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█ What determines a person’s status in society?
A Look Ahead
█ How do our social roles affect our social interactions?
█ What is the place of social institutions such as the family, religion and government in our social structure?
█ How can we better understand and manage large organizations?
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Social Interaction and Reality
█ Response to someone’s behavior based on meaning attached to his or her actions– Ability to define social reality reflects
group’s power within society
Subordinate groups challengetraditional definitions and begin to
perceive/experience reality in new way
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Social Interaction and Reality
Social Structure: The way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships.
Social structure is essential because it creates order and predictability in a society
Social structure gives us the ability to interpret the social situations we encounter.
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Elements of Social Structure Statuses
█ Status: Socially defined positions within a large group or society– Person can hold more than
one status at same time
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Ascribed and Achieved Status
█ Ascribed status: Status one is born with█ Achieved status: Status one earns█ Master status: Status that dominates
other statuses and determines a person’s general position in society
In U.S., ascribed statuses of race and gender can function as master statuses
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Elements of Social Structure█ Figure 5.1: Social Statuses
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Social Roles Social roles are sets of expectations for
people who occupy a given status
Role Conflict Role conflict is the challenge of occupying
two social positions simultaneously
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Social Roles
█ Social role: Set of expectations for people who occupy a given status
█ Role conflict: When incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by same person
█ Role strain: Difficulties that arise when same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations
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– Doubt– Search
for alternatives
– Action stage– Creation of a
new identity
Social Roles
█ Role exit: Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role
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Groups
Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with each other on a regular basis
Every society composed of many groups in which daily social interaction takes place
Primary group: small group with intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation
Secondary group: impersonal groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding
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Table 5-1: Comparison of Primary and Secondary Groups
Generally small Usually large
Relatively long period Relatively short duration,of interaction often temporary
Intimate, face-to-face Little social intimacy orassociation mutual understanding
Some emotional depth Relationships generallyto relationships superficial
Cooperative, friendly More formal and impersonal
Primary Group Secondary Group
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In-Groups and Out-Groups
In-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they belong
Out-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong
Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on a personal as well as
political level
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Tension between groups sharpen the groups’ boundaries and give people a clearer social identity.
In-group promotes solidarity and sense of purpose and belonging
In-groups can also foster ethnocentrism
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Members of in-groups generally hold overly positive views of themselves and unfairly negative views of various out-groups
The result is prejudice where a double standard emerges:
The traits of our in-groups come to be viewed as virtues, while those same traits in out-groups are seen as vices
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Studying Small Groups
Size of Group Groups size has an important impact on the nature
of social interaction The smallest group size is know as a Dyad a two-
member group Triad: A three-member group Smaller groups have greater interaction
opportunities
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Understanding Groups
Studies have shown that the smaller the group, the more direct, personally satisfying and emotionally intense the interaction.
One side effect of small groups is that they require continuing active participation, thus making it a fragile relationship
As group size increases, interaction decreases but stability increases.
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Understanding Groups
Physical Anonymity As the size of the group increases, so does physical
anonymity Group conformity is also more likely to take place.
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Group Conformity
Solomon Asch (1952) - conducted a study of visual perception
One-third of all subjects chose to conform by answering incorrectly.
Are we willing to compromise our own judgment to avoid the discomfort of being different?
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“Groupthink”
Groupthink - the tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue
Group members often seek agreement that closes off other points of view.
- Space Shuttle
- Iraq war
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Reference Groups█ Reference group: Any group individuals use for
evaluating their own behavior
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Reference Groups
Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and belief
Reference groups serve as a standard against which people can evaluate themselves and others
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Social Networks and Technology A social network is a series of social relationships
that links a person directly to others, and indirectly links them to still more people.
A network includes people we know of – or who know of us
Network ties often give us the sense that we live in a small world
Milgram study – six degrees of separation
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Virtual Worlds
█ With advances in technology, people can maintain social networks electronically
– Avatar: 3-D model, 2-D icon, or constructed personality provided by an Internet site
– Castells views electronic social networks as fundamental to new organizations and growth of existing businesses and associations
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Networking is a valuable skill to have when job-hunting Advances in technology, such as browsing web
pages or text-messaging, help us to maintain social networks.
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Social InstitutionsOrganized patterns of beliefs and behavior
centered on basic social needsSocial institutions provide insight into the
structure of societyFunctionalist View
Five major tasks (functional prerequisites)
1. Replacing personnel
2. Teaching new recruits
3. Producing and distributing goods and services
4. Preserving order
5. Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose
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Social Institutions
Conflict View Major institutions help maintain privileges of
most powerful individuals and groups within society
Social institutions have inherently conservative nature
Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments
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Hunting-and- Beginning of Nomadic; reliance on readily available gathering human life food and fibers
Horticulture About 10,000 to More settled; development of agriculture12,000 years ago and limited technology
Agrarian About 5,000 years Larger, more stable settlements; ago improved technology and increased crop
yields
Industrial 1760-1850 Reliance on mechanical power and newsources of energy; centralized workplaces; economic interdependence; formal education
Post 1960s Reliance on services, especially the industrial processing and control of information;
expanded middle class
Postmodern Latter 1970s High technology; mass consumption of consumer goods and media images; cross-
cultural integrations
Societal type First appearance Characteristics
Table 5-3: Stages of Sociocultural Evolution
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Ferdinand Tönnie’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
Gemeinschaft (guh-MINE-shoft) Gemeinschaft is defined as a small community in
which people have similar backgrounds and life experiences.
Gesellschaft (guh-ZELL-shoft) Gesellschaft is defined as a large community in
which people are strangers and feel little in common with other community residents
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Table 5-3: Comparison of the Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
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Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach
█ Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies
– Postindustrial society: Economic system engaged primarily in processing and controlling information
– Postmodern society: Technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images
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Regulating the Net
█ The Issue
– Technological innovations changed the way we shop and share information
– Can communicate with others instantaneously online
– People who use complex communication system without understanding underlying technology create potential for misuse
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Regulating the Net
█ The Setting
– Internet is especially important to young people’s interactions• By 2005, 87% of those ages 12 to 17
had used the Internet• 11 million teens went online everyday• Majority of teens now text-message or
visit online social networking sites
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Regulating the Net
█ Sociological Insights– Internet not a level playing field– Conflict theorists documented gap between
White and Black or Hispanic youths using electronic communication
– Interactionists investigated implications of online communication for everyday social interaction
– Feminist researchers noted that females embrace Internet more than men
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Regulating the Net
█ Policy Initiatives– Self-regulation outstripping
government regulation– Net neutrality: Government should
remain nonselective or neutral toward online content
– Concern that information gathered over Internet is being shared in ways unknown to online users
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Figure 5-2: Identity Information Revealed Online by College Students