policy of glasnost - openness, transparency and freedom of speech; and perestroika - restructuring of government and economy.

He also advocated free elections and ending the arms race.

Complete Mission 20

Bush (1989-1993)

February 15th 1989

Afghanistan

The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan

June 4th 1989

Tiananmen Square

Anti Communist protests in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, China were crushed by the government. The death count is unknown.

August 1989

Poland

Tadeusz Mazowiecki elected leader of the Polish government - the first eastern bloc country to become a democracy

Gorbachev (1985-1991)

October 23rd 1989

Hungary

Hungary proclaimed itself a republic

November 9th 1989

Fall of the Berlin Wall

The Berlin wall was torn down

November 17th - December 29th 1989

Velvet Revolution

The Velvet Revolution, also known as the Gentle Revolution, was a series of peaceful protests in Czechoslovakia that led to the overthrow of the Communist government.

December 2nd, 3rd 1989

Malta Summit

This meeting between Mikhail Gorbachov and George H W Bush reversed much of the provisions of the Yalta Conference 1945. It is seen by some as the beginning of the end of the cold war.

December 16th - 25th 1989

Romanian Revolution

Riots broke out which culminated in the overthrow and execution of the leader Ceauescu and his wife.

October 3rd 1990

German reunification

East and West Germany were reunited as one country.

1st July 1991

End of Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact which allied Communist countries was ended

31st July 1991

START

The Strategic Arms Reduction treaty was signed between Russia and the USA

25th December 1991

Gorbachev resigned

Mikhail Gorbachev resigned. The hammer and sickle flag on the Kremlin was lowered

26th December 1991

End of the Soviet Union

Russia formally recognized the end of the Soviet Union